FRANKLIN INSTITUTE

( S t a t e d meeting, held [Fedncsday, June z6, z9o9.

THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF M O D E R N ROAD SURFACES.

BY
W. H. FULWEILER.
( C o n c l u d e d f r o m S e p t e m b e r , page x 8 3 . )

SURFACE COATING WITH TARS.

T h e n l o s t g e n e r a l process, h o w e v e r , f o r t h e suppression o f
t h e d u s t n u i s a n c e is t h e use o f a s u r f a c e c o a t i n g o f t a r . From
t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l t a b l e o f its d e v e l o p m e n t , we s h a l l see t h a t
a l t h o u g h its g e n e r a l use c a m e a b o u t t h e same t i m e as t h e use o f
o i l , e x p e r i m e n t s h a d been m a d e w i t h it in F r a n c e t w e n t y y e a r s
e a r l i e r , y e t o n a c c o u n t o f t h e universal use o f gas t h e e c o n o m i c a l
s u p p l y o f t a r w a s n o t l i m i t e d by geographical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , so
t h a t it a t o n c e s e c u r e d a w i d e field o f u s e f u l n e s s . T h e f o l l o w -
i n g t a b l e g i v e s t h e g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f its use:

DEVELOPMENT OF T A R COATING.
'1867. Chas. Tellier, in France, first proposed the use of tar as a surface
treatment on roads.
I87I. A. M. Francon, at Auch, applied a coating of cold tar, and then fired
it to secure a better penetration.
188o. Cristople, at St. Foy le Grande, and Lavinge, at St. Gaudens, made
some experiments with cold tar.
1886. Experiments were made at Melbourne, Australia, with considerable
success.
I888-I892. F u r t h e r work was done at St. Gaudens by Cristople.
~894. A s h o r t piece of road at Montclair, N. J., was treated with coal tar,
and screenings were rolled in. The first use of this method.
I895. The first general experiments, where all conditions were noted and
considered by Guardeau in France. He used both hot and cold tar,
and noted the better effect with hot tar.
19oo. Rimini, an Italian road engineer, patented the use of coal tar mixed
with a drying oil. This gave a quick, smooth finish, but did not
last very well.
I9Ol. Drs. Schottelius and Guglieminetti made their classical experiments
at Monte Carlo and Nice, and determined the essentials for success-
ful results.
19o2. The League for the Suppression of Road Dust was formed with head-
quarters in Paris. They succeeded in interesting the F r e n c h Gov-
ernment, so that systematic experiments were undertaken in the
Department of Seine, Seine et M a r n e and Seine et Oise. This same
year the success attained at Monte Carlo and Nice led to the tarring
of the whole road from Cannes to Mentone.
260
 DEVELOPMENT OF M O D E R N ROAD S U R F A C E S . 26I

I9o3. T h e work was now undertaken on some of the suburban roads that
were largely used by m o t o r s abont P a r i s ; at St. Cyr and i n and
a r o u n d Versailles.
19o4. T h e r o a d s i n the Bois de B o l o g n e were tarred, and the Boulevard
M a i l l o t and Avenue de la G r a n d Armfie.
~9o5. T h e use of tar mixed w i t h tar oils s o that heating was avoided, was
widely tried i n France.
I9O6. T h e u s e of tar became q u i t e general in France, E n g l a n d , and was
connnenced i n America.

There are several reasons wh the use o f tar was more

general t h a n that of oil. As mentioned before, it couhl be more
easily procured, it was cheaper, and it was more widely applicable
to different kinds of road surfaces, particularly to the broken-
stone r o a d s of Continental Europe, and it gave much better re-
sults t h a n the paraffin base oils first used on the Continent.
Again, the object o f Dr. Guglieminetti's experiments were,
primarily, to better the hygienic conditions that resulted from
the dust clouds raised by traffic.
T h e y f o u n d t h a t there was a great increase in the number of
microbes per cubic centimeter in the air near r o a d s t h a t were
frequented by automobiles, and that while the use o f petroleum
oils that were first experimentally used decreased the number o f
microbes when first applied, yet their value as antiseptic agents
soon diminished almost t o zero. So that they were searching
for some antiseptic a g e n t t h a t would have a more permanent
value. The value of t a r in this connection was well known, as
it had been used for many years in treating various plant dis-
eases, a n d this led t o its trial at M o n t e Carlo, with surprisingly
successful results.
W h e n we consider the methods o f applying the tar, we find
that they may be divided into three general heads.
I. Painting the road surface by b r u s h i n g with a hot coating
of coal t a r and dusting it lightly with sand. In general use in
France.
2. Painting the surface by machine or with a very light coat-
ing o f oil t a r o r thinned coal tar, and d u s t i n g with sand. This
is generally used in England.
3. Coating the surface with a fairly h e a v y coating o f hot t a r
o r t a r compounds, and th~en covering with a light coat o f screen-
ing and rolling. This is the general system used in America.
In reviewing these methods, we should bear in mind the
objects to be attained. In the first place, we wish to hold the
 2(J2 \V. H. I~'ULWEILER.

surface dust iu place so that it may perform its function of re-

taining the stones composing the w e a r i n g surface ill t h e i r proper
position to reinforce this m a t r i x against the shearing strain put
Oll the surface by tile passage of m o t o r cars, and to form a water-
p r o o f coating on the road surface protecting it from the action
of the almOsl)here, m'Jd thus minimizine, the formation of nmd.
\Ve cannot, of course, prevent the formation of dust from
detritus dropped oil the road by traffic, but when first applied the
tar will absorb a consideral)le quantity of it, and in this action
is surpassed by the h e a v v oils.
T h e r e have been an innumerable n u m b e r of variations pro-
posed and tried, so that it would be almost ilnpossible t o even
review them all, so that only the most successful methods c o m i n g
u n d e r the t h r e e f o r e g o i n g h e a d s will be gone into. The first
m e t h o d was the-ontgroxx:th of the experimental work done
by the F r e n c h engineers, and the general conclusions laid down
by Dr. Guglieminetti seem to c o v e r the subject so thoroughly
that they will be repeated here.
The w e a t h e r should be c l e a r and dry with an air temperature
not l o w e r than 70 F., and preferably l'ligher. The road should
have been resurfaced d u r i nK the past four to six months. The
surface should be thoroughly dry, and tar should not be applied
' b e f o r e ten ()'clock in the morning.
The surface should be free froln (lust and dirt, and w h e r e
possible the surface should be lightly washed with a hose anti
w a t e r u n d e r pressure, and the road allowed to dry with traffic
excluded for two or t h r e e days. The tar should be h e a t e d to
I4 o:' F. and spread very evenly, avoiding excess, and well
brushed into tile surface voids. Two or t h r e e h o u r s should be
allowed for lhe tar to be absorbed, and then a light even coating
of s h a r p sand should be spread over it. The quantity of tar
should be regulated according to the capacity of tile road for
absorption, and should not be less than .25 g a l l o n s or over .5
gallons per square yard. Two light coats are recommended as
more efficient than one h e a v v coat. No essential modification
has resulted in seven years work with this method.
The most important specification is that of the choice of the
day for d o i n g the work. It is ahsolutely essential that the
w e a t h e r should be c l e a r and warm, and that the road should t~e
thoroughly dry. not only on the surface but down into the body
 I)F.V;~.hOP_~rENT <~F ~\[~ln~.Rx l{~),\lJ ~tRF.\C~:;S. 263

for several inches. This means that at least two days of dry,
clear weather shouhl have elapsed since the last rain, and that
June in this latitude is a b o u t the first month t h a t successful
resuhs may be expected, due to the excess o f moisture absorbed
during the winter and spring rains, and September is l~robably
the latest. The necessity of observing the proper weather con-
ditions, and the shortness of the season, naturally increases llle
cost of work when done by contract, as the men and plant are
idle so mtu:h o f the time, but with highway COlllnlissions the nlen
can generally be utilized in o t h e r work. so that it is not so
important.
El{;. ~3.

F r e n c h tar distributing machine.

Considering the practical apl)lication of this method, we find

here that freeing the road from dust is the most difficult and
expensive part of the process; but this is due to the fact that in
France. and, to a very considerable extent in England, they keel)
the surface of their r o a d s free from mud and dirt by frequent
scrapings and brushings, so that the preparation for ti~e applica-
tion of far is not so difficult, while here only in the case of a'
few turnpikes, parks, or closely settled subu1"ba11 villages, is such
a thing ever thought of, so that it requires it great deal more
labor on ,mr r o a d s to remove llle accumulated dust. .\gain,
264 W . H . FULWEILER.

owing to the fact that our horses are nearly all shod with caulks,
the surface is continually kept rough, and thus affords lodgment
for the road and traffic dust, while abroad the horses are smooth
shod, or when caulks are used a t all it is only in cities, so that
the road surface is smoother and easier cleaned by brushing,
which would ravel an American road. The preliminary sweep-
ing is usually done by hand in France, and by horse sweepers in
England and America, reinforced by a hand g a n g who clean o.ut
any hollows o r depressions not reached bv the larger and stiffer
revolving broom.
F~G. I 4 .

Lassailly tarring machine.

This sweeping is of the greatest importance, and lack o f care

with it is responsible for the majority o f the failures, even
where the o t h e r conditions have been carefully observed. T h e r e
are two main reasons: W h e n the surface voids are filled with
dust, the t a r collects in little globules and does not penetrate
the road metal a t all, just as water assumes the spheroidal state
on a hot iron plate, and is readily w a s h e d away at the first rain.
Again, when a quantity of dust is allowed to remain in the
bottom o f any little hollow o r chuck hole, the "excess o f t a r that
will nearly always collect there f o r m s a cake with an apt~rently
smooth surface, but u n d e r the action o f the weather and the
traffic this soon disintegrates and is licked out bv passing wheels,
leaving the metal unprotected, so that moisture penetrating u n d e r
the tar surface soon destroys it for a considerable distance a r o u n d
 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ROAD SURFACES. 265

the original hollow, giving the road a very bad appearance and
soon forming deep chuck holes.
The t a r has been applied in a number o f different ways. At
first and in small jobs it was heated in kettles on the roadside,
and applied from hand sprinkling cans provided with wide flaring
nozzles. A small tank holding a b o u t fifty gallons, on wheels, that
could be pulled by two men, was then used in France. Nozzles
were provided, so that an even distribution was secured. This
was succeeded by portable horse-drawn boilers that would hold
a number of gallons, but the actual sprinkling was done bv hand

Fro. I 5.

