CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General introduction
The diesel engine is the most efficient power plant among all known types of internal
combustion engines. Heavy trucks, urban buses, and industrial equipment are powered
almost exclusively by diesel engines all over the world and diesel powered passenger cars
are increasingly popular. For the foreseeable future, the worlds transportation needs will
continue to rely on the diesel engine and its gasoline counterpart. However, both engine
technologies are evolving at an ever increasing pace to meet two major challenges: lower
emissions and increased energy efficiency.
Unlike spark ignited engines where the combustible mixture is predominantly
homogeneous, diesel combustion is heterogeneous in nature. Diesel fuel is injected into a
cylinder filled with high temperature compressed air. Emissions formed as a result of
burning this heterogeneous air/fuel mixture depend on the prevailing conditions not only
during combustion, but also during the expansion and especially prior to the exhaust
valve opening. Mixture preparation during the ignition delay, fuel ignition quality,
residence time at different combustion temperatures, expansion duration, and general
engine design features play a very important role in emission formation. In essence, the
concentration of the different emission species in the exhaust is the result of their
formation, and their reduction in the exhaust system. Incomplete combustion products
formed in the early stages of combustion may be oxidized later during the expansion
stroke. Mixing of unburned hydrocarbons with oxidizing gases, high combustion chamber
temperature, and adequate residence time for the oxidation process permit more complete
combustion. In most cases, once nitric oxide (NOx) is formed it is not decomposed, but
may increase in concentration during the rest of the combustion process if the temperature
remains high. Fig 1.1 summarizes the sources of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and NOx
in direct injected diesel engines. Species formed in both the premixed and diffusion
(mixing controlled) combustion phases [1] are shown.
During combustion, oxygen combines with hydrogen carbon to form water (H2O), carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The nitrogen in the fuel combines with oxygen
and forms nitrogen oxide (NO2). Remaining fuel goes unburnt resulting in smoke and ash.
Exhaust gas constituents consist of partly burned carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides

pollute the air. The oxides of nitrogen together with hydrocarbons react in the presence of
sunlight and form petrochemical smog.

Fig: 1.1 Pollutant formation mechanisms in DI combustion system

Internal combustion engines are significant contributors to air pollution that can be
harmful to human health and the environment. Most of these pollutants originate from
various non ideal processes during combustion, such as incomplete combustion of fuel,
reactions between mixture components under high temperature and pressure, combustion
of engine lubricating oil and oil additives as well as combustion of hydrocarbon
components of diesel fuel, such as sulfur compounds and fuel additives. Common
pollutants include unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
(NOx) or particulate matter (PM). Total concentration of pollutants [2] in diesel exhaust
gases typically amounts to some tenths of one percentthis is schematically illustrated in
Fig 1.2.

Fig: 1.2 Relative concentrations of pollutant emissions in diesel exhaust gas

2

As a result smog is created, the atmosphere becomes dirty and breathing becomes
difficult. Its bad effect includes crop damage, eye irritation, objectionable odour, decrease
of visibility, cracking in rubber etc. Smog is a kind of fog mixed with other substances.
The smog covers the cities like a blanket for days together during winter. The heat
generated in large cities tends to circulate air within a dome-like shape.
The substitution of burnt gas oxygen rich air reduces the proportion of the cylinder
contents available for combustion. This causes a correspondingly lower heat release and
peak cylinder temperature, and reduces the formation of NOx. The presence of an inert
gas in the cylinder further limits the peak temperature. The gas to be recirculated may
also be passed through an EGR cooler, which is usually of the air/water type. This
reduces the temperature of the gas, which reduces the cylinder charge temperature when
EGR is employed. This has two benefits the reduction of charge temperature results in
lower peak temperature, and the greater density of cooled EGR gas allows a higher
proportion of EGR to be used. On a diesel engine the recirculated fraction may be as high
as 50% under some operating conditions. Advantages of EGR are reduces NOx emission
and improved engine life through reduced cylinder temperatures (particularly exhaust
valve life).
Reduced emission characteristics and improved efficiency are always the primary area of
consideration in internal combustion engine design sector. They were generally done by
conducting the experimentation. But this traditional process always had several
limitations. They were time consuming, cost consuming and have some errors. This
difficulty can be overcome by using CFD studies. With the increasing advancement in
computational power of modern computers, CFD has found its application in diesel
combustion. This is now widely used by many automobile industries not only for design
and analysis of engine but also for the whole vehicle analysis. the many types of models
for engine combustion process, multidimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
models is gaining momentum due to its capability to predict the gas flow patterns,
combustion phenomenon and emission characteristics etc.
In this work a detailed study has been carried out between two conditions in order to have
a clear clarification in studying the change in pressure, temperature and emission
characteristics. Two conditions are: - engine operated with EGR and without EGR were
taken into consideration. The combustion chambers were modelled a sector geometry of
30 using ANSYS WORKBENCH and analysis part were carried out using ANSYS
Fluent 14.5 package. By using the finite volume method the design and analysis of
combustion chambers, emission characteristic study was done for both conditions. Proper
comparisons of the results were carried out between pressure, temperature and emission
characteristics.
3

1.2 Organization of report

The report is organised in the following manner.
Chapter-1: Covers the general introduction which deals with the combustion in diesel
engine, mechanism of pollutants formation, concentration of pollutants and CFD
method of combustion analysis.

