MA1200

Chapter 1
1

Calculus and Basic Linear Algebra I

Coordinate Geometry and Conic Sections

Review

In the rectangular/Cartesian coordinates system, we describe the location of points using coordinates.

y
P2(x2, y2)

P(x, y)

P1(x1, y1)

The distance d between two points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) is given by d =

(x1 x2 )2 + ( y1 y2 )2 .

x + x 2 y1 + y 2
The midpoint M of a line segment between P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) is given by 1
,
2
2
The slope m of a line joining P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) is given by m =

y2 y1
.
x2 x1

Note: m > 0 for straight lines which slope upward to the right and vice versa.
m is undefined for vertical lines and m = 0 for horizontal lines.
Let L1 and L2 be two lines with slopes m1 and m2. Then
L1 // L2 if and only if m1 = m2 ;
L1 L2 if and only if m1m2 = 1 .
The equation of the line with slope m passing through a point A(a1, a2) is
y a2
= m.
x a1
The equation of the form
Ax + By + C = 0
is called the general form of a straight line.
The equation of straight line can also be written in the form y = mx + c , where m and c are the slope and
the y-intercept of the straight line respectively. It is called the slope-intercept form.
Question: Re-write the general form of a straight line into slope-intercept form. Express the slope and
the y-intercept of the straight line in terms of A, B and C.
Example 1
Find the equation of straight line which satisfies each of the following conditions:
(a) joining P(3, 4) and Q(1, 1);
(b) perpendicular to L2: 3x 2y + 5 = 0 and cuts the x-axis at (5, 0).
Solutions
(a) The equation of straight line is:

y 4 4 ( 1)
=
x3
3 1
2( y 4) = 5( x 3)
5x 2 y 7 = 0
3
(b) Slope of L2 = .
2

2
3
Slope of the required line = ( 1) =
3
2
The equation of straight line is:
y0
2
=
x5
3
3 y = 2( x 5)
2 x + 3 y 10 = 0
When a point P( x, y ) translates h units to the right and k units upward, its new coordinates becomes
P( x + h, y + k ) .
Question: What is the new equation of straight line Ax + By + C = 0 if the straight line is translated
(i) 3 units to the right; (ii) 5 units upward?

Review on Polar Coordinates

P(r, )

The polar coordinates of a point P is represented

as (r , ) , where r is the distance of the point
from the pole and is an angle formed by the
polar axis and a ray from the pole through the
point.

vectorial angle
Polar axis
(initial axis)

O origin (pole)

The relations between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates are:

x = r cos
y = r sin
x2 + y2 = r 2
y
tan =
x
Question: Convert each of the following points from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.
(i) 3, 45 o
(ii) 7, 120 o
(iii) 6, 60 o
(iv) 2, 420 o

To convert to from rectangular to polar coordinates, we use r = x 2 + y 2 to obtain r from x and y.

Please refer to the following example for finding .

Example 2
Determine of the polar coordinates of the following points with the given rectangular coordinates.
Express in the range 180 o < 180 o .
(a) P 3 , 3
(b) P 3, 3
(c) P( 2, 2 )
Solutions
(a) Notice that P 3 , 3 lies on Quadrant I.
y

In OPQ ,
3
PQ
tan =
=
OQ
3

= 60
x
Q
O
= = 60
(b) Notice that P 3, 3 lies on Quadrant II.
y
In OPQ ,
P
PQ
3
tan =
=
3
OQ
= 30

x
= 180 = 180 30 = 150
Q
O
P

(c) Notice that P( 2, 2 ) lies on Quadrant III.

y
In OPQ ,
Q
PQ
2
x
tan =
= =1
O

2
OQ
= 45
= 180 + = 180 + 45 = 135
P

Question: Convert P 5, 5 3 from rectangular to polar coordinates with 180 o < 180 o .

Conic Sections

Mathematics is present in different aspects, for example, the movements of planets, bridge and tunnel
construction, manufacture of lenses for telescopes and so on. The mathematics behind these applications
involves conic sections. Conic sections are curves that result from intersecting a right circular cone with
a plane. The following figure illustrates the four conic sections: the parabola, the circle, the ellipse and
the hyperbola.

Parabola

Circle

Ellipse

Hyperbola

Question: What else could be obtained except the four figures shown above when a plane intersects a
right circular cone?