Distributing and brooming-in tar

with a fiat nozzle connected by a flexible hose so that the quantity

of t a r used could be more accurately apportioned to the require-
ments of the surface. A b o u t i9o6 the Lassailly machine was
invented, which sprinkled the tar a t a predetermined rate, a n d
made use of a set o f automatic brushes to secure a more uniform
distribution. In the United States the usual form of s t r e e t
sprinkler has been provided with an iron tank (that would remain
tight u n d e r the influence of the hot tar) and the sprinkler has
been modified to handle the thicker substance, while the White
oilinK machine has been adopted to some extent.
26(~ \V. H. lgUL\VEILER.

l'robably the very best work has been done by a skilled man
distributing the tar from a nozzle, as he can g a u g e precisely just
how nmch tar each s e p a r a t e section requires, but, of course, at
nmch g r e a t e r expense than w i t h the machines, w h e r e the flow
must be more or less u n i f o r m regardless of requirements.
Following the actual spreading of the tar come men who
follow the sprinklers with 1)rooms and brush it thoroughly into
the road metal. They see that it is spread evenly and r e m o v e
any excess and c o v e r the thin places. T h e i r work is very im-
p o r t a n t , as it is diflScull when the d u s t has not been completely

F I ( ; . l (~.

R o a d t r e a l e d b y f i r s t m u t h o d , S a v a n n a h , Ga.

r e m o v e d to make the tar " take " on the surface, that is lo b r e a k

down the surface film that is f o r m e d and really p e n e t r a t e the
interstices of the metal. It was to overcome this difficulty that
the u s e of w a t e r as a preliminary washing was recommended:
but, of course, this is not a h v a y s practicable as the road must be
closed to traffic while it is drying. The w a t e r removes the
surface d u s t film and leaves the stone in very good condition to
receive the tar. It is essential also, for the reasons g i v e n above.
that no excess of tar should be allowed to collect in puddles in
hollows in the road surface. Stable b r o o m s are g e n e r a l l y used,
and al)out one man fl~r each 3 feet of w i ( l t h of r o a d . w i t h an
 [)I~2VEImPMEX;r ()F MOnERX ROAD Svm:.xCES. --'67

extra man ~)r two bringing up the rear to remove any puddles,
etc., that have escaped the regular gang. The men here fre-
quently work so that they b r u s h towards the l~ody, 1)\ s t a n d i n g
on the untreated road, but in France they are provided with
wooden shoes and b r u s h away from the body, walking in the
tarred surface. The latter seems much the better method, except
from the nuisance to the men. ()n the smoother road surfaces
of I:rance they fl'equently use a r u b b e r s~'iuegee to spread the tar
after spril~kLing: this seems to give very good results there, but
does not seem adapted to the r o u g h e r surface <,f ollr roads.
F I ¢ ; . ~ 7-

Horse-drawn far-spraying machine

This 1)roonlin K or sweeping in is a very disagreeable and

hard work if it is done properly, as the tar nlust 1)e thoroughly
brushed and rul)l)ed into the road metal to secure the best results.
It seems to take weight to do this, and the 1hen can't keep it tip
prol)erly for very long a t a time. T h e y frequently arrange the
work so that the g a n g s change places about every hour.
The surface should remain undisturbed for several hours to
allow the absorption of the tar, and then be liKhtly covered with
a clean, sharp sand just sufficient to absorb any of the tar remain-

ing on the surface and t o t511 the voids which were opened by
the sweeping.
268 \V. H. FULWEILER.

This method has been widely used in France, and has proven
very successful with their smooth surfaces, but it is necessarily
slow and expensive at the higher rates o f labor in England
a n d America. t n o r d e r to obviate the labor cost, and to avoid
the necessity o f heating the tar, some modifications have been
made to it.
About 19o5 they commenced applying the tar cold after
thinning it with t a r oils, and in o r d e r to avoid the labor necessary
for sweeping and spreading, a number o f machines' have been
invented t o s p r a y the t a r on the road u n d e r pressure. These meth-

FIG. 18.

Power tar-spraying machine.

ods come u n d e r the second heading, and are known in general

as t a r painting." The preliminary sweeping need only renlove
"

the larger particles of debris as the pressure of the t a r forces it

t h r o u g h the dust. The uniforlnitv o f the machine's action
allows a very lnuch smaller quantity of t a r to be used and yet
secure a continuous coating, while the brooming afterwards is
entirely done away with; moreover, the work is done a b o u t
twenty to thirty times as rapidly, thus enabling more work to
be done during the most suitable season. This method has been
widely used in England with both coal gas tar, and almost en-
 DEVELOPMENT OF ~/~ODERN ROAD SURFACES. z69

tirely now with water gas tar, and has given generally satis-
factory results.
The machines in use a r e - -
Aitkens Pneumatic T a r Sprayer is the inventon of Mr. T.
Aitken, County Surveyor of Cupar-Fife in Scotland. It is ma.de
in two forms, one with steam drive and the o t h e r for horse-
power.
Pumps geared to the wheels compress the t a r to a pressure o f
IOO to 150 lmunds when it is atomized with air u n d e r a pressure

FIG. IQ.

Spreading and rolling screenings.

Of IOO to I50 pounds in nozzles, into the road surface. The

p o w e r machine has steam coils so t h a t the t a r may be heated,
but with the horse-drawn vehicle the t a r must be used cold o r
h e a t e d before being put into the tank. The Tarspra discharges
the tar u n d e r a pressure of 2oo pounds, and has pumps t o keep
up this pressure and the deliverv of the t a r constant. These
machines are now made bv the ;Faroads Syndicate o f L o n d o n ,
England. There are. of course, a number of other machines,
but these seem to be the most important.
The introduction o f these machines has enormously increased
270 \\*. H. IVt'IA\'EIIA£P,.

the nse of tar for road t1eatme13t in ]~ngland, and I believe t h a t

it would be of equal benefit here, as it does away with a great
deal of labor and applies the tar quickly and economically.
To better adal)t the application of t a r to the r o u g h e r surfaces
of our American roads, the third method has been evolved and
which seems to give the best results u n d e r our conditions. Tke
work is all done exactly as u n d e r the first method, except that a
considerabh, heavier refined grade of t a r is used, that has more
body and greater binding properties, and it is applied a b o u t twice
as heavily. T h e n , instead of sand. a light coating of clean gravel
or fine stone chips is put on, and the whole surface is rolled with
a road roller. This treatment renews the wearing surface and
fills the voids made by sweeping very much better than the
sanding, while it also ( f r o m the heavier t a r used and greater
quantity) seems to penetrate more deeply, and its effect is more
lasting. It succeeds best on Macadam roads. It is practically
mud-proof; absolutely free froIn road d u s t ; apparently p r o o f
against very heavv motor traffic, and u n d e r American condi-
t i o n s is bv far the most satisfactory surface treatment. Its cost.
however," is very much higher than either of the two o t h e r
methods. In lllis connection it will be considered later with
respect to o t h e r methods.
Considering now some o f the details regarding the I)roper
quantities o f materials necessary, we find that they are dependent
almost entirely on lhe condition of the surface to be treated,
a n d - t h e y may he tabulated as follows:
M A T E RI A L S .

Tar gals. Sand tons. Screenings.

P e r sq. yd. P e r s q . yd. T o n s p e r s q . y d .

M e t h o d No. i, S m o o t h r o a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 - - .3° .006
R o u g h r o a d s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ° _ • 40 • 009
M e t h o d N o . 2, S m o o t h r ~ a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 - - . 15 • oo 3
R o u g h r o a d s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 - - . 25 .oo~
M e t h o d No. 3, S m o o t h r o a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 .45 .OIO---.OI 5
R o u g h r o a d s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 .65 .OI5--.O25
Gravel r o a d s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0 - . 70 .o25--.o3o

In general, a road when slightly dalnp will not absorb one-

half the t a r that it will when thoroughly dry, and the same
h o l d s with a badly swept road. Gravel will take more t a r than
Iacadam.
 DEVELOPMENT (IF ~IODERN ROAD ~URFACES. 27[

Ill the selection of tile tar for use as a surface coatiug, we

nmst consider the conditions and the results that are desired.
The first lnethod was developed to utilize a dehydrated coal tar,
and this seems to serve the lmrpose quite well, as it is intended not
only to lay" the dust but to serve as a waterproof coating for the
r o a d , but it was not expected that it should last more than one
season, and the plan now seems tgo be to give two treatments
a year. The tar should then have a fair body, and be free from
ammoni~cal liquor, as this prevents a proper penetration and has
a disintegrating effect on the coating a f t e r b e i n g apl)lied. F r e e -
dom f r o n t carbon is a n o t h e r advantageous characteristic, as it is
the excess of free c a r b o n that undoubtedh" causes the black mud
formation in winter.
In the second m e t h o d coal tar thinned with tar oils, creosote
oil or mixed with resin, or, best of all, w a t e r gas tar, seems to
have given the best results. Here the principal effect desired
is the (lust laying, and as a n u m b e r of coats are applied per
season the tar does not r e q u i r e much 1/o(13.
For the t h i r d process, w h i c h is expected t o be very much more
permanent, and which, moreover, is required to act as a )natrix
)tot only for the road m e t a l proper but also for the surface l a v e r
of screeniltg, a l n u c h h e a v i e r bodied tar is required. The
material generally used for this purpose has been a dehydrated
coal tar with n e a r l y all the light oils ( t h a t is, up to 392o F.)
removed, and sold u n d e r the t r a d e name of T a r v i a in this
country, and Claires' Tar Comp. in E n g l a n d . D u r i n g the past
year compounds n l a d e f r o l n water-gas tar have been success-
f u l l y used.
T h e r e are several patented foreign preparations for use in
t a r r i n g roads. A m o n g t h e m . and probably the most widely
used, is Claire's Tar Comp., a dehvdrated coal tar preparation
very similar to the American T a r v i a : Solidified Tar, made by
Tar Pateuts Co., of London. is simply coal tar dehydrated and
treated with 4 to 5 per cent. of HIs SO4: Marbit, prepared by
T. E. Marriott, of Glasgow, is c r u d e coal tar and a specially
prepared n a t u r a l bitmnen which are mixed and immediately
applied.
The advantages of the surface treatment with tar prepara-
tions are, in general, as follows: ( I ) F r e e d o m from dust.
(2) Protection of the road surface from m o t o r traffic. (3)
272 \V. H. IrULWEmEI<

Lengthening o f life of surface by waterproofing effect o f tar.