Chapter-2: Covers the brief introduction and working principle of compression

ignition engine, combustion in CI engine, Brief discussion on emissions, mechanism
of NOx formation, pollution hazards and human health, introduction to CFD
governing equations and stages that are used in computational fluid dynamics,
introduction to fluent steps involved in solving problem. It also reviews the previous
research works that was conducted by others people in the same area. Some of the
relevant materials including technical papers, journals and books taken from those
researches will be discussed.

Chapter-3: Covers methodology adopted for the combustion analysis of diesel engine.
Here a detailed study has been carried out between two conditions in order to have a
clear clarification in studying the change in pressure, temperature and emission
characteristics. Two conditions are: - engine operated with EGR and without EGR
were taken into consideration. The combustion chambers were modelled (a sector
geometry of 30 using ANSYS WORKBENCH and analysis part were carried out
using CFD tool (ANSYS Fluent 14.5 package). By using the finite volume method
the design and analysis of combustion chambers, emission characteristic study was
done for both conditions.

Chapter-4: This chapter is related to results and discussions. Validation of CFD

results with experimental datas and comparative study of diesel engine with EGR and
without EGR are discussed in this chapter. It represents the pressure variation,
temperature variation, velocity magnitude, emission characteristics and effect of
temperature on NOx in graphical as well as contours and plots in order to compare the
diesel engine with EGR and without EGR cases.

Chapter-5: Covers conclusions, they are drawn from the contour plots and graphical
results are summarised.

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the working principle of compression ignition engine, combustion in
CI engine and brief discussion on emissions. Mechanism of NOx formation, pollution
hazards and those effects on human health. Introduction to CFD, governing equations and
stages that are used in computational fluid dynamics. Introduction to fluent and steps
involved in solving problem. It also reviews the previous research works that was
conducted by others people in the same area.

2.2 Working principle of compression ignition engine

An engine in which the combustion process starts when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites
due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression. CI
engines are often called diesel engines and working principle of diesel engine [3] as
shown in Fig 2.1.

Fig 2.1 Working principle of diesel engine

First stroke - suction (intake)
The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake valve open and exhaust
valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion chamber,
which in turn creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential through the
5

intake system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the
inside causes air to be pushed into the cylinder. No fuel is added to the incoming
air.
Second stroke - compression
When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the piston travels back
to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture, raising both
pressure and temperature in the cylinder. Air is compressed and compressed to
higher pressures and temperature. Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected
directly into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air. This
causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion to start.
Third stroke - power
With all valves closed, the high pressure created by the combustion process
pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which produces the work
output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder
volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop. Combustion is
fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant pressure until fuel
injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC as.

Fourth stroke - exhaust

By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blow down is complete, but the
cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure. With
the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the
exhaust stroke. This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the
cylinder into the exhaust system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that
trapped in the clearance volume when the piston reaches TDC. Near the end of the
exhaust stroke BTDC, Exhaust-Blow down Late in the power stroke, the exhaust
valve is opened and exhaust blow down occurs. Pressure and temperature in the
cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at this point, and a pressure
differential is created through the exhaust system which is open to atmospheric
pressure. This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers
the cycle thermal efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the
work obtained during the power stroke but is required because of the finite time
needed for exhaust blow down. Intake valve starts to open, so that it is fully open
by TDC when the new intake stroke starts the next cycle. Near TDC the exhaust
valve starts to close and finally is fully closed sometime ATDC. This period when
both the intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called valve overlap.
6

2.3 Combustion in CI engines

Combustion in a compression ignition engine [3] is quite different from that in an SI
engine. Whereas combustion in an SI engine is essentially a flame front moving through a
homogeneous mixture, combustion in a CI engine is an unsteady process occurring
simultaneously at many spots in a very non-homogeneous mixture at a rate controlled by
fuel injection. Air intake into the engine is unthrottled, with engine torque and power
output controlled by the amount of fuel injected per cycle. Because the incoming air is not
throttled, pressure in the intake manifold is always at a value close to one atmosphere.
This makes the pump work loop of the engine cycle very small, with a corresponding
better thermal efficiency compared to an SI engine. For CI engines, only air is contained
in the cylinder during the compression stroke, and much higher compression ratios are
used in CI engines. Compression ratios of modern CI engines range from 12 to 24. Fuel is
injected into the cylinders late in the compression stroke by one or more injectors located
in each cylinder combustion chamber. Injection time is usually about 20 of crankshaft
rotation, starting at about 15 BTDC and ending about 5 ATDC. After injection the fuel
must go through a series of events to assure the proper combustion process.

Atomization
Fuel drops break into very small droplets. The smaller the original drop size
emitted by the injector, the quicker and more efficient will be this atomization
process.
Vaporization
The small droplets of liquid fuel evaporate to vapour. This occurs very quickly
due to the hot air temperatures created by the high compression of CI engines.
High air temperature needed for this vaporization process requires a minimum
compression ratio in CI engines of about 12:1. About 90% of the fuel injected into
the cylinder has been vaporized within 0.001 second after injection. As the first
fuel evaporates, the immediate surroundings are cooled by evaporative cooling.
This greatly affects subsequent evaporation. Near the core of the fuel jet, the
combination of high fuel concentration and evaporative cooling will cause
adiabatic saturation of fuel to occur. Evaporation will stop in this region, and only
after additional mixing and heating will this fuel be evaporated.

