REVIEWS

Polymer Nanocomposites
for Aerospace Applications:
Characterization
By James Njuguna* and Krzysztof Pielichowski
Development of several advanced miscroscopic and sprectroscopic techniques have played a key role in
the development of characterization and parametric studies of polymer nanocomposites starting from
the molecular level. The main issues affecting the production of good quality composites are fiber alignment, fiber-matrix adhesion and fiber dispersion which makes characterization so vital. The current
work reviews the ongoing investigations and techniques to overcome the challenges posed by polymer
nanocomposites characterization.

1. Introduction
The discovery of fullerenes[1] showed how structures of
sp carbon built based on simple geometrical principles can
result in new symmetries that can have fascinating and useful
properties. Fullerenes consist of 60 carbon atoms linked
together in a symmetrical pattern and roughly just one nanometer across while the nanotubes, first discovered in 1991 by
Iijima[2] looks like an elongated fullerene weighing 1/6th and
nearly 100 times stronger than steel. The combination of
structure, topology, and dimension create a host of physical
properties in nanotubes that are paralleled by few known
materials. The combination of high strength, low density,
high conductivity, chemicalinertness, and low-dimensionality
makes carbon nanotubes (CNT) excellent candidate material
for many practical applications.[3] Nonetheless, it is vital to
acknowledge that the nature of CNT differs significantly from
that of the fullerenes from material point of view. C60, as a
molecule, can be made with precise and uniform composition
and a molecular structure that is essentially defect-free. Functional C60 solids such as single crystals and epitaxial films can
be readily fabricated. Unlike fullerene, CNT is not a welldefined molecule. It comes with different structure, weight,
dimension, and, as a result, different properties. The variations in the molecular architecture in principle provide an
additional materials design parameter. However, the polydisparity also leads to non-uniform and unpredictable properties.[4]
On the other hand, polymers consist mainly of organic
(carbon-based) molecules that are synthesized as very long
2

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chains. The high molecular weight and molecular entanglement of these materials gives rise to their unique properties
offering a wide variety of useful properties.[5] By addition of
nanomaterials to polymers, these properties can now be
enhanced via polymer nanocomposites (PNC) to meet the
specific requirements of aerospace usage and beyond.[6] As
presented in Table 1, the nanoparticles have various key
advantages when added to polymer materials.
The use of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT), multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT), fullerenes and montimontillite
(see Figs. 1 and 2) to further the reinforcement of polymeric
materials is one of the current applications being explored by
different research groups all over the world.
Unlike traditional filled polymer systems, nanocomposites
require relatively low dispersant loadings to achieve significant property enhancements. The fabrication of homogeneous
materials requires control of not only the individual building
blocks but also the higher level architecture by which the

[*] Dr. J. Njuguna+, Prof. K. Pielichowski

Department of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers
Cracow University of Technology,
Ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Krakow, Poland.

[+] on leave form City University, London, School of Engineering,

Northampton Square, EC1V 0HB, UK.
[**] This research has been supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship
of the European Community programme Improving the
Human Research Potential and the Socio-Economic Knowledge
Base under Contract No. HPMT-CT-2001-00379.

DOI: 10.1002/adem.200305110

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Njuguna, Pielichowski/Polymer Nanocomposites for Aerospace Applications: Characterization

Key advantages
l

Mechanical properties e.g. strength, modulus and dimension stability

Chemical resistance

Surface appearance

Electrical conductivity

Thermal stability and heat distortion temperature

Optical clarity in comparison to conventionally filled polymers

Flame retardancy and reduced smoke emissions

Additional field emission properties

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 1. The MWNT [2] shown by (a) first discovered in 1991 and simulation of
various forms of SWNT - armchair (b), zigzag (c), and chiral (d) respectively [7].

molecules assemble. Contrary to the ideal model of perfect

cylindrical graphene structures, point defects, dislocations,
and impurities are abundant, which significantly affect the
properties of the CNT. Perhaps due to these complications,
fabrication of functional macroscopic CNT structures that can
fully utilize the novel properties of the individual CNT has
not been taken to full benefit.
But for aerospace needs, first they must have the capability
to function in hard vacuum, have very low out gassing to prevent contamination of surrounding components, be resistive
to extremely harsh ultraviolet light, erosion from atomic oxygen and on-orbit charged particle radiation, endurance over
wide temperature extremes, and finally have the ability to
survive the life of the mission which could be 2030 years.
Not all these aerospace requirements have to be met simultaneously, a possible exception being polymeric materials exposed directly at the surface of the spacecraft. These include
primarily thermal control paints and films used in the manufacture of thermal blankets. Safety is also a requirement, as it
applies to both the instrument and to the personnel.
The use of polymeric materials must always be considered
in terms of how it may affect other spacecraft components.
Materials cannot be used if they might contaminate optics,
provide an electrical short, corrode metal surfaces or adversely affect other components. In addition, manned flight
operations and aircraft uses impose further restrictions on
flammability, smoke generation and the evolution of toxic
by-products.