(4) More resilient surface for horses. (5) Freedom from
surface wash, and less clogging o f drains.
There are, however, a number of objections that have been
urged against its application, particularly by the first two meth-
ods; this is u s i n g crude coal t a r o r t a r painting with water or
coal t a r with lnachines. W h e n a h e a v y rain follows an appli-
cation of crude coal t a r or t a r painting, it has been f o u n d in
some cases t h a t fish in neighboring streams have been killed by"
the tar oils. T h i s , o f course, does not apply t o the heavier tars
used in the third method. The tarred r o a d s have in some cases
c h u r n e d badly in winter, forming a very disagreeable black slimy
mud. This dries out and the road regains its fornler appearance
with dry weather. This is not so noticeable when water-gas t a r
has been used, which is low in free carbon and is less noticeable
on road. surfaces t h a t are kept free from traffic debris; this does
not apply t o the third method. It has been f o u n d that with " t a r
painting " the surface does not stand skidding on curves.
The most important objection, however, is that lately b r o u g h t
u p in Paris, where it was claimed that a number o f trees h a d
been killed by the tar used on the r o a d s in the Bois de Boulogne,
a n d that o n this account they were going t o discontinue its use.
In fact,a n article appeared in the September Engineering Record,
which said that it had been decided n o t t o t a r on this account dur-
ing the next season the seven main suburban r o a d s leading out
o f Paris.
A considerable amount o f discussion has resulted from these
statements, and the English Surveyor and Municipal Engineer
sent out a circular letter to all the county surveyors in England
who had tarred roads, asking for their experiences. In general,
there was not a single instance where a n y damage t o trees o r
to shrubs could be directly charged to tarring the roads. Dr.
Guglieminetti, who is probably the foremost authority, ridiculed
lhe whole affair. H e admitted, however, t h a t there were several
delicate plants that did not seem to bloom when planted close to
r o a d s used for fast motor traffic, that had been tarred. H e
advised that hardier flowers be used, and this has been done.
The question was b r o u g h t u p at the International Road Con-
gress, and the authorities in charge of the Bois de Boulogne
denied that any trees had been direetlv injured by the tar, but
 DEVELOPMENT OF ~[ODERN ROAD SURFACES. 273

they did have trouble with some flowers. Moreover, the Con-
g r e s s went on record as f a v o r i n g the use oi tar.
It should also be remembered in this connection that tax has
been used for years in treating parasitic diseases of plants and
trees, without any evil effects resulting from its use. A g a i n , we
know that c r u d e water-gas tar is very successful, according to
Mr. Waring, of Omaha, in preventing the g r o w t h of g r a s s and
weeds in r o a d s w h e r e it has been applied.
I feel,-, that with both c r u d e coal and w a t e r - g a s tar t h e r e may
be some danger if they are used in excess by the first two methods
but I do not believe that there is anything to be f e a r e d from
the use of the heavier grades of refined tars used in the t h i r d
method, as no damage by this m e t h o d has been repo.rted publicly,
nor has considerable inquiry revealed any existing.
The use of tar as a surface treatment is by far the most
effective m e t h o d for controlling the dust and preserving the road
surface from motors, particularly when a h e a v y refined tar is
used and a sufficiency of screening is rolled in, thus obviating the
objections which have been raised to the first two methods
mentioned.
It seems to give good results with v a r y i n g road surfaces,
but succeeds best with M a c a d a m in good original condition.
However, any surface treatment must be looked upon as
m e r e l y a palliative, and it is not a preventative in the true sense
of the w o r d , so that some more permanent treatment or m e t h o d
of construction is required.

INCORPORATING TARS IN THE MATERIAL OF THE ROAD.

The f a i l u r e of the s u r f a c e treatment to stand the strain of
h e a v y m o t o r traffic, especially on curves, and the desire for a
more permanent road construction, led to the revival of the use
of the so-called tar M a c a d a m , w h i c h is a M a c a d a m construction
with the upper two to four inches of the stone embedded in a
m a t r i x of tar r a t h e r than the usual one of cementing rock
powder. This is laid by coating the stone with tar b e f o r e
spreading and rolling.
It was apparently used at Nottingham, E n g . , a b o u t 184o,
and at Sheffield in 1845. It was introduced in P a r i s a b o u t 1854,
Knoxville, Tenn., a b o u t 1866. The important use of it in street
p a v i n g came a b o u t 1871. when the Snow and D a v i s patents
0-74 \\;. H. tCt'LWWH.ER.

were g r a n t e d . T h e s e required tile use of H.,,SO4 to h a r d e n

the tar used. The Filbert Vulcanite Paving also used a h a r d e n -
ing material. Front x87r to I878 about 75o,ooo square yards
o f this form o f paving was laid in \Vashington, with the follow-
ing" results :
2o p e r c e n t . f a i l e d w i t h i n .~ t o .3 y e a r s .
3o per cent. lasted 7 years.
41 per cent. lasted I5 years.
4.9 p e r c e n t . l a s t e d 20 y e a r s .
1.2 p e r c e n t . l a s t e d 3o y e a r s .
G i v i n g a n a v e r a g e life o f I 2 y e a r s .

i n I,~77 machine m i x i n g was introduced with improved

results, and the same year it b e g a n to be used at Stratford, Ont.,
~c~ 8t Hamilton, Ont.. used it with conspicuous success I886 the
influence of the asphalt conapanies caused its abandomnent in
\Vashington. In I~ 87 it was used at Aim Arbor, Springfield.
and Topeka. From r89o to ~894 a great deal was laid a t Barre,
Vt., Pawtucket, R. l., St. Johnsbury, Vt.. and Littleton, Vt.
In I898 \\:oodsville. \Tt., used it successfully. In I9Ot the
\Varren Bitulithic paving was patented, and was widely used.
The ~fl)ject now assumed more ilnportance f r o l n the advent
o f the motor car a n d the necessity o f more durable road treat-
ment, and various modifications of the use o f tars or oils in
impregnating the ul~per wearing surfaces of roads, were evoh-ed.
The California method of constructing dirt roads was used
a b o u t I9O 3, and was 1)atented 1)v the Petrolithic Co. The \\:afs-
worth system, using rock asphalt, was 1)rought out in I9o5 . The
Gladwell system was first used in t9o6, and the Imperial road
was patented the salne vear. In ~9o7 crude residue molasses was
used a t Newton, Mass.
There have been so many variations introduced into the
construction of roads, with this general principle, that we will'
include all constrttctioll where the u p p e r layers of the surfacing
are saturated or coated with a 1)ituminous substance, u11der this
heading, and divide them into four classes: ( I ) \Vhere the
material is first coated, then spread on the surface and rolled.
hmluding Bitulithic, Tarlnac, Gladwell system. (25 \Vhere the
materials are coated in layers in situ, so-called penetration system.
(3) \Vhere the upper surface is harrowed, the oils worked ill
by m i x i n g in the surface. The California system including
Petrolithic and Imperial systems. (4"1 The use of rock
asphalts.
• DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN RoAn SURVACES. 0_75

In general, t a r Macadam is laid as a wearing surface on

any well drained a n d compacted foundation; an old road surface
may be used, but usually a Telford, o r preferably, a regular
Macadam foundation is built up and the top 2 to 3 inches, o r
wearing surface, is made o f the bituminous mixture.
The first method by m i x i n g is the earliest, and still seems t o
give the best results, but a t a considerably higher cost. The
principal object is to insure that each particle of stone shall be
FIr;, 20.

Mixing tar Macadam.

evenly and completely covered with the bituminous compound.

This requires that the stone shall be dry and warm and well
turned in contact with the t a r mixture.
The earlier engineers heaped the stone on alternative layers
with coke and breeze, and fired them after the manner of a lime
kiln, then spread t a r over the whole mass and turned it like,
concrete. This resulted in overheating some of the stone and
burning the tar. Later the stone and tar were heated separately
and m i x e d in hot iron plates, by h a n d , but machine m i x i n g is now
VOL. CLXVIII, No. 1oo6-- 2~
276 W . H . FULWEILER. "

used in all large pieces o f work with the constituents separately

heated.
The method in use a t Sheffield, Eng., where t a r Macadam has
been in use over 4o years, is as follows:
On a Macadam foundation they put a one-stone layer of 2I~
inches limestone, and a one-stone layer o f I 3~ inches slag, both
tarred with a m i x t u r e o f I IO gallons o f t a r boiled 2 hours, with
125 pounds pitch, used a t the rate of 13 gallons per ton of
PIG, 2 1.

Spreading and rolling tar M a c a d a m .

aggregate. A top coat 3/4 inch of a m i x t u r e of ~ inch fine

stone and i~ inch slag, tarred with I7. 5 gallons o f the m i x t u r e
p e r cubic yard is put on, and the whole rolled until it is 4 inches
thick. A light coating o f clean ~ inch limestone chips is spread
o n .the surface and rolled in.
The method used successfully a t Hamilton, Ont., requires
a 6-inch Telford foundation with 6-inch chamber, voids filled
with smaller stones and well rolled. A layer of tarred 2 ½ inches
stone is put on, and voids filled with tarred gravel: then a laver o f
 DEVELOPMENT OF ~IODERN ROAD S U R F A C E S . 277

tarred 2 inches stone is rolled in. The top dressing is composed

of two-thirds sharp fine gravel a n d one-third stone dust, m i x e d
with 25 gallons o f t a r per cubic y a r d . This is put on about
inch deep, and after t h o r o u g h rolling, is covered with fine dry
stone dust and rolled again.
A t Newton, Mass., during 19o8, the Office o f Public R o ad s
put on a surface coating that seemedoto give very good results,
and which withstood the past winter very successfullv. The

FIG. 22.