 Mixing

After vaporization, the fuel vapour must mix with air to form a mixture within the
A/F range which is combustible. This mixing comes about because of the high
fuel injection velocity added to the swirl and turbulence in the cylinder air the
non-homogeneous distribution of air-fuel ratio that develops around the injected
fuel jet. Combustion can occur within the equivalence ratio limits of Cp= 1.8
(rich) and Cp= 0.8 (lean).
Self-Ignition
At about 8 BTDC, 6-8 after the start of injection, the air fuel mixture starts to
self-ignite. Actual combustion is preceded by secondary reactions, including
breakdown of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller species and some
oxidation. These reactions, caused by the high-temperature air, are exothermic and
further raise the air temperature in the immediate local vicinity. This finally leads
to an actual sustained combustion process.
Combustion phases

Fig 2.2 Typical DI engine heat release rate diagram identifying different diesel
combustion phases
Fig 2.2 shows the typical DI engine heat release rate with crank angle identifying
different diesel combustion phases [1] as follows.

Ignition delay (ab): The period between the start of fuel injection into the
combustion chamber and the start of combustion (determined from the change in
slope on the P- diagram, or from a heat release analysis of the p() data, or from
a luminosity detector).
8

Premixed or rapid combustion phase (bc): In this phase combustion of the fuel
which has mixed with air to within the flammability limits during the ignition
delay period occurs rapidly in a few crank angle degrees. When this burning
mixture is added to the fuel which becomes ready for burning and burns during
this phase, the HHR (high heat release rates) characteristics of the phase result.

Mixing-controlled combustion phase (cd): Once the fuel and air which
premixed during the ignition delay have been consumed the burning rate or heat
release rate is controlled by the rate at which mixture become available for
burning. While several processes are involved-liquid fuel atomization,
vaporization, mixing of fuel vapor with air, preflame chemical reactions-the rate
of burning is controlled in this phase primarily by the fuel vapor-air mixing
process. The heat release rate may or may not reach a second (usually lower) peak
in this phase, it decreases as this phase progresses.

Late combustion phase (de): Heat release continues at lower rate well into the
expansion stroke. There are several reasons for this. A small fraction of the fuel
may not yet have burned. A fraction of the fuel energy is present in soot and fuel
rich combustion products and can still be released. The cylinder charge is non
uniform and mixing during this period promotes more complete combustion and
less dissociated product gases. The kinetics of the final burnout processes become
slower as the temperature of the cylinder gases form during expansion.

2.4 Emissions from diesel engine

2.4.1 Carbon monoxide (CO)
Colourless and odourless gases slightly denser than air. Residence time and turbulence in
the combustion chamber, flame temperature and excess O2 affect CO formation.
Conversion of CO to CO2 in the atmosphere is slow and takes 2 to 5 months. It reduces
the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. It causes health effect such as coma and death. It is
one of the green house gases so it increases the globe temperature.
2.4.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas associated with global warming, resulting mainly
from increased combustion of fossil fuels including motor vehicle fuels. Motor vehicle
CO2 emissions are part of the anthropogenic contribution to the growth of CO2
concentrations in the atmosphere which is causing climate change.

2.4.3 Hydrocarbon compounds (HC)

Compounds consist of carbon and hydrogen and include a variety of other volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Most HCs are not directly harmful to health at
concentrations found in the ambient air. Through chemical reactions in the troposphere,
they play an important role in forming NO2 and O3 which are health and environmental
hazards. Among various HC, methane (CH4) is absent from these reactions. Remaining
HC, non methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) are reactive in the formation of secondary air
pollutants. NMHC are photo chemically reactive.
2.4.4 Particulates
Particulates are solid or liquid toxic particle emitted from vehicle due to the destruction of
exhaust pipe and engine component. Due to high temperature and formation of rust in
exhaust chamber produce dust particle to the atmosphere. It travels to long distance with
the help of wind or any other external agency. It cause severe lung problem.
2.4.5 Smoke
Smoke is produced because of insufficient mixing of fuel and air. It contains carbon
monoxide and carbon di oxide. Smog is produced by smoke. It gives harmful effects to
men such as asthma, eczema, omphysema, troubles, lung and stomach cancer.
2.4.6 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
Fuel containing nitrogen is burnt in combustion chamber. Lot of nitrogen gas is emitted
from exhaust of the vehicle. Nitrogen reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide and nitric acid. Nitric acid corrodes the metal and non-metallic material. The
formation of acid rain is due to the presence of nitric acid.

Mechanism of NOx formation

A major hurdle in understanding the mechanism of formation and controlling its
emission is that combustion is highly heterogeneous and transient in diesel
engines. While NO and NO2 are lumped together as NOx, there are some
distinctive differences between these two pollutants. NO is a colourless and
odourless gas, while NO2 is a reddish brown gas with pungent odour. Both gases
are considered toxic, but NO2 has a level of toxicity 5 times greater than that of
NO. Although NO2 is largely formed from oxidation of NO, attention has been
given on how NO can be controlled before and after combustion NO is formed
during the post flame combustion process in a high temperature region. The
principal source of NO formation is the oxidation of the nitrogen present in
atmospheric air. The nitric oxide formation chain reactions [4] are initiated by
10

atomic oxygen, which forms from the dissociation of oxygen molecules at the
high temperatures reached during the combustion process.
The principal reactions governing the formation of NO from molecular nitrogen
are shown in equation (2.1),
N2 + O