A.

Parabolae

Definition: A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line, the directrix,
and a fixed point, the focus.
The equations of a parabola with focus at the point F (0, a ) and the directrix y = a , where a > 0 , is
x 2 = 4ay .

Proof: The point P(x,y) is on the parabola if and only if it is equidistant from the directrix y = a and the
focus F (0, a ) , i.e.

( x 0 )2 + ( y a )2
2
x 2 + (y a)

(x x )2 + ( y + a )2
2
= ( y + a)

x 2 + y 2 2ay + a 2 = y 2 + 2ay + a 2
x 2 = 4ay

The parabola x 2 = 4ay ( a > 0 ) has the following properties:

(i)
It lies above the x-axis.
(ii)
It is symmetrical about the y-axis, which is called the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
(iii)
It cuts the y-axis at the origin O, which is called the vertex.
(iv)
As the value of a increases, the parabola opens wider.
Depending on the location of focus and the orientation of the directrix, there are other forms of parabolae
(with the vertex at the origin and a > 0):

x 2 = 4ay

y 2 = 4ax

y 2 = 4ax

Example 3
The vertex and the axis of symmetry of a parabola are the origin and the x-axis respectively. If the
parabola passes through the point (6, 3), find its equation.
Solution
Since the parabola is symmetrical about the x-axis, we let its equation be y 2 = 4ax .
This parabola passes through the point (6, 3),

32 = 4a (6 ) ,
3
get a = . Hence the equation of the parabola is
8
3
3
i.e. y 2 = x .
y 2 = 4 x ,
2
8
Translations of Parabolae
The graph of a parabola can have its vertex at (h, k ) rather than at the origin. Horizontal and vertical
translations are accomplished by replacing x with x h and y with y k in the standard form of
parabolas equation.
Equation

Vertex

Axis of Symmetry

( y k )2 = 4 p(x h )

(h, k )

y=k

(x h )2 = 4 p( y k )

(h, k )

x=h

Description
If p > 0 , opens to the right;
if p < 0 , opens to the left.
If p > 0 , opens upward;
if p < 0 , opens downward.

More on y = ax 2 + bx + c
The graph of the quadratic equation y = ax 2 + bx + c is a parabola which opens upward when
a > 0 and opens downward when a < 0 .
(ii) The parabola
- intersects the x-axis at 2 distinct points iff the discriminant, b 2 4ac > 0 ;
- touches the x-axis at 1 point iff b 2 4ac = 0 ;
- does not cut the x-axis iff b 2 4ac < 0 .

(i)

B.

Circle

Definition: A circle is the set of all points in a plane that the distance of the point from a fixed point is a
constant. The fixed point is called the centre and a fixed distance is called the radius of the circle.
The equations of a circle with centre at the origin
O(0, 0) and radius r is
x2 + y2 = r 2 .

This is known as the standard form of the

equation of circle centered at the origin.
Proof: Leave as exercise.

The equations of a circle with centre at the point

C (h, k ) and radius r is

(x h )2 + ( y k )2 = r 2 .
. Proof: Leave as exercise.

Example 4
Find the equations of the circles with the following centres and radii.
(a) Centre at (0, 0) , radius: 7 units
(b) Centre at ( 3, 1) , radius:
Solution
(a)
The equation of the circle is:
(x 0)2 + ( y 0)2 = 7 2
x 2 + y 2 = 49

i.e.
(b)

The equation of the circle is:

i.e.

2 units

[x ( 3)]2 + ( y 1)2 = ( 2 )
(x + 3)2 + ( y 1)2 = 2

Example 5
Find the centre and radius of the circle represented by each of the following equations.
2
2
(a) ( x 2 ) + ( y + 5) = 10
(b) x 2 + y 2 + 8 x 10 y 8 = 0
Solution
(a)
Rewrite the equation in standard form:

(x 2)2 + ( y + 5)2 = (

Centre is at (2, 5) , radius is 10 units.

10

(b)

Rewrite the equation in standard form:

x 2 + y 2 + 8 x 10 y 8 = 0
x 2 + 8 x + y 2 10 y 8 = 0
x 2 + 8 x + 16 16 + y 2 10 y + 25 25 8 = 0

(x + 4)2 16 + ( y 5)2 25 8 = 0
(x + 4)2 + ( y 5)2 = 49

Centre is at ( 4, 5) , radius is 7 units.