Finished surface, Newton, Mass.

old surface was picked up with a road roller and b r o u g h t up to

crown with No. 2 stone, a n d carefully rolled. A one-stone layer
of No. 1 stone was then spread on the surface and rolled care-
fully with a 2o-ton roller. A b o u t 2 ~ inches of a tarred aggre-
gate composed o f 960 pounds of I ~ t o ~ inch stone, 35 ° po'unds
of ~ inch dust stone, and 6 gallons of the bituminous binder;
on one portion o f this work. a water-gas tar compound made
by my company, was used. This aggregate was m i x e d hot like
concrete, and after spreading was lightly rolled once. A f t e r 5
278 \V. H. I:tTLXVEH.ER.

t o 6 hours it was given two trips of tile roller, and the next clay
enough crushed grit o r tarred sand was put on to fill the surface
voids, and the whole surface thoroughly rolled with a 2o-ton
roller. The road has the appearance o f sheet asphalt, especially
on the section where tarred sand was used as a top dressing: but
it gives a better footing and does not cause skidding in wet
weather.
In 19Ol F. Warren patented a combination of graded broken
stone and dust o f different sizes, m i x e d with a bituminous cement,
so that the stone m i x t u r e should have a very low percentage of
voids. His original patent used six sizes o f stone in varying
proportions.
7° per c e n t . of s t o n e passing 3 i n c h e s and on _~ i n c h .
20 per c e n t . of s t o n e passing 2 inch and on 110 i n c h •
4 per cent. of s t o n e passing ~,; inch and on ~¢, i n c h .
3 per c e n t . of s t o n e passing ~1,~ inch and on ~,, i n c h .
3 per cent. of d u s t passing inch.
per cent. of d u s t passing 2 616 i n c h .
One h u n d r e d parts of this m i x t u r e heated and m i x e d with six
parts of bituminous cement. His argument was that such a
m i x t u r e ~required the m i n i n m m amount of cementhlg material,
which could, therefore, be made quite soft and have a longer life.
H e has since reduced t h e number of sizes of stones required and
made some o t h e r improvements. Owing to the care used ill select-
ing, mixing, and laying, and in the uniform quantity d f the
bituminous cement, the work doue by the \Varren o r affiliated
companies has given excellent satisfaction.
The extended use of tar Macadam in England has b r o u g h t
out a number of patented preparations. Tarmac was the earliest,
and was invented, if it can be so called, by E. P. Hooley, Sur-
¢eyor o f Nottingham. It is now supplied by the T a r m a c Co.,
o f Ettingshall, near Birmingham. This is blast-furnace slag
boiled in a tar pitch m i x t u r e and seasoned. It is prepared ready
for rolling, and has been very w[delv used throughout England.
The slag is carefully selected and graded so that the best results
may be obtained. Tarfaat is a top dressiug made of tarred
powdered slag. Tarlithic and Granite are prepared mixtures of
granite tarred and ready for spreading.
In this country the Sarco Road Compound (apparently a
" blown oil " mixture) has been exploited for this lmrpose, and
a n extended trial was made on one o f the Chicago Boulevards
durino i 9o.q.
" 1)EVELOPMENT OF ~[ODERN ROAD SURFACI£S. 279

Another patented componnd which gives promise of success

is a prepared top dressing known as " Amiesite." This consists
of crushed stone coated cold a t the quarry with a hot m i x t u r e o f
6o per cent. solid asphalt and 4 ° per cent. of a heavy asphalt oil.
The m i x i n g is done in a concrete m i x e r and after the stones are
coated about half a bnshel of slacked lime is a d d e d to each cubic
yard. Wheli this is worked in half a-peck of damw,ned sand
is added. The addition of the dampened sand prevents the
particles of~tone from adhering a n d enables it to be handled very
easih,.
F r o . 23.

Bitulithic pavement, Wilmington, Del.

The prepared m i x t u r e is spread on the clean Macadam

foundation about 4 inches in d e p t h and after a t h o r o u g h rolling
is ready for travel. Several, experimental pieces o f this road
have been laid near Camden, N. J.
In general, it seems to cost from 25 to 33 per cent. more t o
lay t a r Macadam by the m i x i n g method than ordinary Macadam.
but it should have fronl two to five times as long a life.
A variation of this general method is the Gladwell system,
b r o u g h t out by Mr. A. Gladwell, Eaton, Eng. It was first used
during 19o6 at Stoke Poges.
The old surface is carefully swept clean, and a ~ - i n c h layer
of ~ - i n c h tarred granite chips are carefully and evenly spread
280 \V. H. F~_'LWEILER.

on. It is then covered with a two-stone layer of 2 ~ - i n c h dry

crushed stone, free from dust and chips. A light s t e a m roller is
now very slowly run over the surface t o press the stones down
into the tarred m a t r i x and to draw the latter up to surface.

FIG. 24.

L a y i n g A m i e s i t e , C a m d e n Co., N . J .

W h e n the binder is seen working up to the surface a light layer

of t h e tarred chips is spread over the top and b r u s h e d into the
voids, the rolling is continued until t h e finished thickness is 23~
t o 3 inches thick, and the surface is compact. A b o u t one-sixth
o f a gallon o f hot tar compound is sprayed o r brushed over the
 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ROAD SURFACES. 28I

surface, and covered with ~ of an inch of clean dry granite or

trap screenings, f o l l o w e d by a roller. It is estimated that this
method w o u l d cost 20 per cent. more than the o r d i n a r y M a c a d a m
in the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
In an e n d e a v o r to find a c h e a p e r m e t h o d of b u i l d i n g a s u r f a c e
resembling that m a d e by the m i x i n g process, the so-called pene-
tration process was used. This consists of saturating the dif-
f e r e n t layers of stone composing the~wearing s u r f a c e a f t e r they
FIG. 2 5'

Amiesite, Magnolia, N. J.

have been p l a c e d on the r o a d , by s p r a y i n g or sprinkling the b i n d e r

on them. This m e t h o d was used as e a r l y as I 8 5 6 - 6 o at W e s t o n -
s u p e r - M 6 r e in E n g l a n d , but it did not attain much importance
u n t i l it was b r o u g h t out by Mr. T h o s . A i t k e n in connection
with his pneumatic s p r a y i n g machine, for w h i c h p u r p o s e it is
said to be eminently a d a p t e d .
The g e n e r a l m e t h o d is to b u i l d up the road in the u s u a l man-
her, e x c e p t that no w a t e r is used in r o l l i n g ; then just b e f o r e the
282 \V. I~I. FULWEILER.

binder course o f fine gravel or screenings is applied, the surface

is sprayed with the hot t a r compound from a machine. The
pressure used secures a penetration of from 2 to 3 inches. The
layer o f gravel is now rolled in, and the surface pores are filled
with another light coat o f tar, followed by dry screenings and
rolling. The m a x i m u m binding value from the smallest quantity
o f tar is obtained at a minimum labor cost. The quantity of
t a r used per square yard o f course varies according to the stone
used and the traffic expected, but is usually at the rate of from
F I G . 26.

Tar Macadam by penetration, Wilmington, Del.

•7 to I.o gallons per square y a r d . In England it costs from 2 to

4 cents per square yard for this method over the ordinary
Macadam, while here it would probably run from 6 to 8 cents.
A nnmber of experimental pieces of road have been laid by
the penetration method a r o u n d Boston. At Newton, Mass., they
pick up the surface to a depth o f from 2 to 3 inches, harrow ii,
dress up to crown with No. t and No. 2 stone, and roll. SprinkIe
I to 1.3 gallons of hot tar compound, and tilen spread o11 a light
coat of screening and roll. The Metropolitan Park Commission
 ])EVELOPMENT OF ~IODERN ROAD SURFACES. 283

built a stretch o f road especially for motor traffic, as follows:

011 a regular Macadam foundation, 4 inches o f No. I stone, with
a little fine gravel as a binder, is rolled in. F o u r inches of gravel
is then s p r e a d oll and I.3 gallons of asphaltunl base oil is
sprinkled on it; a light coat of gravel is put on to absorb t h e
surplus oil, and the whole is thoroughly rolled. Mr. Blanchard,
of Rhode Island, made some experiments with this method, but
he (lid not have the p r o p e r facilities for sprea(hng the tar, so that
his results w~re not satisfactory owing to the necessity o f u s i n g
too much tar.
Fro. 27.

Liquid asphalt. Blackwood, N. J.

Considerable work has been done in New Jersey with a so-

called " Liquid Asphalt," a heavy asphaltic base oil containing
82 per cent. of asphalt oils. The oil was applied to the com-
pacted I ~ - i n c h course before the binder was applied. The
~ - i n e h binder and screening were then put on and rolled in.
This road gave great promise up to the early part of this spring
when with the coming o f the warm weather the surface ravelled
considerably and they are now applying a t o p d r e s s i n g o f gravel.
284 W . H . FULWEILER.

INCORPORATING OILS I N T O T I l E ROAD S U R F A C E .

The peculiar climatic and soil conditions o f California have
developed methods for the construction o f both earth a n d stone
r o a d s that are, in general, somewhat" similar to a tarred Macadam,
in t h a t they s u r r o u n d t h e particles with a binder. W h e n oil was
FIG. 28.

Petrolithic rolling tamper.

first used, they f o u n d that the surface application did not secure
sufficient penetration for the best results, so o t h e r methods o f
incorporating the oil were devised. In Yolo County the road
surface is cut out to-the desired cross section with an 8-inch
crown, and a hard even base is secured free from weak spots,
 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ROAD S U R F A C E S . 285
A b o u t I gallon of oil per square yard is now put on, a n d the
earth that was cut out is returned to a d e p t h of 4 to 5 inches.
This is then rolled and travel is permitted. As t h e oil works
t o the top, a grader a n d drag are run over the surface, and more
soil is b r o u g h t on. This is repeated until the oil fails to work
out, and results in a very c h e a p construction, costing only $I5 °
per mile. ,0
PIG. 29.

Tamping--Imperial construction.

The Petrolithic system o f building r o a d s was started a b o u t

19o 3, a n d was a development o f the earlier systems. In Santa
Monica, Cal., the system is as follows: A f t e r grading, t h e
surface is plowed 4 inches deep with a turning plow, clods are
pulverized and the surface is cultivated a n d harrowed until it is
o f a uniform consistency. A b o u t I gallon per square yard o f h o t
asphalt base oil o f I2 t o 15 ° B., and containing not less than
7o per cent. of D grade asphalt, is put on. If the soil is light o r
sandy, .15 gallon more is put on. This is thoroughly cultivated
and harrowed in, and a n o t h e r coat a t the same rate is pnt on.
 286 \V. H. FULWEILER.

The s u r f a c e is then t u r n e d u n d e r with a 4-inch plow and thor-

o u g h l y h a r r o w e d a l o n g the length and diagonally. It is then
cultivated to an even g r a d e and sprinkled. A r o l l i n g t a m p e r is
then a p p l i e d ; this w e i g h s a b o u t I 5oo p o u n d s , and has iron pins
set in its s u r f a c e a b o u t 7 inches long with h e a d s a b o u t 2 x 3
inches. T h e r e are fifteen pins a r r a n g e d in 12 r i n g s , or 18o in
all. This is r u n over the road u n t i l it is thoroughly compacted
to w i t h i n an inch of the s u r f a c e . A b o u t I ~ to 2 inches of
FIG. ,30.