NO + N

N + O2

NO + O

N + OH

NO + H

(2.1)

Chemical equilibrium consideration indicates that for burnt gases at typical flame
temperatures, NO2/NO ratios should be negligibly small. While experimental data
show that this is true for spark ignition engines, in diesels, NO2 can be 10 to 30%
of total exhaust emissions of oxides of nitrogen. A plausible mechanism for the
persistence of NO2 is as follows. NO formed in the flame zone can be rapidly
converted to NO2 via reactions such as equation (2.2),
NO + HO2

NO2 + OH

(2.2)

Subsequently, conversion of this NO2 to NO occurs via equation (2.3),

NO2 + O

NO + O2

(2.3)

Unless the NO2 formed in the flame is quenched by mixing with cooler fluid. This
explanation is consistent with the highest NO2/NO ratio occurring at high load in
diesels, when cooler regions which could quench the conversion back to NO are
widespread The local atomic oxygen concentration depends on molecular oxygen
concentration as well as local temperatures. Formation of NOx is almost absent at
temperatures below 2000 K. Hence any technique, that can keep the instantaneous
local temperature in the combustion chamber below 2000 K, will be able to reduce
NOx formation.

11

EGR method for NOx reduction

Fig 2.3: Schematic exhaust gas recirculation

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) [5] is used for controlling the NOx emissions. EGR is an
effective technique of reducing NOx emissions from the diesel engine exhaust. EGR
involves replacement of oxygen and nitrogen of fresh air entering in the combustion
chamber with the carbon dioxide and water vapour from the engine exhaust. The
recirculation of part of exhaust gases into the engine intake air increases the specific heat
capacity of the mixture and reduces the oxygen concentration of the intake mixture. These
two factors combined lead to significant reduction in NOx emissions as shown in Fig 2.3.
Introduction of EGR has combinations of some these effects

Depletion of oxygen in the intake charge

Increased intake temperature due to mixing with EGR

Increased specific heat of intake charge

Recycling of unburned hydrocarbons (opportunity for re-burn)

EGR (%) is defined as the mass percentage of the recirculated exhaust in total intake
mixture shown in below,
% EGR =

Mass of air admitted wit hout EGR Mass of air admitted with EGR
Mass of air admitted without EGR

25% EGR were adopted. The engine was operated with 25% EGR to study the
combustion, emission characteristics of the diesel engine.
12

2.5 Pollution hazards and human health

The major pollutants emitted by motor vehicles including CO, CO2, NOx, HC and
suspended particulate matter (SPM), have damaging effects on both human health and
ecology [6] as shown in Table 2.1. The human health effects of air pollution vary in the
degree of severity, covering a range of minor effects to serious illness, as well as
premature death in certain cases. Most of the conventional air pollutants are believed to
directly affect the respiratory and cardio-vascular systems. In particular, high levels of
SPM are associated with increased mortality, morbidity and impaired pulmonary
function. Lead prevents haemoglobin synthesis in red blood cells in bone marrow, impairs
liver and kidney function and causes neurological damage.
Table 2.1 Various pollutants and their effect on human health and on the natural environment

Pollutants

Carbon
monoxide
(CO)

Carbon
dioxide (CO2)

Nitrogen
oxides (NOX)

Particulate
matter

Effects on Human Health

Effects on the Natural

Environment

Can affect the cardio-vascular

system, exacer-baiting
cardiovascular disease symptoms,
particularly angina; may also
particularly affect foetuses, sickle
cell anaemic and young children.
__
Can affect the central nervous
system, impairing physical
coordination, vision and judgement,
creating nausea and headaches.
__
Major contributor to global
warming, climate change
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can affect
the respiratory system. Nitrogen
NO and NO2 can contribute
monoxide (NO) and nitrogen
significantly to acid deposition
dioxide (NO2), where they play a
damaging aquatic eco-systems and
part in photochemical some
other eco-systems such as forests
formation, pulmonary disease,
NOx can also have a fertilizing
impairment of lung function and
effect on forests
eye, nose and thread irritations.
Fine particulate matter may be
toxic in itself or may carry toxic
(including carcinogenic) trace
Fine particulate can significantly
substance, and can alter the
reduce visibility. High dust and
immune system. Fine particulate
soot levels are associated with a
can penetrate deeply into the
general perception of dirtiness of
respiratory system irritating lung
the environment
tissue and causing long-term
disorders.
13

2.6 Introduction to CFD

The detail analysis of combustion in any engine is one of the most important key factors
to confirm its efficient design wherein computational fluid dynamics (CFD) proves to be
an efficient tool. It is observed from the experiment and CFD, CFD tool is good technique
to reduce all regulated emission from diesel engine.
2.6.1 Governing equations in CFD
There are mainly three equations [7] we solve in computational fluid dynamics problem.
They are continuity equation, momentum equation (Navier Stokes equation) and energy
equation. The flow of most fluids may be analyzed mathematically by the use of two
equations. The first, often referred to as the continuity equation, requires that the mass of
fluid entering a fixed control volume either leaves that volume or accumulates within it. It
is thus a "mass balance" requirement posed in mathematical form, and is a scalar
equation. The other governing equation is the momentum equation, or Navier-Stokes
equation, and may be thought of a momentum balance" The Navier-Stokes equations are
vector equations, meaning that there is a separate equation for each of the coordinate
directions (usually three).
Continuity equation
It is based on the principle of conservation of mass [7]. Net mass flow out of
control volume = Time rate of decrease of mass inside control volume.
Mass conservation equation is shown in equation (2.4)