Remark: The technique used in (b) is called completing the square.

Example 6
Find the equation of the circle centred at the point ( 4, 3) and passing through the origin.
Solution
The radius of the required circle is

( 4 0)2 + (3 0)2

= 16 + 9 = 5

Thus, the equation of the circle is

(x + 4)2 + ( y 3)2 = 25 .
Question: Determine the equation of
(i) an upper half circle with centre at the origin and radius 6 units;
(ii) a lower half circle with centre at (1, 3) and radius 5 units.

C.

Ellipses

Definition: An ellipse is the set of all points P in a plane that the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points, F1 and F2, is a constant. The two fixed points are called the foci (plural of focus). The midpoint of
the segment connecting the foci is the centre of the ellipse.
The equations of an ellipse with foci at the
points F1 ( c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , where c > 0 , is
x2 y2
+
= 1,
a 2 b2

where a > b > 0 , a 2 b 2 = c 2 and 2a is the sum

of the distances from any point on the ellipse to
the two foci. The equation above is the standard
form of the equation of an ellipse centered at the
origin.
Proof:
The point P(x, y) is on the ellipse if and only if the sum of distances from F1 ( c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) is 2a,
i.e.
Simplifying, get

( x + c )2 + y 2 + ( x c )2 + y 2

= 2a

(a

c2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 a2 c2
2

Observed that F1 F2 = 2c < PF1 + PF2 , so that c < a and a c > 0 .

For convenience, let b 2 = a 2 c 2 . We have
b 2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2b 2
x2 y2
+
=1
a 2 b2

x2 y2
+
= 1 ( a > b > 0 ) has the following properties:
a 2 b2
It is symmetrical about the x-axis, the y-axis and the origin.
Its foci are F1 ( c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , and can be found by the equation c 2 = a 2 b 2 .
It cuts the x-axis at A( a, 0) and A(a, 0) , and the y-axis at B (0, b ) and B(0, b ) .
These four points are called the vertices of the ellipse.
The line segments AA and B B intersect at the origin O, which is the centre of the ellipse.
The length of the line segment AA is greater than that of the line segment B B .

The ellipse
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Depending on the location of foci, there is

another form of ellipse (with the centre also at
the origin):
x2 y2
+
=1 ,
b2 a2
where a > b > 0 , a 2 b 2 = c 2 .

Example 7
Find the coordinates of the vertices and the foci of each ellipse, and sketch its graph.
(a) 4 x 2 + 9 y 2 = 36
(b) 8 x 2 + y 2 = 8
Solution
x2 y2
(a)
Rewrite the equation of the ellipse as 2 + 2 = 1 ,
3
2
We have a = 3 and b = 2 .
Note that the equation represents an ellipse with the centre at the origin. y
The vertices of the ellipse are (3, 0) , ( 3, 0) , (0, 2) and (0, 2) .
4x2 + 9y2 = 36
Moreover,
c 2 = a 2 b 2 = 32 2 2 = 5 ,
2
i.e.
c = 5 (c is positive.)
x
The foci of this ellipse are F 5 , 0 and F 5 , 0 .
0
3
3
The sketch of the ellipse is shown on right.
2

(b)

Rewrite the equation of the ellipse as x 2 +

y2

(2 2 )

= 1,

so that a = 2 2 and b = 1 .
Note that the equation represents an ellipse with the centre at the origin.
The vertices of the ellipse are (1, 0) , ( 1, 0) , 0, 2 2 and 0, 2 2 .

( )

c2 = a2 b2 = 2 2 1 = 7 ,

Moreover,

i.e.
c = 7 (c is positive.)
The foci of this ellipse are 0, 7 and 0, 7 .
The sketch of the ellipse is shown on right.

Example 8
Find the equation of the ellipse whose centre is the origin and the ellipse passes through the points
2 2 , 0 and 2, 3 .
Solution
x2 y2
Let the equation of the ellipse be
+
= 1.
p
q

(2 2 ) + 0 = 1 , get p = (2 2 )
Since the ellipse passes through the point (2 2 , 0 ) , we have
p
q
( 2) + ( 3 ) = 1 , i.e. q = 6 .
As it also passes through the point ( 2, 3 ), we have
(2 2 ) q
2

= 8.