I m p e r i a l - - p u t t i n g o n s t o n e s u r f a c e , Westville, N. J .

g r a v e l is s p r e a d on the road and m i x e d carefully with the s u r f a c e

soil, and from I tO 1. 5 g a l l o n s of hot oil are sprinkled on. The
s u r f a c e is a g a i n h a r r o w e d and then t a m p e d u n t i l it is solid. A
very l i g h t l a y e r of fine g r a v e l is put on, and the s u r f a c e is
smoothed with an o r d i n a r y s t e a m roller.
A very s i m i l a r type of road is b e i n g exploited u n d e r the
name of Imperial P a v i n g ; this is laid u n d e r the patent No.
833,551, g r a n t e d in i9o6,and in g e n e r a l thev plow up the o r i g i n a l
 DEVELOPMENT OF ~ ' I O D E R N ROAD S U R F A C E S . 287

surface, stones or dirt, harrow it, apply the binder, a n asphalt

o i l u n d e r 4o pounds pressure, harrow again and compact with a
rolllng tamper, which consists of a number o~ toothed disks in
a shaft, the t e e t h being a b o u t 4 inches deep. The roller weighs
3 tons. This tamping is continued until the whole surface is
hard. Gravel or stone chips are put on, and the surface smoothed
with a ten-ton s t e a m roller. Some of.,'these r o a d s in Kansas

FiG. 3 1.

White road-oiling machine.

City, Mo., have been very satisfactory, but generally this type
o f construction has not been very successful u n d e r our Eastern
climatic conditions.
Several useful f o r m s o f machinery have been developed m
connection with the use o f oil in road building that might serve
a u s e f u l purpose with tar. The White oiling machine has
alreadv been mentioned. This has a large number o f openings
t h a t are controlled by levers in sections I8 inches long, so that
I8 inches o r any nmltiple o f this width can be treated or cut off
b v the operator. The D e C a m p machine is adapted for oiling
288 W . H . FULWEILER.

dusty roads. It has three sets o f plungers similar to a corn

planter. It opens a furrow, puts the oil a t its base, covers
it t~p and then stirs it. The White Sanding machine distributes
an'even layer o f sand in a road surface. It uses an apron feed
geared with the wheels, the depth of sand o n which can be ac-
ct~ately regulated.
Related to this construction is the use o f oil in consolidating
sand roads. This was successfully tried i n Massachusetts in
19o5-6. The surface was dressed up a n d .75 gallon per square
yard was put on a t 18o° F. and allowed two weeks t o be absorbed ;
•75 gallon more were put on and t h e surface was harrowed,
rolled, and sprinkled lightly with sand. The next year .76
gallon per square yard was put on, and a b o u t .0024 ton per square
yard o f stone screening was rolled in. The surface is said to b e
very good, a n d the cost was 27.76 cents per square y a r d .
During I9o8 the Office of Public Roads made a n experiment
on a Gumbo clay road a t Independence, Kan., u s i n g a n artificial
asphalt. It was f o u n d difficult, however, t o make the soil absorb
the asphalt satisfactorily, but this might have been avoided pos-
sibly to some extent by cutting back t h e preparation with a crude
oil to reduce its viscosity.
In general, I do not believe from the results so far obtained,
t h a t the methods u s i n g the asphaltic base oils will ever achieve
complete success in this latitude, owing to the fact t h a t the
binder in.the surface course seems to lose its life after a winter's
exposure t o the alternate hail, snow, heat, and cold o f the climate
in this latitude.
A method accomplishing much the same results as, t a r
Macadam, is the use of natural asphalt rock from Kentucky, and
applied u n d e r the trade name o f W a d s w o r t h Macadam. This
was first used commercially in Kentucky in 19o5. The specifi-
cations recommended by the distributors o f the asphalt rock are
as follows: " Shape and roll t h e dirt bed thoroughly as if a
regular Macadam or asphalt pavement were t o be constructed.
Next, place and roll a 6-inch layer o f good crushed stone, a b o u t
2 ~ - i n c h size. T h e n spread a 2-inch layer o f 2-inch stone, and
on this second layer o f stone, before same is rolled, spread an
inch of Kentucky rock asphalt, and after again thoroughly roll-
ing, the road is ready for traffic."
The Office o f Public Roads in i9o 7 made an experiment with
 DEVELOPMENT OF ~IODERN I~.OAD SURFACES. 289

t h i s m a t e r i a l at Bowling Green, Ky. The road had an 8-inch

gravel surface over a T e l f o r d foundation ; t.his s u r f a c e was spiked
up to a depth of 4 inches, and b r o u g h t to a camber of ~ inch to
the foot by removing the excess gravel. This s u b g r a d e was c a r e -
fully rolled. Four inches of I ~ - and 1-inch stone was spread
evenly over the surface, and rolled once t o turn down the s h a r p
edges and leave an even surface. OIle and one-half inch of the
asphalt rock was then spread on, b r e a k i n g up the lumps and
filling a14 the voids as mttch as possible. The r o l l e r was then
kept m o v i n g parallel to the axis of the roadway, r u n n i n g off
occasionally t o dust the roller t o keep it from sticking. A f t e r
about the fifth rolling the surface begma t o compact as the rock
came t o a firm bearing. It was f o u n d that the rock c o u l d not be
w o r k e d b e l o w 7 ° to 75 ° F., and w o r k e d better as the temperature
increased. The road rutted quite b a d l y when traffic was first
allowed on it, but by the end of a week these all disappeared and
the surface had become smooth and compact. The surface was
elastic, yet self-healing from any, ruts or dents.
While it is admitted that with a proper tar Macadmn con-
struction we secure a w e a r i n g surface that is dustless, resilient,
p r o o f a g a i n s t m o t o r traffic, easy t o clean, t h o u g h expensive, yet
t h e r e are several objections that must be considered.
The most important one is that of grade. In general, it has
not been f o u n d wise to use it on grades g r e a t e r than 3 to 4
i n a hundred, o w i n g to the fact that h o r s e s seem to have trouble
with footing. "]'his is especially apparent d u r i n g frosty weather
in the e a r l y morning. On c u r v e s in wet weather it has been
found to increase the tendency to side-slip with motors. It seems
that these effects are caused by an excess of tar on the surface
when an insufficient quantity of dry screenings were applied, or
they were not rolled in properly and were then picked out by
the traffic.
T h e most important points in f a v o r of this type of construc-
.lion are the facts that it is absolutely waterproof, and is, there-
f o r e , free from frost action, and that all the stone particles are
held rigidly in position so that there can be no internal attrition.

SELECTION" OF MATERIALS.
In considering the selection of materials for use in m a k i n g
tar M a c a d a m , t h e i r availability is. of course, the primal consid-
290 \¥. H. FULWEILER.

eration, but w h e r e several g r a d e s of stone are near at h a n d , it

has been f o u n d that a r o u g h , r e g u l a r f r a c t u r e s e e m s to give the
best results. The h a r d e r the stone the better, a l t h o u g h b l a s t
f u r n a c e slag has g i v e n good results when properly chosen.
A s to size, this is d e p e n d e n t s o m e w h a t upon the thickuess of
c o a t i n g that it is d e s i r e d to lay, and the l a r g e s t size in the m i x t u r e
s h o u l d apparently be a b o u t r~ inch less than the finished thickness
o f the layer.
In general, we d e s i r e to lay a d e n s e m i x t u r e , and this involves
either g r a d i n g the stones b e f o r e 1nixing, or by s p r e a d i n g layers
of the different s i z e s and then m a k i n g a h o m o g e n e o u s m i x t u r e
by rolling the stones together on the surface.
T h e r e are two g e n e r a l m e t h o d s in use for m a k i n g d e n s e stone
a g g r e g a t e s for c e m e n t concrete w o r k w h e r e a m i n i m u m per-
c e n t a g e of v o i d s is of even more importance than in o u r w o r k .
The one consists in u s i n g the m a x i m n m quantity of the l a r g e s t
size stone, and then filling the v o i d s by the use of a l a r g e quantity
o f very fine mortar, any particle of w h i c h will e n t e r the v o i d s in
the l a r g e stone. The o t h e r m e t h o d b r o u g h t out b y Mr. W. D.
F u l l e r , ~rop0rtions the stone by tlie parabolic f o r n m l a w h e r e
P2D
d=
10000
d = a n y g i v e n diam.
P = p e r c e n t a g e of m i x t u r e smaller t h a n this diam.
D=largest diam. of s t o n e used.

Two c u r v e s are g i v e n for 2-inch and I ~ - i n c h stone, the sizes

u s u a l l y used for tar M a c a d a m .
Mr. F u l l e r combines his stone m i x t u r e s a f t e r mechanical
analyses, so that they most n e a r l y approach this curve.
F o r instance, with I ~ - i n c h stone as the l a r g e s t size, he
requires t h a t - -
02 per cent. shall pass t h r o u g h ~ inch sieve.
82 per cent. shall pass t h r o u g h ~ inch sieve.
7° per cent. shall pass t h r o u g h ~ inch sieve.
57 per cent. shall pass t h r o u g h ~- inch s i e v e .
4~ per cent. shall pass t h r o u g h { inch sieve.
25 per cent. shall pass t h r o u g h x~a inch sieve.
This m i g h t be approximated tl~en by
" 3o p e r cent. x½ i n c h e s to } inch.
28 per cent. {- inch t o ¼inch.
42 per cent. ] inch to d u s t .
H o w e v e r , in this w o r k we g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r pro-
portion of the l a r g e stone. C o n s i d e r i n g the quantity of v o i d s in
 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN" ROAD S U R F A C E S . 29I

~ e different size s t o n e that w e might use, it w i l l be found that

will vary with different classes of rock, depending on its
~ v a g e and fracture, hardness, kind and adjustment of crusher.
The following figures * may be of service:
HARD TRAp, ROTARY CRUSHBR.
b of stone, Per cent. of voids loose, per cent. of voids, compremed.
~ t inches to x i n c h . 54-5 " 43.7
linch t o It i n c h . 54.5 42.8
~ t ~ du~t. 45.0 3o.6

SOFT TRAP, JAW CRUSHBR.

I w ¢d, t o ~ . Per cent. ofvoids, looJe. Percent.of voids, compreemd~/.
s i n c h e ~t o | i n c h . SZ.O 40.6
| inch t o | i n c h . 5z.o 35.9
GRAVBL.
8i,m o f ~ o n e . Per c~m¢. of voids, loose Per cent. of vdds,compre~ed
,t inch. 36.5 28.=
34.o 27.0

AssUmi."ng n o w a percentage of v o i d s in the compressed s t o n e

43 per cent. and in sand of 27 per cent., the following would
give a d e n s e m i x t u r e :
Pounds. Mat,~dal. Volumetric pe~entap.
xooo z~ i n c h e s stone. 60. o
inch one. 5.7
z89 Sand. z I. 3
•2 B i t u m i n o u s cement. 3. o

W h i l e this m i x t u r e w o u l d h a v e , theoretically, a low per-

of v o i d s , yet a s the s u r f a c e of the particles w h i c h must
be c o v e r e d by the b i t u m i n o u s b i n d e r r i s e s very r a p i d l y as the size
o~ the particles decreases, considerably more b i t u m i n o u s b i n d e r is
r e q u i r e d . It is f o u n d that a b o u t I o per c e n t . by v o l u m e of the
stone m i x t u r e s h o u l d be cement. This w o u l d give then
Pounds. Material. Volumetric perce~tare.
xooo z½i n c h e s stone. 6o. o
4oo ~ inch d u s t . 24. o
xoo Sand. 6: o
74 B i t u m i n o u s cement, zo. o

If it is d e s i r e d t o use only two s i z e s of stone, the following

m i x t u r e m i g h t be used :
Pounds. Material. Volumetric percentage.
xooo z½ i n c h e s stone. 66.5
370 | inch d u s t . 24.5
6o Compound. 9. o

* Quoted i n T a y l o r and T h o m p s o n , s "Concrete, P l a i n and Reinforce&"

VOL. CXLVIII, N o . xoo6--~2
292 W . H . FULWEILER.