Momentum (Navier Stokes) equation

It is based on the law of conservation of momentum [7], which states that the net
force acting in a fluid mass is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time
in that direction.
The force acting on a fluid element mass m is given in equation (2.5)
Newtons second law of motion is
F=mx a

(2.5)

Where a is the acceleration acting in the same direction as force F

Momentum equation is shown in equation (2.6)

14

 Energy equation
It is based on the principle that total energy is conserved [7].
Total energy entering control volume = Total Energy leaving Control volume
Energy equation is shown in equation (2.7)

Where,

2.6.2 Stages in the computational fluid dynamics

Pre-processing

Defining the geometry of the region for computational domain.

Generating the grids for subdivision of the domain into a number of smaller, nonoverlapping sub domains.
Specifying the appropriate boundary and initial conditions.

Solver:

Approximation of unknown flow variables by means of simple functions.

Discretization by substitution of the approximation into the governing flow

equations and subsequent mathematical manipulations.

Solving the algebraic equations.

Post-processing:

Domain geometry and grid display.

Animations.
2D and 3D surface plots.
X-Y plots with different properties.
Particle tracking.
View manipulation (translation, rotation, scaling etc).

15

2.6.3 Introduction to fluent

The term computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has come into use to cover all aspects of
computational techniques that can be applied to the solution of problems involving fluids
and gases. CFD studies are by no means limited to the area of engineering studies and
cover fields such as weather forecasting, geological and geographical studies, medical
applications so on. In the area of engineering studies, from which we will be drawing our
examples, CFD is primarily used as a design aid for predicting the performance
characteristics of equipment involving fluid/gas flow and heat transfer. The ability to
simulate heat transfer and fluid flow problems numerically before a prototype is built cuts
the cost and time of development by orders of magnitude. Of course, CFD must be
continuously backed up by experimentation in order to ensure that the numerical
predictions are reliable. Thus a cycle is formed involving theoretical predictions, CFD
and experimentation. Validity of new mathematical models can be tested within the
context of this relationship, with resulting improvements in the accuracy of CFD analysis.
Fluent uses finite volume numerical procedures to solve the governing equations for fluid
velocities, mass flow, pressure, temperature, species concentration and turbulence
parameters and fluid properties. Numerical techniques involve the sub-division of the
domain into a finite set of neighbouring cells known as "control volumes" and applying
the discretised governing partial differential equations over each cell. This yields a large
set of simultaneous algebraic equations, which are highly non-linear. These equations are
in turn solved by iterative means until a converged solution is achieved. The criteria of
convergence can be changed by the user, and is generally applied to the changes in the
values of all the field variables from one iteration to the next. When all the equations are
satisfied on all the discretization points there will be no change from one iteration to the
next. This theoretical convergence is not normally achievable in a finite number of steps.
Hence the selection of suitable criteria to detect near convergence becomes important.

FLUENT have the following turbulence models:

Spalart-Allmaras model
k-epsilon models (k- )
Standard k- model
Renormalization-group (RNG) k- model
Realizable k- model
k-omega models (k- )
Standard k- model
Reynolds stress model (RSM)
16

2.6.4 Steps involved in solving problem

First create the geometry in the Design Modeller.

Create the grid of appropriate size and with appropriate skewness to specify the
problem domain in ANSYS Meshing.

Give the Boundary Conditions for entire domain.

Save it and export it as fluent mesh file.

Read the file in FLUENT and check the quality of mesh.

Enter values for boundary conditions, operating conditions etc.

Selecting the appropriate solver to solve the problem.

Solve the problem by initializing from mass flow inlet and specifying the number
of iterations.

Solve the problem and note down the results.

Mass flow inlet

Mass flow inlet boundary conditions are used to define the mass flow of the fluid,
along with all relevant scalar properties of the flow, at flow inlets. The total
properties of the flow are not fixed, so they will be adjusted whatever value is
necessary to provide the prescribed velocity distribution. Both velocities defined
at the inlet boundary condition and scalar quantities defined on the boundary are
used by FLUENT to compute mass flow rate, momentum fluxes, etc. at the inlet.
The mass flow rate [7] is given by Equation (2.8) below.

It is worth noting that only normal component of velocity to volume face

contributes in mass flow rate

Solution controls
Solution parameters like courant number, under relaxation factors, and
discretization schemes are manipulated in FLUENT to obtain stable solution as
fast as possible. A second order discretization was used for pressure equations and
a second order upwind scheme was used to discretize momentum, energy, and
discrete phase and combustion equations.

17

2.7 Literature review

In IC Engine exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a technique which reduces the harmful
emission such as NOx in CI/Diesel engine. EGR is simple technique to supply already
exhausted gas again back to combustion chamber by some cooling and filtered media so
as to increase or to maintain temperature of cylinder head.
Some of the work carried out in this field is given below.