Hence the equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
+
= 1.
8
6

x2 y2
If the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is translated h units to the right and k units upward so that its new centre is at
a
b
C (h, k ) , then the equations of the new ellipse becomes

(x h )2 + ( y k )2
a2

b2

10

= 1.

D.

Hyperbolae

Definition: A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane that the difference of whose distances from two
fixed points, called the foci, is constant.
The equation of a hyperbola with foci at the points F1 ( c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , where c > 0 , is
x2 y2

= 1,
a 2 b2
where a, b > 0 , a 2 + b 2 = c 2 and 2a is the absolute difference of the distances from any point on the
hyperbola to the two foci.
The equation above is called the standard form of the equation of a hyperbola centered at the origin.

Proof:
The point P(x, y) is on the hyperbola if and only if the absolute difference of whose distances from
F1 ( c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) is 2a,
i.e.

( x + c )2 + y 2

Simplifying, get

(c

( x c )2 + y 2

= 2a

a2 x2 a2 y2 = a2 c2 a2
2

Observed that F1 F2 = 2c > 2a , so that c a > 0 .

For convenience, let b 2 = c 2 a 2 . We have
b 2 x 2 a 2 y 2 = a 2b 2

x2 y2

=1
a2 b2

11

x2 y2

= 1 ( a, b > 0 ) has the following properties:

a 2 b2
It is symmetrical about the x-axis, the y-axis and the origin.
Its foci are F1 ( c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , and can be found by the equation c 2 = a 2 + b 2 . The
mid-point of these two foci is the origin O, which is the centre of the hyperbola.
It cuts the x-axis at A1 ( a, 0) and A2 (a, 0) , which are called the vertices of the hyperbola.
As x and y get larger, the two branches of the graph approach a pair of intersecting straight lines
b
b
y = x and y = x . These are called the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
a
a

The hyperbola
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Depending on the location of foci, there is

another form of hyperbola (with the centre also
at the origin):
y2 x2

= 1,
a2 b2
a, b > 0 , a 2 + b 2 = c 2

Example 9
Arrange 9x2 4y2 = 144 into the standard form of hyperbola.
Solution
9x2 4y2 = 144
x2 y2

=1
16 36
x2 y2

=1
42 62
x2 y2

= 1 is translated h units to the right and k units upward so that its new centre is
a 2 b2
at C (h, k ) , then the equations of the new hyperbola becomes
If the hyperbola

( x h )2 ( y k )2
a2

b2

12

= 1.

When the equation of a conic section is expressed in the form Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 , one can
identify the conic section by completing the squares so that the equation is expressed into the
corresponding standard form.
Example 10
Classify the type of conic section described by each of the following equations using completing the
squares.
(a) 4 x 2 16 x + 25 y 2 84 = 0
(b) 4 x 2 + 8 x + 4 y 2 24 y + 15 = 0
Solutions
(a) 4 x 2 16 x + 25 y 2 84 = 0

(
4(x

4 x 2 4 x + 25 y 2 = 84
2

4 x + 4 + 25 y 2 = 100

4( x 2 ) + 25 y 2 = 100
2

( x 2 )2

y2
=1

52
22
(b) 4 x 2 + 8 x + 4 y 2 24 y + 15 = 0

(
4(x

The equation represents an ellipse.

) (
)
+ 2 x + 1) + 4( y 6 y + 9 ) = 25

4 x 2 + 2 x + 4 y 2 6 y = 15
2

4( x + 1) + 4( y 3) = 25
(x + 1)2 + ( y 3)2 = 25
4
2

The equation represents a circle.

By expanding the standard form of the conic sections (parabola, circle, ellipse and hyperbola) described
previously into the form Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 , it can be observed that B = 0 (i.e. no xy
term). In addition, it can be observed that a conic section of the form Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 , in
which A and C are not both zero, is:
- a circle if A = C ,
- a parabola if AC = 0 ,
- an ellipse if A C and AC > 0 , and
- a hyperbola if AC < 0 .

13

Rotation of Axes

Suppose the x- and y-axes are rotated through a positive angle , resulting in a new x y coordinate
system as shown in the figure. We would like to know how the old coordinates ( x, y ) and the new
coordinates ( x , y ) of the same point P are related. We shall express x and y in terms of x , y and .