A s i m i l a r m i x t u r e was used in some G o v e r n m e n t e x p e r i m e n t s

at N e w t o n , M a s s . , very successfully. In some sections t a ~
sand was rolled i n t o the s u r f a c e , w h i c h g a v e a very s m o o t h finish i
The q u e s t i o n of the selection of" a p r o p e r b i n d e r for this w o r k
and the specifications for different qualities, has b e e n , t h e s u b j e c t
of considerable scientific and practical i n q u i r y and e x p e r i m e r ~
d u r i n g the past t h r e e y e a r s .
A t the present time t h e r e are t w o committees from scientific'
societies, viz. : The A m e r i c a n Society o f C i v i l Engineers~ o f
w h i c h committee Mr. W . W . C r o s b y , C h i e f E n g i n e e r of the
M a r y l a n d Geological S u r v e y , is chairman, and P r o f . M. : H .
B l a n c h a r d , A s s i s t a n t E n g i n e e r of the S t a t e B o a r d of P u b l i c
R o a d s of R h o d e I s l a n d , is secretary, and The A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y
for T e s t i n g Materials, w h o s e Committee on S t a n d a r d T e s t s f o r
R o a d M a t e r i a l is h e a d e d by Mr. L o g a n W . P a g e , D i r e c t o r o f
the Office of P u b l i c R o a d s , as chairman, and Mr. P r e v o s t H u b -
b a r d , A s s i s t a n t C h e m i s t of the Office of P u b l i c R o a d s , is secre-
t a r y . In view of the fact that both of t h e s e committees w i l l
p r e s e n t reports d u r i n g the c o m i n g s u m m e r , - o n l y a g e n e r a l s u r v e y
of this ~uestion will be given.
The m a t e r i a l s in g e n e r a l use a t the p r e s e n t time consist
wholly, o r as m i x t u r e s , o f coal tar, w a t e r g a s tar, coke oven
'tar, asphaltic base o i l s , both c r u d e and r e s i d u e b l o w n o i l s , sulphate
pitch and a n u m b e r of n a t u r a l b i t u m e n s , such as Gilsinite, etc.
It is not difficult t o see that with such a collection o f materials
b i d d i n g for p u b l i c favor, that a p r o p e r choice w o u l d be a d i ~ c u l t
one. In g e n e r a l , the asphaltic oils and r e s i d u e s have g i v e n very:
much b e t t e r results in w a r m , dry climates, such a s C a l i f o r n i a and
the S o u t h , than in o u r d a m p e r and c o l d e r n o r t h e r n climate. H ~ r e
the v a r i o u s tar preparations have been more successful.
C r u d e coal tar was used in the earlier experiments, but it was~
soon f o u n d t o y i e l d b e t t e r results w h e n partially refined, espe-
cially when the ammoniacal l i q u o r and some of the l i g h t oils
were removed.
W a t e r g a s tar was f i r s t used in I 9 o 4 - 5 at O m a h a , N e b . , a n d
at T u n b r i d g e W e l l s in Eng,l a n d , as a dust-Iaying treatment;
k n o w n now as " t a r painting." I t p r o v e d very successful, as it
had the f o U o w i n g a d v a n t a g e s over the coal tar f o r m e r l y em-
ployed, ( I ) It was cheaper. (2) B e i n g more f l u i d , it c o u l d
be applied c o l d . ( 3 ) It penetrated the s u r f a c e more readily.
 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ROAD SURFACES. 293

(4) It resisted wet weather better, and seemed to churn less in

winter. (5) It contains very much less free carbon than coal
!mr, which probably accounts for advantage 4.
The success attending its use as a dust layer led to trials of
its use as a surface treatment w i t h screenings, but the crude
w a t e r gas tar did not contain sufficient binder, and they were not
successful. During the past two years, however, a refined grade
of tar has been prepared which u ~ t e s all the advantages of
penetrat~0n and resistance to moisture and churning with the
toughness and strength of the other preparations. The exceed-
i n g l y low percentage of free carbon in the w a t e r gas tar prepara-
tion is undoubtedly the cause of its superior behavior.
The question of the percentage of free carbon is already
recognized as important, and nearly all specifications restrict it.
A t the coming meet of the American Society for Testing Ma-
terials, Mr. Prevost Hubbard will read a paper on its influence
on bituminous materials for road work.
In general, it acts as diluent while giving the material a false
vicosity. So that in one pound of material there would be from
i8 to 25 per cent. more active binder (material insoluble in CS~)
in a water gas tar pitch than a coal tar preparation.
Furthermore, the free carbon seems to exercise a hydroscopic
property, tending to absorb moisture, which has a deteriorating
effect on the coating and is undoubtedly responsible for the churn-
ing that sometimes occurs in winter.
The question of specifications has been gone into very thor-
oughly by Mr. Prevost Hubbard, of the Office of Public Roads,
in Bulletin No. 34, entitled " Dust Preventatives," some brief
abstracts for different materials being given at the end of the
paper.
In general, I believe that we require a compound that, while
developing the greatest binding property, will not become too
fluid at high temperatures, that it will run under a summer sun,
and yet will be elastic enough not to become brittle and crack at
the winter temperatures: To this must be added a further
proviso, that it shall not contain such a percentage of volatile oils
that their loss under the exposure to the elements during its use
in the road will impair either its strength or elasticity. T}~is
could be secured by specifications which would require at certain
temperatures dependent upon the climate of the locality, certain
 294 W . H . FULWEILER.

b i n d i n g strengths and viscosities, together with a m a x i m u m

a l l o w a b l e loss in the vaporization test, w h i c h consists in h e a t i n g
a s t a n d a r d w e i g h t o f the m a t e r i a l a t some fixed temperature~
for a definite time w h i l e e x p o s i n g a' fixed s u r f a c e .
The q u e s t i o n of the perfecting o f a m a c h i n e that will give
a c c u r a t e f i g u r e s for the b r e a k i n g s t r e n g t h is, of course, the im-
p o r t a n t one, and is now occupying the attention of the m e m b e r s
of the two Committees mentioned above. I t m a y be necessary
t o briquette the m a t e r i a l with a s t a n d a r d s a n d , but in any event,
the b r e a k i n g load will u n d o u b t e d l y have t o be applied as a s u d d e n
shock, and the b r e a k i n g strength r e c o r d e d on some form of
s p r i n g balance.
CONCRETE SURFACING.
T h e r e are s e v e r a l m e t h o d s o f road construction that have
lately b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o notice in an e n d e a v o r to find a s u r f a c e
that s h o u l d be d u s t l e s s and w i t h s t a n d h e a v y m o t o r traffic, and
a l t h o u g h t h e y , a r e not in any w a y related t o the subject, we feel
that they s h o u l d a t l e a s t be briefly mentioned. They a r e the use
of c e m e n t s u r f a c i n g and s m a l l g r a n i t e or composition setts,
Concrete road s u r f a c i n g was p r o b a b l y i n t r o d u c e d by J.
Mitchell a t Inverness, E n g . , a b o u t I 8 6 5 , w h e n he patented a
c e m e n t concrete for this p u r p o s e c o m p o s e d of:
Broken stone, 4 parts.
Sharp sand, I ¼ to II~ parts.
Portland cement, I part.

The s u r f a c e was t o be laid in two layers 7 t o 8 in~.hes deep in

all. In g e n e r a l , the c h i e f objection to concrete s u r f a c e s for
road p u r p o s e s is the fact that they c r a c k b a d l y from temperature
c h a n g e s , and a f f o r d but l i t t l e foothold for h o r s e s . In the form
of p a v i n g w h i c h was introduced in Bellefontaine, O., in I 8 9 6 ,
and is now exploited as the H a s s a m pavement, covered by U. S.
P a t e n t No. 819,652, they e n d e a v o r t o p r e v e n t c r a c k i n g with a
m e t a l reinforcement. T h e r e has lately been introduced an acid
wash for concrete s u r f a c e s that attacks the s u r f a c e coating of
c e m e n t and e x p o s e s the a g g r e g a t e , thus g i v i n g a better footing,
so that t h e s e two objections m a y in time be overcome. C e m e n t
s u r f a c i n g has been t r i e d at T o u l o u s e and Grenoble, F r a n c e , but
w i t h o u t notable success. A g r e a t deal of it was put in at
P a n a m a , w h e r e it i s said t o be q u i t e successful, b u t its h i g h cost,
 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ROAD SURFACES. 295

$2.oo per square yard, precludes its use for anything but city
~reets. At Newton, Mass., they tried a surface grouting of
concrete on a Macadam surface, but it scaled badly and eventu-
ally had to be abandoned.
At the Brookfields Track, a motordrome in England, the con-
crete surface that was first used failed so badly under the action
of heavy racing cars at a speed of fram 8o to ioo miles per hour,
that it had to be nearly all replaced. The surface seemed to lose
a thin st~rface skin; and then the concrete failed, like.Macadam,
ruts forming to a ~depth of several inches: •
On the Motor Parkway, in Long Island, where the Vanderbilt
Cup Races are held, the Hassam paving was used, but so far
it seems to have withstood the effects of both winter weather
and the high speed. However, much of this parkway is on
tangents and fairly flat, while at the Brookfields Track it is
nearly all on a curve and steeply banked. Again, the speed at
Brookfields was considerably higher and the machines were
heavier.
SETS.
There are three forms of block, or set, paving that have
'considerable promise.
Nonskidamacrete is a compound block formed under pressure
with a cement concrete base and a tar Macadam top. They are
laid on a concrete or Macadam sub-base, and are held in place
with a tar grouting. They have not been in use long enough to
gain an insight into their durability, but they are said to be
cheap, noiseless and all that their name implies.
Dorrite is anotherblockpaving made by compressing a tarred
gravel with 2o per cent. of tar into 4-inch blocks, with a pressure
of 2 ~ tons per square inch. This is a German invention, is laid
as the Nonskidamacrete, and is also an experiment.
Kleinpflaster is a random block made by a patented machine
from granite. It was first introduced at Stade, near Hanover,
Germany, in 1885. The blocks are laid on a ~ - i n c h bed of sand
over either a concrete or Macadam foundation. The blocks are
usually 2 ~ - or 3x~-inch cubes, and are laid as closely as possible,
then weU tamped and any joints brushed with sand. They:afford
a good foothold, and seem to last 2o years under h e a v y traffic.
They cost in Germany $I.5O per square yard in place.
A later modification of this is the Durax, the distinctive
296 W . H . FULWEILgR.

f e a t u r e b e i n g that the blocks are laid in s e g m e n t s of a circle with

c h o r d s of 5 t o 6 feet, at r i g h t a n g l e s , t o the c e n t r e line o f the
street. This is said t o make the p g v i n g q u i t e noiseless. The
olocks are now g r o u t e d with an elastic tar preparation, and cost
a b o u t $ I . 5 o a s q u a r e yard in E n g l a n d .
C a p t a i n B i n g h a m , of the R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n on M o t o r T r a i -
tic, in E n g l a n d , d e c l a r e d that this was the best and most
economical m e t h o d of obtaining a s t r o n g , noiseless, non-skiddirtg
and d u s t l e s s road s u r f a c i n g for all k i n d s of tl:affic. This m e t h o d
does not seem t o have been used as yet in this country.