Avinash Kumar Agrawal et al., [8] Effect of EGR on the exhaust gas temperature
and exhaust Opacity in compression ignition engines. In diesel engines, NOx
formation is a highly temperature-dependent phenomenon and takes place when
the temperature in the combustion chamber exceeds 2000 K. Therefore, in order to
reduce NOx emissions in the exhaust, it is necessary to keep peak combustion
temperatures under control.
Thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption are not affected
significantly by EGR. However particulate matter emission in the exhaust
increases, as evident from smoke opacity observations. A diesel engine score
higher than that of other engines in most aspects like fuel consumption and low
CO emissions, but loses in NOx emissions. EGR is proved to be one of the most
efficient methods of NOx reduction in diesel engines. The increase in particulate
matter emissions due to EGR can be taken care by employing particulate traps and
adequate regeneration techniques.

K. Rajan et al., [9] Transesterified fuels (biodiesel) from vegetable oils are
alternative fuels for diesel engines. They are renewable and offer potential
reduction in CO and HC emissions due to higher O2 contents in vegetable oil.
Many research studies have reported that exhaust from biodiesel fuel has higher
NOx emissions while HC and PM emissions are significantly lower than operated
with diesel fuel. The aim of the present investigation is to reduce NOx emissions.
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is one of the most effective techniques for
reducing NOx emissions in compression ignition engines. A twin cylinder four
stroke water cooled direct injection (DI) diesel engine was used for conducting
test with (Sunflower methyl ester SFME) biodiesel blends with diesel fuel
combined with EGR technique. The results showed that for a 7.5kW power
output, B20 SFME with 15% EGR rate produce 25% less NOx emissions
compared to diesel fuel for the same level smoke emissions.

18

Nithin Balakrishnan et al., [10] CFD studies of combustion in direct injection

single cylinder diesel engine using non-premixed combustion model. In this
Combustion studies of both chambers, shallow depth and hemispherical
combustion chambers were carried out. Emission characteristics of both
combustion chambers had also been carried out. The obtained results are
compared. It has been found that hemispherical combustion chamber is more
efficient as it produces higher pressure and temperature compared to that of
shallow depth combustion chamber. As the temperature increases the formation of
NOx emissions and soot formation also get increased the two combustion
chamber. Models were modeled using ANSYS WORKBENCH and the
combustion phenomena were analyzed using ANSYS FLUENT 14.5. The results
show values comparable to theoretical values. Here two combustion chambers
results were compared and following observations were made. The result is
Numerical analysis result shows that hemispherical piston head provides much
better performance than the shallow depth. This is due to the high turbulent
intensity formed within the cylinder.

N.V. Mahalakshmi et al., [11] experiments were conducted to study the

performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine using
poon oil based fuels. In the present work, poon oil and poon oil methyl ester are
tested as diesel fuels in neat and blended forms. The blends were prepared with
20% poon oil and 40% poon oil methyl ester separately with standard diesel on
volume bases the reduction in smoke, hydrocarbons and CO emissions were
observed for poon oil methyl ester. The peak pressure obtained for diesel fuel in
combustion chamber is 67.5 bars.

Rajesh Bisane1 et al., [12] CFD analysis of a single cylinder four stroke C.I.
engine exhaust system. Each after treatment system design should be done in such
a way that considering the complete system objectives. Energy efficient exhaust
system development requires minimum fuel consumption and maximum
utilization of exhaust energy for reduction of the exhaust emissions and also for
effective waste energy recovery system such as in turbocharger, heat pipe etc.
from C.I. engine. Traditional manifold optimization has been based on tests on
Exhaust system. This trial & error method can be effective but is very expensive
& time consuming. Beside this method cannot provide any information about the
actual flow structure inside the system. This vital information can be obtained

19

using 3-D CFD analysis. The design engineers can study the flow structures &
understand whether a particular system performs correctly or not

Deepak Agarwal et al., [13] investigate the effect of EGR on soot deposits, and
wear of vital engine parts, especially piston rings, apart from performance and
emissions in a two cylinder, air cooled, constant speed direct injection diesel
engine, which is typically used in agricultural farm machinery and decentralized
captive power generation. Such engines are normally not operated with EGR. The
experiments were carried out to experimentally evaluate the performance and
emissions for different EGR rates of the engine. Emissions of hydrocarbons (HC),
NOX, carbon monoxide (CO), exhaust gas temperature, and smoke capacity of the
exhaust gas etc. were measured.

Performance parameters such as thermal

efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) were calculated. Reductions

in NOX and exhaust gas temperature were observed but emissions of particulate
matter (PM), HC and CO were found to have increased with usage of EGR.

N. Saravanan et al., [14] used hydrogen-enriched air as intake charge in a diesel

engine adopting exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technique with hydrogen flow
rate at 20 l/min. Experiments are conducted in a single cylinder, four stroke,
water-cooled, direct-injection. Diesel engine coupled to an electrical generator.
Performance parameters such as specific energy consumption, brake thermal
efficiency are determined and emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbon,
carbon monoxide, particulate matter, smoke and exhaust gas temperature are
measured. Usage of hydrogen in dual fuel mode with EGR technique results in
lowered smoke level, particulate and NOX emissions.