O
O Si
O
H2O

PMTO MDI

NCH2CH2NH MDI

PMTO MDI

NHCH2CH2N MDI
n
Si

PMTO MDI

NHCH2CH2N MDI

O
O
O

PU U
O Si O
O
O Si O

NH

Si (OCH2CH3)3
x
H2O

PMTO MDI

NCH2CH2NH MDI
m

Fig. 2. Synthesis of C60 containing polyurethaneurea [8].

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Table 1. Advantages in addition of nanoparticles to polymers.

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The main issues affecting the production of good quality
composites are fiber alignment, fiber-matrix adhesion and
fiber dispersion. Rheological experiments can give valuable
quantitative information on these issues, by illuminating the
relationship between melt structure, processing and properties. In determining the nanotube contribution to the overall
properties of a polymer composite, it is important to note that
the 'effective fiber' is the nanotube or nanotube array, including their enclosed volume. This basic consideration affects a
number physical properties of the composite such as the density, modulus, specific modulus, and the conversion between
weight and volume fraction. With fabrication of selected
polymer nanocomposites (PNC) been looked at in a previous
presentation,[9] characterization methodologies hereby considered are therefore a follow-up work.
Fig. 3. Modelled atomic structure of the functionalised nanotube/polyethylene composite [7].

2. Characterization Modelling
In nanoscale science, conventional molecular modelling
fails to accurately simulate the behaviour of atoms. Conventionally, below a hundred nanometers the behaviour of atoms
and molecules is very different from what holds true in physics and chemistry. Development of ATM, Raman spectroscopy, SEM, TEM and HRTEM, and X-ray scattering, have
played a key role in development of characterization and
parametric study on polymer nanocomposites starting from
the molecular level. With such methods, researchers have
been able to physically and chemically identify beneficially
effects of nanotubes and virtually employ them in well-established polymeric materials such as polyamides, polyestryrene, polypoplene or polyurethane. This has formed the foundation of micromechanical models to predict the macroscopic
behaviour of composite materials reinforced with fibers that
are much larger than nanotubes.[10,11]
These models assume that the fiber, matrix, and sometimes, the interface, are continuous materials and the constitutive equations for the bulk composite material are formulated based on assumptions. If a micromechanical approach
is used to model the constitutive behaviour of SWNT/polymer composites, then the assumptions of the model are of
critical importance. An important assumption in continuum
mechanics is that the densities of mass, momentum, and energy exist in the mathematical sense,[12] regardless of length
scale. If traditional micromechanical modeling approaches
are used to predict the bulk properties of polymer nanocomposites, then the nanotube, nanotube/polymer interface, and
the local polymer molecules must represent a material continuum. However, at the nanometer length scale the material
more closely resembles an atomic lattice than a continuum.
Therefore, an equivalent-continuum model of PNC needs to
be developed for bulk constitutive modelling of SWNT/polymer composites.[13] An example of such PNC model is shown
on Figure 3.

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3. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

AFM measures the atomic forces between a sharp probing
tip attached to a cantilever spring and a sample surface without destroying the sample. In the non-contact mode (of distances greater than 10 between the tip and the sample surface), van der Waals, electrostatic, magnetic or capillary
forces produce images of topography, whereas in the contact
mode, ionic repulsion forces take the leading role.[14] Scanning the sample relative to the probing tip and measuring the
deflection of the cantilever as a function of lateral position
take images. Typical spring constants are 0.001 to 100 N/m
and motions from microns to the deflection sensor measures
0.1 .[15] Because its operation does not require a current
between the sample surface and the tip, the AFM can move
into potential regions inaccessible to the scanning tunnelling
microscope (STM) or image fragile samples which would be
damaged irreparably by the STM tunnelling current.
Insulators, organic materials, biological macromolecules,
polymers, ceramics and glasses are some of the many materials which can be imaged in different environments, such as
liquids, vacuum, and low temperatures.[16] Other measurements can be made using modifications of the scanning probe
microscope, which is a system that uses variations of the principles used by an STM or AFM to image surfaces, hence good
images as on Figure 4.

Fig. 4. Micrographs showing control over the nanotube diameter 4050 nm (left) and
200300 nm (right) aligned CNT [17].