GENERAL REVIEW.
In considering the s u b j e c t o f road treatment generally, and
the application o f tars o r oils in particular, t h e r e a r e f o u r g e n e r a l
factors that m u s t be t a k e n i n t o consideration:
I. The climatic conditions.
2. TJae road surface, i.¢., material and condition.
3. The traffic which the road has to bear.
4. The money available.

The m e t h o d s , as m e n t i o n e d before, w h i c h were orig!nated in

a hot, dry climate, c a n n o t be expected to yield the same excellent
results in c o l d , d a m p o n e s . A g a i n , some considerations such as
foot-hold and spalling from f r o s t need n e v e r be considered in
u n i f o r m l y w a r m parts of the country. The asphaltic oils have
g e n e r a l l y f a i l e d in this latitude, but have been s u c c e s s f u l else-
w h e r e , w h i l e w a t e r and coal g a s tar p i t c h has g i v e n satisfactory
results.
I n considering the q u e s t i o n of the influence of the p r e s e n t
road s u r f a c e in general, a s p h a l t oils have g i v e n b e t t e r results on
g r a v e l , and tars on M a c a d a m . It w o u l d obviously not pay to
tear up a good M a c a d a m s u r f a c e and lay tar M a c a d a m , but it
s h o u l d be tar painted or t a r r e d with screening u n t i l r e a d y for
r e s u r f a c i n g , and then r e b u i l t as a tar M a c a d a m r o a d . The
same w o u l d a p p l y t o g r a v e l . If, h o w e v e r , the road was b a d l y
ravelled but not too d e e p l y w o r n , it m i g h t be r e s u r f a c e d by the
penetration m e t h o d with good results.
W i t h sand or clay r o a d s some modification, w h i c h w o u l d re-
sult in a t h o r o u g h a d m i x t u r e o f the b i n d e r with the soil, f o l l o w e d
by t h o r o u g h compacting, s e e m s to be the most advisable. W h i l e
a s p h a l t oils have hitherto been used a l m o s t exclusively, yet I
 DEVELOPMENT OF M O D E R N ROAD SURFACES. 297

believe in this latitude a proper tar c o m p o u n d w o u l d give m u c h

more successful results.
W e feel that a more i n t e l ~ i ~ u i r y into the possible traffic
that a~tr~w~e a m y be expected to bear w o u l d frequently prevent
failure from the use of unsuitable materials and methods. Fre-
quently the traffic of a road is considered and reported as very
rsght pleasure traffic, w h e n a carefu! ~Ijrvey will reveal quite the
opposite.
A traffic c e n s u s m a d e on J u n e 20, I 9 o 8 , on a s t r e e t in M o n t -
clair, N. J . , gave 6.5 tons per foot w i d t h per h o u r , w h i l e a busy
s t r e e t in N e w a r k , N. J., gave only 4.o t o n s . The Montclair street
was p a v e d w i t h M a c a d a m , and was not d e s i g n e d for h e a v y traffic,
w h i l e the N e w a r k s t r e e t was p a v e d with B e l g i a n blocks set on
concrete, p r o b a b l y the s t r o n g e s t p a v i n g possible.
T h e g r e a t n u m b e r of m o t o r cars that are y e a r l y increasing
m u s t be considered w h e n e v e r any new construction is contem-
p l a t e d , as the e n t i r e t r a v e l is u s u a l l y diverted t o each new road
even at a sacrifice of several m i l e s in distance. A g a i n , it w o u l d
d o u b t l e s s pay t o c o n s i d e r the possibility of p a v i n g certain points,
w h e r e t r a v e l is concentrated or u n u s u a l l y s e v e r e conditions are
t o be expected such as the-approaches and c r o s s i n g s of main
r o a d s , s h a r p c u r v e s and the approaches t o s h a r p g r a d e s , with a
more p e r m a n e n t form of p a v i n g and use a c h e a p e r form on the
tangents and l e s s e r traveled portions.
H o w e v e r , the determining f a c t o r is usually, how much will
it cost, and not how long will it last ? In the m a j o r i t y of o u r
r u r a l communities t h e r e is a l a r g e m i l e a g e of road that is a l w a y s
j u s t a b o u t to b e c o m e impassable--something m u s t be done to
keep them open t o travel, so that a little is s p e n t here and t h e r e
and no p e r m a n e n t g o o d is s e c u r e d . I n some few instances in the
o l d e r settled sections w h e r e the road s y s t e m has been more com-
pletely developed, the m a i n p r o b l e m is one of maintenance, and
it is here that we find a more intelligent view prevailing of the
w i s d o m o f d o i n g each piece of w o r k thoroughly. Of course, the
A m e r i c a n practice of "working o u t " the road tax is resrJonsible
for the lack o f m o n e y with w h i c h t o make p e r m a n e n t improve-
m e n t s in the r o a d s , but the feeling is g a i n i n g g r o u n d that in,
many c a s e s it will w e l l r e p a y a b o r o u g h t o issue b o n d s for this
purpose, p u t t i n g in some p e r m a n e n t form of construction that
will give the benefit of good r o a d s , w h i l e the m o n e y that was
 298 W . H . FULWSIL~-a.

f o r m e r l y s p e n t in maintenance will more than pay the s i n k i n g

fund c h a r g e s .
Two very good p a p e r s on the most ~ i c a l m e t h o d of
p r o c e d u r e from a financial standpoint have been w r i t t e n ~ b y
F r e n c h engineers, who, o f c o u r s e , are concerned principally with
the cost of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r p r e s e n t r o a d s , as I believe the
F r e n c h N a t i o n a l R o a d s y s t e m is now complete. P. C a u f o u r i e r ,
in L e G e n i e C i v i l , vol. lii, No. 16, p. 268, goes i n t o the q u e s t i o n
o f the p r o b a b l e life of the road u n d e r v a r i o u s treatments and
different intensities of travel, and he g i v e s some equations w h i c h ,
when the p r o p e r constants are a s s u m e d , will show the economical
m e t h o d t o be used. H i s g e n e r a l conclusions w e r e that tar paint-
ing was only economical with very hard m a t e r i a l u n d e r h e a v y
travel, or with very poor m a t e r i a l u n d e r l i g h t travel. T h a t
t a r r i n g with a c o a t of hard screening was good with h e a v y travel
o n poor s u r f a c i n g . That tar M a c a d a m was good in h e a v y travel
even with poor metal. T h a t frequently w h e n t h e r e is but little
difference i n the a n n u a l c h a r g e , it will p r o v e more economical t o
use the b e t t e r ( m o r e permanent) m e t h o d .
A n o t h e r article p u b l i s h e d in the ,4~tncdes des P o r e s et
Chauss~s, part 5, 19° 8 , plots c u r v e s s h o w i n g the a n n u a l c o s t s at
4 per cent. interest for v a r i o u s classes of p a v i n g , thus s h o w i n g
the different life that each s h o u l d attain t o be e q u a l l y economical.
H o w e v e r , t h e s e t a b l e s a p p l y only t o F r e n c h conditions, but they
show that t h e r e is a g r o w i n g d e s i r e t o c o n s i d e r the m a t t e r o f road
finances in a more scientific m a n n e r .
Mr. H. P. M a y b u r y , a prominent E n g l i s h road engineer, in
r e v i e w i n g the a r g u m e n t s for and a g a i n s t tar M a c a d a m , f e e l s that
in his district, w h e r e they have some snow in w i n t e r and i t is
q u i t e hilly, and w h e r e the p r e s e n t s u r f a c i n g is granite, that on
a c c o u n t of the slipperiness of tar M a c a d a m in w i n t e r , the d a n g e r
of u s i n g it in hills, its first cost, together with some little traffic
dust in s u m m e r , that it is not the best, even u n d e r the h e a v y m o t o r
traffic. H e s u g g e s t s b u i l d i n g a very d e e p , s t r o n g s u r f a c e with a
f l a t c a m b e r o f not over I t o 30, u s i n g l a r g e hard s t o n e ( 2 ~ - and
2-inch g r a n i t e ) for the s u r f a c e , with j u s t e n o u g h s m a l l s t o n e to
fill the interstices, and g r o u t e d with tar, keeping the dust down
with m a c h i n e tar painting, as the best solution of the p r o b l e m
s h o r t of some form of Kleinpflaster or D u r a x p a v i n g .
The F i r s t International Road C o n g r e s s a g r e e d that a firm,
 D E V E L O P M E N T OF MODERN ROAD SURFACES. 299

well d r a i n e d foundation was the f i r s t essential; that tar properly

a p p l i e d as a s u r f a c e application w o u l d lay the dust and protect
the r o a d : f r o m f i g h t m o t o r traffic, but that for h e a v y m o t o r traffic
the s u r f a c e material t o a d e p t h of 2 inches s h o u l d be m i x e d with
the b i n d e r .
W e m a y say for a tar treatment properly applied that it m a k e s
a road :
Dustless; "
More hygienic;
,., Less troublesome and expensive to keep clean;
Less mud ;
N o w a t e r cuts;
More p!easing to travel over from its resiliency;
Less expensive in the long run to maintain.