Renganathan Manimaran et al., [15] numerical analysis of direct injection diesel

engine combustion using extended coherent flame 3-zone model. Several
applications have proven the reliability of using multi-dimensional CFD tools to
assist in diesel engine research, design and development. CFD tools are
extensively used to reveal details about invisible in-cylinder processes of diesel
combustion so that guidance can be provided to improve engine designs in terms
of emissions reduction and fuel economy. Innovative combustion concepts can be
evaluated numerically prior to experimental tests to reduce the number of
investigated parameters. In this present work, reacting flow simulations were
performed in a single cylinder direct injection diesel engine with an improved
version of the ECFM-3Z (extended coherent flame model 3 Zones) model using
ES-ICE and STAR-CD codes. Combustion and emission characteristics are
20

studied in a sector of engine cylinder, which eliminates the tedious experimental

task with conservation in resources and time. The pressure variations during
motoring and firing conditions, temperature and heat release graphs with respect
to crank angle are plotted. Mass fractions contours of CO, NO, soot and fuel
(C12H26) and mixture density contours at TDC are plotted. It is found that higher
NOx emissions occur at peak temperatures while soot and CO emissions occur at
peak pressures.

H.E.Saleh [16] studied jojoba methyl ester (JME) has been used as a renewable
fuel in numerous studies evaluating its potential use in diesel engines. These
studies showed that this fuel is good gas oil substitute but an increase in the
nitrogenous oxides emissions was observed at all operating conditions. The aim of
this study mainly was to quantify the efficiency of exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) when using JME fuel in a fully instrumented, two-cylinder, naturally
aspirated, four-stroke direct injection diesel engine. The tests were carried out in
three sections. Firstly, the measured performance and exhaust emissions of the
diesel engine operating with diesel fuel and JME at various speeds under full load
are determined and compared. Secondly, tests were performed at constant speed
with two loads to investigate the EGR effect on engine performance and exhaust
emissions including nitrogenous oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned
hydrocarbons (HC) and exhaust gas temperatures. Thirdly, the effect of cooled
EGR with high ratio at full load on engine performance and emissions was
examined. With the application of the EGR method, the CO and HC concentration
in the engine out emissions increased. For all operating conditions, a better tradeoff between HC, CO and NOX emissions can be attained within a limited EGR
rate of 515% with very little economy penalty.

Umakant V. et al. [17] worked on the CFD modeling and experimental validation
of combustion in direct ignition engine fueled with diesel. This paper describes
the development and use of sub models for combustion analysis in direct injection
(DI) diesel engine. In the present study the Computational Fluid dynamics (CFD)
code FLUENT is used to model complex combustion phenomenon in compression
ignition (CI) engine. The experiments were accomplished on single cylinder and
DI engine, with full load condition at constant speed of 1500 rpm. Combustion
parameters such as cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise and heat release rate
were obtained from experiment. The numerical modeling is solved by unsteady
first order implicit, taking into account the effect of turbulence. For modeling
21

turbulence Renormalization Group Theory (RNG) k- model is used. The sub

models such as droplet collision model and Taylor Analogy Breakup (TAB)
model are used for spray modeling. The wall film model is used to assess spray
wall interaction. Modeling in cylinder combustion, species transport and finite rate
Chemistry model is used with simplified chemistry reactions. The results obtained
from modeling were compared with experimental investigation. Consequences in
terms of pressure, rate of Pressure rise and rate of heat release are presented. The
rate of pressure rise and heat release Rate was calculated from pressure based
statistics. The modeling outcome is discussed in detail with combustion
parameters. The results presented in this paper demonstrate that, the CFD
modeling can be the reliable tool for modeling combustion of internal combustion
Engine.

Helgi Skuli Fridriksson [18] on CFD-analysis of heat transfer of a heavy-duty

diesel engine. In this work, a heavy-duty diesel engine was studied by employing
CFD simulations on a closed volume engine segment. These simulations were
used to evaluate both the effects from certain parameters on the wall heat transfer,
and to examine how reduction of heat transfer would affect the engine
performance and emission levels. A study of engine performance, along with an
estimation of NOx and soot emission levels, was performed on a heavy duty diesel
engine for two different combustion modes. A specific load point was used as a
validation point for each combustion mode and experimental results were used for
the validation process. Both baseline cases gave acceptable agreement with the
experimental data.

M.sc. Iliev s [19] simulation on single cylinder diesel engine and effect of
compression ratio and EGR on engine performance and emission. In this research,
the one dimensional (1D) CFD modeling of four-stroke direct injection diesel
engine is developed by AVL Boost software. The performance of a diesel engine
increases with increase in compression ratio. Variable compression technologies
in IC engines are used to increase fuel efficiency under variable loads. Exhaust
gas recirculation is a common way to control in-cylinder NOx production and is
used in most modern high speed direct injection diesel engines. However the
effect of EGR on performance, combustion and emissions production at different
compression ratios are difficult to depict. In the present work an attempt was made
to study the effects of exhaust gas recirculation on performance, combustion and
emissions of a variable compression diesel engine. The test was conducted at
22

different compression ratios with different loads and for different EGR rates. This
work present the results of the engine cycle simulation of a single cylinder, direct
injection diesel engine with different compression ratios, percentages of EGR and
loads to estimate performance, combustion and emission characteristics of the
engine using AVL Boost software. It was found that with increase in compression
ratio the specific fuel consumption decreases. The results obtained indicated that
with increase in % EGR the NOx emissions was gradually decreases at different
compression ratios due to less flame temperatures and low oxygen content in the
combustion chamber. The high degree of recirculation is suitable for higher
compression ratio because at compression ratio 19 and 10% EGR the percentage
reduction of NOx was 36%.