Denote

as the distance from the origin O to the point P,

as the angle from the positive x -axis to the ray from O to the point P.

We have
x = r cos ,
x = r cos( + ) ,

y = r sin ,
y = r sin ( + ) ;

Thus,

x = r cos( + ) = r (cos cos sin sin )

i.e.
and
i.e.

x = x cos y sin

y = r sin ( + ) = r (sin cos + cos sin )

y = x sin + y cos

Question: Express x and y in terms of x and y. What do you observe?

Example 11
Write the equation xy = 1 in terms of a rotated x y -system if the angle of rotation from the x-axis to the
x -axis is 45 . Express the equation in standard form.
Solution:
With = 45 , the rotation formulas for x and y are
2
x = x cos 45 y sin 45 =
( x y )
2

14

and

y = x sin 45 + y cos 45 =

We have

2
( x + y )
2
xy = 1

2
(x y ) 2 ( x + y ) = 1
2
2
x 2 y 2

=1
2
2
x2 y 2
Remark: The equation

= 1 indicates that the graph is a rectangular hyperbola centred at the

2
2
origin and cuts the x -axis at the two vertices 2 , 0 and 2 , 0 .

Example 12
1
( y 4) . It is given
16
that the x and y -axes are the results of rotating the x and y-axes 30 anticlockwise. Find the equation
of the parabola with respect to the xy coordinate system.
Solution
The x and y-axis can be thought of as the result of rotating the x and y -axes 30 clockwise.
The equation of a parabola with respect to the x y coordinate system is x 2 =

3
1
x+ y
2
2
1
3
y = x sin 30 o + y cos 30 o = x +
y
2
2
1
From the equation
x 2 = ( y 4)
16
We have

x = x cos 30 o y sin 30 o =

3
1

2 x+ 2

1 1
3
x +
y 4

16 2
2

1 2
1
3 x + 2 3 xy + y 2 =
x + 3y 8
4
32
24 x 2 + 16 3 xy + 8 y 2 x + 3 y 8 = 0

15

The Equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

The equations of conic sections can be expressed in the form

Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .
If the conic section is being rotated about the origin, then B will not nonzero. In addition, the type of
conic sections (parabola, circle, ellipse and hyperbola) can be identified as
- a parabola if B 2 4 AC = 0 ,
- an ellipse or a circle if B 2 4 AC < 0 , and
- a hyperbola if B 2 4 AC > 0 .
Example 13
Identify the graph of 32 x 2 48 xy + 18 y 2 15 x 20 y = 0 without completing the square.
Solution
Note that A = 32 , B = 48 and C = 18 .
2
B 2 4 AC = ( 48) 4(32 )(18) = 0
The graph of the equation is a parabola.

Parametric Equations of Conic Sections

x = f ( t )
.

=
y
g
t
(
)

To each real value of t, there corresponds to a point (x, y) in the Cartesian plane. The point (x, y) moves
and traces a curve as t varies.
Consider the pair of equations

( f (t ) , g (t ))
curve C

x = f ( t )
The pair of equations
is called parametric equations and the independent variable t is called a
y
=
g
t
(
)

parameter.

16

The following table lists the equations of conic sections in rectangular coordinate form and in parametric
form.
Type of Conics
Parabola Type 1

Equation in Rectangular
Coordinate Form
x 2 = 4ay (or y =

x2
)
4a

Parabola Type 2

y 2 = 4ax

Circle, centred at (0,0) and

radius r

x2 + y2 = r 2

Ellipse Fat

x2 y2
+
= 1; (a > b)
a2 b2

Ellipse Thin

x2 y2
+
= 1; (a > b)
b2 a2

Hyperbola
(East-West Openings)

x2 y2

=1
a 2 b2

Hyperbola
(North-South Openings)

x2 y2

=1
b2 a2

Rectangular Hyperbola

xy = c 2 ; c is a constant

17

Equation in Parametric Form

x = 2at
, <t <

2
y = at
x = at 2
, <t <

y
=
2
at

x = r cos t
, 0 t 2

y = r sin t
x = a cos t
; ( a > b) ,

y = b sin t
0 t 2
x = b cos t
; ( a > b) ,

y = a sin t
0 t 2
x = a sec t

, <t <

2
2
y = b tan t
x = b sec t

, <t <

2
2
y = a tan t
x = t

c2 , < t < , t 0
y
=