: The Office of P u b l i c R o a d s m a d e a c e n s u s of the r o a d s of

the U ~ i t e d S t a t e s in 19o4, with the f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s : T o t a l
m i l e a g e of p u b l i c r o a d s , 2,161,57o; of this 7.14 per cent. were
improved roads.
xo8,233 miles o f g r a v e l .
38,622 miles o f stone.
6,81o miles of shell, oil, etc.

153,665

D u r i n g the five y e a r s just past t h e r e has been a g r e a t a w a k e n -

ing in the interest in good r o a d s , and from the 19o8 R e p o r t of
the Office o f P u b l i c R o a d s w e now have
I24~4(~8 miles of gravel road.
4345o triles o f stone road.
8,512 miles of shell, oil, etc.

I76,43o miles o f improved road.

L e a v i n g o u t the 8,512 m i l e s of s h e l l and oil r o a d , we have

I77,ooo m i l e s of recognized improved r o a d .
In E n g l a n d and W a l e s t h e r e are
23,826 miles o f main road.
95,211 miles of side road.
119,o37 miles.

On these r o a d s E n g l a n d is s p e n d i n g , practically in maintenance

alone, $ 3 4 7 a mile on main road and $1o7 a mile per year on
the side r o a d s .
In F r a n c e the length of r o a d s and a n n u a l expenditure per
mile are as f o l l o w s :
30o NOTES AND COMMENTS.

National roads, - za,oo9 miles ~a3o per mile.

State roads, a6,x88 miles x8o per mile.
Important town roads, iaS.Sm miles 33o per mile.
Village roads, x55,og 3 miles 55 per mile.
Total, 321,812 miles.
Average per mile--$Io2.o0.

We a r e s p e n d i n g less than $ 4 o . But our r o a d s a r e in the

b u i l d i n g , and the next f o r t y y e a r s will see a n e n o r m o u s increase
in the m i l e a g e of good r o a d s . W e a l r e a d y have S t a t e aid laws
in 23 S t a t e s , and d u r i n g I 9 0 8 , I 6 S t a t e s s p e n t $I8,ooo,ooo and
b u i l t 1,8oo m i l e s of new r o a d . W h e n we c o n s i d e r that in dis-
tricts w h e r e the r o a d s are i m p r o v e d , the attendance of school
c h i l d r e n is 77 per cent., w h i l e in t h o s e districts w h e r e poor r o a d s
p r e v a i l it is only 53 per cent., and that from the best f i g u r e s ob-
taihab]e the A m e r i c a n f a r m e r is s p e n d i n g from 13 to 25 cents
per ton mile m o r e than he s h o u l d on e v e r y load he h a u l s t o the
railroad station, we c a n n o t but feel that the c o u n t r y as a w h o l e
will a w a k e n t o the s o u n d n e s s of good r o a d s as an investment,
and that we w i l l , as a nation, soon e x c e l the w o r l d in the m a t t e r
of i m p r o v e d r o a d s . They c a n n o t be built~in one year nor ten.
but if tl~e m o v e m e n t is even properly s t a r t e d nothing can keep it
back.
W i t h the increasing use of m o t o r cars some f o r m of s u r f a c e
treatment is absolutely essential t o p r e s e r v e the integrity o f a
M a c a d a m s u r f a c e . I t has been universally admitted that tar
properly treated and applied fulfills this p u r p o s e a d m i r a b l y .

R E D U C E D D I A M E T E R C A R D COMPASS.
INFORMATION has been received by the Bureau o f Manufactures that a
patent reduced diameter card compass has just been exhibited in Liverpool
and caused great interest to people concerned in British shipping, its value
b e i n g described as follows:
I t appears in many respects a desirable improvement on the compass now
generally used, especially by securing the card magnification o f the markings
without eye-strain, and by permitting the use o f cards o f small diameter as
compared with that of the ordinary comnass. I t also affords g r e a t e r steadi-
ness and freedom from that i n e r t h which is associated with cards o f full
diameter in use at the present time. F o r many years the desirability has been
recognized for adopting some suitable means o f enlarging the markings o r
calibration o f compass cards to enable helmsmen to readily d e t e c t any
deviation from the. course. Hitherto it h a s been a common practice tor
seamen to use o r d i n a r y lens magnifiers, o r have large compass cards provided;
Compasses with x2-inch and I 5 d n c h cards have been used, but there are
disadvantages connected with them on account o f their unsteadiness in a
seaway owm~ to t h e period of vibration and inertia, hence they have not
 N O T E S AND COMMENTS. 3m

been altogether successful. Lens magnifiers are only used to a limited extent,
as they cause the same strain to the helmsman's ~ e s as a result from the
use o f stron~ spectacles, a n d the lenses have to be fitted on the compass
81ass, which is said to be undesirable. The reduced diameter card compass
invention h a s been bt~mEht out with the object ,~)f d o i n g away w i t h t h e
disadvantages referred to.~ T h e r e h a s been introd~.,ed to this compass a n
arrangement whereby the m a r k i n g s or calibrations of the card can be in-
creased to a l m o s t any size without any o f the drawbacks encountered in the
ordinary compass.
C L O S E R AND MORE ACCURATE~'STI~VN6 oBTAINED.
I n this invention a magnifying mirror, which is adapted t o magnify
the mark'T'ngs on the card to any desired extent, is placed inside the compass
bowl on the f o r w a r d part so that the top of the compass may be remove¢
without affecting the m i r r o r . T o the compass card is added S d o w n - t u r n
rim on which the degrees are marked, the figures b e i n g reversed so that they
show normally in the magnifying mirror. Instead o f the steersman viewing
the compass card direct, he steers by the magnified image shown in the
mirror, and the least movement o f the vessel is at once detected. Closer
and more accurate steering, it is alleged, is attained by the new card compass,
as the slightest de~iatlon from the course is immediately observed. As the
helmsman is viewing the magnified reflection and not the object directly
t h r o u g h the magnifier, there is no straining of the eyes, in fact the strain
is said to be considerably less than when steering with the usual to-inch
card now so extensively used. The inventors say that exhaustive praetical
tests have been made at sea under all w e a t h e r conditions with results which
have undoubtedly insured the success of this new magnifying system of
steering. Navigational experts to whom this patent has been shown
expressed their approval o f the practical advantages o f it, and recognized
the convenience it afforded to seamen.

L I T H O G R A P H I C S T O N E INDUSTRY.
S M A L L G E R M A N TOWN FURNISHES THE WORLD'S SUPPLY.
The quarrying and preparing for market of lithographic stones is a unique
industry carried on near Solenhofen, about 45 miles south o f Nuremberg,
on the main railway line to Munich. The town is an unimportant one of
about !,3oo inhabitants, the stone quarries b e i n g in the hills back of the town
at a level o f some 1,5oo feet a b o v e the sea.
So far as is now known, the area in which these stones a r e f o u n d is
not more than 4 o r 5 miles long by 2 o r 3 miles wide. I n this limited area
quarrying has been carried on for more than a century, and from it prac-
ticallythe world's supply of lithographic stones has been obtained.
The stone, as is ~;eli known, is a s~cies of compact limestone o f peculiar
texture and of a yellowish-gray o r blmsh-gray color, hard bluish stones b e i n g
the more valuable. I t is f o u n d in layers varying in thickness from a half
inch, ~or even less, up to 6 or 7 inches. The layers extend from near the sur-
face o f the g r o u n d to a depth of 75 o r Ico feet, o r e v e n more, and are apt to
be much b r o k e n by fractures o r seams and layers of worthless rock and earth.
S M A L L PERCENTAGE OF MARKETABLE S T O N E .
I n the best quarries not more than one-twelfth of the material removed
is marketable stone, a n d much of this is of little value because of the small
sizes in which it can be found c l e a r of cracks or flaws. The quarrying is
carried on by several different firms and by a corporation. About 1,2oo w o r k -
men are employed in the various quarries and i n the work o f cutting and
dressing the stone for m a r k e t . The stones are lifted carefully from~t h e i r
302 NOTES AND COMMENTS.

position in the quarries in various marketable sizes and a r e then h a u l e d to

buildings near by. H e r e the surfaces--for some m a r k e t s one and for others
both--are g r o u n d down, chiefly with coarse sand rubbed on by heavy ma-
chines, w a t e r b e i n g constantly applied during the process.
One concern h a s recently introduced a heavy machine fitted with a carbor-
undum planer, which rapidly smooths t h e ' s u r f a c e o f the stones as they are
passed back and forth under the planer, somewhat as heavy p l a n k in a planing
mill. The stones a r e f u r t h e r smoothed by machinery and by hand, the edges
b e i n g neatly trimmed and corners rounded.
I f the stones are 6 inches o r 7 inches thick when taken from the quarries,
as is sometimes the case, they are sawed t h r o u g h once by heavy saws fitted
on the edges with diamonds and operated by steam power. The finished
stones vary m size from 6 by 8 inches to 44 by 64 inches, and vary in price,
when ready for shipment, from 15 o r 20 cents up to $65 o r $70, dependlng
upon the size and quality. I n recent years the thinner stones which would
b r e a k under the pressure to which they a r e subjected in printing, are, i n s o m e
cases, securely cemented to other stone slabs, thus g i v i n g the requisite
strength.
I t is a notable fact that the i n d u s t r y has never been a source o f great profit
to those engaged in it. The explanation is that the amount of dead wOrk
in the quarries is large, and the proportion of perfect stone of marketable
size is so small as to leave little margin of profit at the prices at which the
stones are sold. I t frequently happens that a f t e r a stone h a s been g r o u n d
smooth, or perhaps Men sawed t h r o u g h at Considerable expense, a chalky
vein, small pebbles, o r other defects appear in the surface, greatly lessening
its value. These defects become apparent when a damp sponge is passed over
the surface o f thd stone.
FUTURE SUPPLY.
Those ~nterested in the lithographic:stone industry say that the d e m a n d
for this product has not rapidly increased in recent years. At the present
rate o f quarrying they believe the supply at Solenhofen should last for from
lOO to 2oo years, o r even longer. The stones are at present exported to all
civilized countries of the globe. G e r m a n y is the largest buyer; France, Italy,
E f t # a n d , and the United S t a t e s a r e the next in importance in the o r d e r named.
The declared values o f the exports o f lithographic stones to the United
S t a t e s for the eight years beginning with J a n u a r y I, I9oo, were as follows:

YEAR. VALUE. YEAR, VALUE,

IgOO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $Io5,949 19o4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $149,316

x9o1 ...................... 131,632 19o5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124,719
I9O2 ...................... 135,01o 19o6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~57,t~8
19o3 ...................... 138,ooo r9o7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . z61,9o5
--Consular Report.