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4. Transmission Electronic Microscopy (TEM)

A TEM,[26,27] developed due to the limitations of traditional
light microscopes, is a scientific instrument that use a beam of
highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine
scale. A projector shines a beam of light through (transmits)
the slide, as the structures and objects on the slide affect the
light passes through it. These effects result in only certain
parts of the light beam being transmitted through certain
parts of the slide. This transmitted beam is then projected
onto the viewing screen, forming an enlarged image of the
slide displaying their morphology, topography, composition
and crystallographic information. Materials for TEM must be
specially prepared to thickness, which allow electrons to
transmit through the sample, much like the light is transmitted through materials in conventional optical microscopy.
Because the wavelength of electrons is much smaller than
that of light, the optimal resolution attainable for TEM images
is many orders of magnitude better than that from a light microscope. Figures 5 and 6 are good examples of TEM images.
Modern TEM plays a key role in nanocrystalline materials
through use of field emissions electro sources operating
between 200300 kV that provides imaging close to atomic
resolutions.[30] Together with sub-nanometer diameter bright
probes, the instrument can be used to collect electron energy

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of (a) the CHCl3-soluble complex
of SWNT, wrapped with (PamPV) Poly((5-alkoxy-m-phenylenevinylene)-co-[(2,5- dioctyloxy-p-phenylene)vinylene]\ms179ms163ms179D\ms179ms163ms179 (3a),
and (b) the EtOH-soluble complex of SWNT, wrapped with the sodium salt of 3a [28].

Fig. 6. TEM images of poly(methyl methacrylate)VB16 nanocomposite. VB16 contain a vinyl group on the ammonium salts [29].

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These include variations in surface microfriction with a

lateral force microscope, orientation of magnetic domains
with a magnetic force microscope, and differences in elastic
moduli on the micro-scale with a force modulation microscope.
A very recent adaptation of the scanning probe microscope, chemical force microscope, has been developed to
probe differences in chemical forces across a surface at the
molecular scale, hence a vital tool in evolution of PNC. The
first direct measurement of the stiffness and strength of
individual, structurally isolated MWNT using AFM was
performed by Wong et al.[18] They pinned the nanotubes on
one end to molybdenum disulfide surfaces and load was
applied to the tube means of AFM tip. The bending force
was measured as a function of displacement along the
unpinned length and attained an average bending strength
of 14 8 GPa and an elastic modulus value of 1.26 TPa. Yu
et al.[19] examined the tensile loading of MWNT and SWNT
by attaching the nanotubes between two opposing AFM tips
and loaded under tension. The experiment calculated 11
63 GPa in tensile strength while the elastic modulus was
recorded to range from 270 to 950 GPa.
Later work[20] calculated tensile strengths of 1352 GPa
and average elastic moduli of 30170 GPa. Other similar
experiments[21] reported tensile strength of 3.6 GPa and modulus of 450 GPa and attributed the lower strength and stiffness values to chemical vapour deposition (CVD) grown
nanotubes. After observing bundles of SWNT on AFM, Salvetat et al.[22] found that the diameter of the tube bundles increases as the axial and shear modulus decreases significantly
thus suggesting slippery of the SWNT in the bundles. Walters
et al [23] further investigated these characteristics that calculated yield strength of 45 7 GPa and elastic modulus of
1.25 TPa.
Films fabricated from the polystyrene/MWNT composite
materials[24] each approximately 0.5 mm thick were tested for
surface resistivity using a purpose built meter conforming to
ASTM D257, POI-870 meter, in the range of 103123 ohms/
square the limits of the meter sensitivity. The tensile strength
and elastic modulus of samples cut from the films were measured using an MTS QT/1L tensile testing machine following
ASTM D882 (for Young's modulus) and D638 (for tensile
strength). Mechanical performance was also assessed by
dynamic mechanical analysis over the temperature range of
100 to 150 C. The tensile properties of the composite fibers
were measured following ASTM D3379 and finally, Porter
et al.[25] studied thin films of the smectite clays Na+-exchanged montmorillonite, Ca2+-exchanged montmorillonite,
Na2+-and Cu2+-exchanged hectorite, Cu2+-exchanged sintered
hectorite, and Cu2+- and Na2+-exchanged hectorite exposed to
benzene, aniline, and thiophene using the techniques of
scanning force microscopy (SFM), electron spin resonance,
and X-ray diffraction.

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loss spectra[31] and to map characteristic X-ray emission spectra.[32] To extend TEM's capabilities, alternative approaches to
image reconstruction or restoration have been developed to
high-resolution electronic microscope(HREM) images.[33,34]
These provide an indirect route to improved spatial resolution and simultaneously essentially improve the level to
which data can be interpreted in a quantitative fashion. Such
methods recover both the phase and modulus of the exit surface wave function resulting from the interaction of the electron beam with the specimen, with full correction of all lens
aberrations rather than the aberrated (uncorrected) intensity
available directly in a single conventional HREM image. They
also improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the resultant structural data via averaging over a large dataset. In addition to
the above, the increased availability of fully characterized
CCD cameras for digital image recording has made it easier
to record the sets of images needed for reconstruction in a
quantitative and reliable manner.[35,36]
Further developments on TEM have been on computational approaches that account for the non-linear imaging
interactions.[37] The development of energy-filtered imaging
systems has allowed the intensity from electrons scattered
in-elastically by mechanisms other than photon scattering to
be eliminated from individual HREM images.[38,39] As well,
field-emission electron sources are now commercially available; offering improved temporal and spatial coherence,
giving images containing higher spatial frequencies, so that
focal series reconstruction achieves higher resolution.[35,40]
Observations on TEM showed tube breakage on polystyrene/MWNT composite as a result of high shear mixing to
disperse the MWNT, which saw 0.5 % MWNT concentration
on polystyrene.[24] The tubes aspect ratio did however remain
considerably high, reducing from 1000 to 250. Coincidentally,
higher input was required with increasing MWNT concentration in the mixture due to an increase in viscosity. Kim
et al.[41] took TEM photographs of PU/clay nanocomposite
samples in epoxy capsules by curing the epoxy at 70 C for
24 h in a vacuum oven. A 3 mm thick layer of carbon was deposited on 50 nm thick slices (diamond cut in a cryogenic
conditions) of cured epoxies containing PU/clay nanocomposite for observations. Tensile tests and thermogravimetric
analysis was done using a tensile tester and a thermogravimetric analyser respectively. The samples were further subjected to hardness and water swelling testing. Transparency
measurements were measured using ultra-violet-visible spectrophotometer. TEM was also the main characterization tool
on poly(phenylene sulfide) and epoxy composites[42] for flexural strength and modulus while an ATM was employed to
determine the thermal properties.
Zhuo et al.[43] through measurements on a TEM showed
that the Nd: YAG laser grown SWNT can be fractured and
shortened, opened and closed, by techniques such as ballmilling,[44,45] mechanical cutting,[46] and chemical etching[47,48]
between 10 and 100 mm. TEM and X-ray diffraction studies
by Thess et al.[49] showed SWNT bundles formed in a two-

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dimensional triangular lattice with a lattice constant of

1.7 nm. The mean individual tube diameter is calculated to
1.38 nm, corresponding to the metallic (10,10) armchair nanotube, which was thought to be the dominant component.
Medellin-Rodriguez et al.[50] examined the orientation of endtethered nylon-6 nanocomposites in response to steady shear
in the melt state using SAXS and TEM measurements. Okamoto et al.[51] observed perpendicular orientation by solidstate TEM measurements associated to the observed unique
strain hardening and rheopexy in clay/nanocomposites
hybrids. On the same pursuit, structural characterization of
atomically regulated nanocrystals formed with SWNT was
performed by Sloan et al. using TEM.[52]

5. Raman Spectroscopy
TEM and Raman analyses are typical among structural
analyses of CNT. A TEM analysis is very useful in crystalline
structural analysis of bulk tubes. However, it has shortcomings difficult in analysis and time-consuming especially
limitation in structural analysis of surface morphology. Thus
in order to control and study surface reactions, Raman
analysis is an important method. Generally, TEM research
evaluate surface morphology of CNT followed by Raman
analysis to launch various application researches using surface reactions of CNT. Raman Spectroscopy is based on the
Raman effect,[53] which is the inelastic scattering of photons
by molecules. Raman spectroscopy is used for the measurement of the wavelength and intensity of inelastically scattered
light from molecules. The Raman effect comprises a very
small fraction, about 1 in 107, of the incident photons.
In Raman scattering, the energies of the incident and scattered photons are different. The energy of the scattered radiation is less than the incident radiation for the Stokes line and
the energy of the scattered radiation is more than the incident
radiation for the anti-Stokes line. The energy increase or decrease from the excitation is related to the vibration energy
spacing in the ground electronic state of the molecule and
therefore the wavenumber of the Stokes and anti-Stokes lines
are a direct measure of the vibration energies of the molecule.[54,55] Raman spectroscope has been employed by a number of authors working on nanomaterials. Such is the SWNT/
epoxy composite [13,56] for interfacial load transfer, Wagner
et al.[57] on stress-induced fragmentation on the MWNT-containing polymer film, on SWNT/PmPV composite lumiscient
properties[58] and on mechanical properties investigations of
MWNT/epoxy composite.[59]

6. Conclusions
Microscopy plays an essential role in characterization and
developments of PNC. This not only gives the engineers and
scientists the ability to tailor PNC requirements and beha-

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Final version: February 02, 2004

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viours, but also offers an insight knowledge at the molecular

level hence a better chance for further developments which
would in turn improve the fabrication procedures, modelling
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CNT source selection and characterization has to be done
appropriately. Upon achieving this end, preparation of both
random and magnetically aligned CNT and bulk composite
samples with high tube loading and desired orientation is followed by property testing and nano-structure characterization. In the end, applications come in after prediction and
testing of properties of nanocomposites which precedes nanoscale resin infiltration/wetting and interface modelling and
simulation of the PNC.

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