Ming Zheng et al., [20] Diesel engine exhaust gas recirculationa review on
advanced and novel concepts. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is effective to
reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) from Diesel engines because it lowers the flame
temperature and the oxygen concentration of the working fluid in the combustion
chamber. However, as NOx reduces, particulate matter (PM) increases, resulting
from the lowered oxygen concentration. When EGR further increases, the engine
operation reaches zones with higher instabilities, increased carbonaceous
emissions and even power losses. In this research, the paths and limits to reduce
NOx emissions from Diesel engines are briefly reviewed, and the inevitable uses
of EGR are highlighted. The impact of EGR on Diesel operations is analyzed and
a variety of ways to implement EGR are outlined. Thereafter, new concepts
regarding EGR stream treatment and EGR hydrogen reforming are proposed.
EGR is still the most viable technique that can reduce NOx dramatically. Energy
efficient after treatment systems dealing with NOx and PM simultaneously are still
in the early development stages. The inability of available catalytic after treatment
technologies further encourages aggressive uses of EGR.

Jafarmadar et al., [21] Combustion modeling for modern direct injection diesel
engines. In order to comply with stringent pollutant emissions regulations, a
detailed analysis of the engine combustion and emission is required. In this field,
computational tools like CFD and engine cycle simulation play a fundamental
role. Therefore, the goal of the present work is to simulate a high speed DI diesel
engine and study the combustion and major diesel engine emissions with more
details, by using the AVL-FIRE commercial CFD code. The predicted values of
the in cylinder pressure, heat release rate, emissions, spray penetration and in23

cylinder isothermal contour plots by this code are compared with the
corresponding experimental data in the literature and is derived good agreement.
This agreement makes the model a reliable tool that can use for exploring new
engine concepts.
Calculated spray penetration and in-cylinder isothermal contour plots are
compared with experimental photographs at different crank angle degrees and is
derived good agreement.
Predicted value for average pressure, heat release rate, soot and NOx emissions in
cylinder are good agreement with the corresponding experimental data.
Model can be predicts exactly start of combustion.

2.8 Objectives of the project

It is seen from the literature Avinash Kumar Agrawal et al., [8] studied that effect of EGR
on the exhaust gas temperature, exhaust opacity and NOx formation in compression
ignition engines. It is observed that NOx formation is a highly temperature-dependent
phenomenon where it is increases with increase in temperature during combustion. K
Rajan et al., [9] studied that transesterified fuels (biodiesel) from vegetable oils are
alternative fuels for diesel engines. These studies reported that exhaust from biodiesel
fuel has higher NOx emissions. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is used for reduction of
NOx emission in compression ignition engines. Nithin Balakrishnan et al., [10] CFD
analysis of combustion in CI engine. In this work reported that as the temperature
increases the formation of NOx emission is increased in the combustion chamber. Deepak
Agarwal et al., [13] investigate the effect of EGR on NOx reduction in direct injection
diesel engine. Emissions of NOx, carbon monoxide (CO) carried out. Reduction in NOx is
observed but emission of CO was found to have increased with usage of EGR. Hardik B.
Charola et al., [22] evaluate the performance and emission using EGR (exhaust gas
recirculation) in compression-ignition engine fuelled with blend. In this study exhaust gas
recirculation on four stroke compression ignition engine fuelled with diesel/methanol
blends were studied to evaluate the performance and emission of engine. It is observed
that NOx emission and exhaust gas temperature reduced but emission CO were found to
have increased with usage of EGR in CI engine.
There is a need for insights the simulation process inside the engine cylinder, CFD has
become modern tool to study the complicated process of combustion in engines, instead
of using highly cost experimental setup this technique can be adopted for combustion
analysis of DI diesel engines and engine specification are taken from literature [11].The
24

computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code FLUENT 14.5 is used to model the complex
combustion phenomenon for engine without EGR and with EGR, which could play a very
important role in engine design, research, development and comparative analysis of
pressure variation, temperature variation and mass fraction of species CO, CO2 and NOx.
The main combustion products that are contained in engine exhaust gases are water vapor
(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO). All of
these, except for the water vapor, are considered environmentally harmful. This is also
reflected in the fact that governments all over the world enact limits for the emission of
these gases. A way to reduce the formation of NOx in diesel engines is the use of EGR,
recirculated exhaust gas. Part of the exhaust gas is rerouted into the combustion chamber,
where it helps to attenuate the formation of NOx by reducing the local reaction
temperature. Therefore it has been selected as the main objectives for the project.

2.9 Statement of the project

This project contains CFD analysis of combustion phenomenon, emission characteristics
and optimization of NOx emission formation by using without EGR and with EGR in
direct injection single cylinder diesel engine using non-premixed combustion model. The
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code FLUENT 14.5 is used to model the complex
combustion phenomenon.
Validation of results is done with pressure and crank angle plot results by comparing it
with experimental data available in the literature [11]. From experimental datas

Combustion chamber modelling has been done by using ANSYS design modeller.

Grids are generated.

Generating the mesh by using ANSYS meshing.

Non-premixed combustion model of ANSYS FLUENT 14.5 can be used to

simulate the combustion process.

Pressure and crank angle plots are drawn.

Temperature and crank angle plots are drawn.

Effects of temperature on NOx graphs are plotted.

Comparative analysis of emission characteristics for diesel engine without EGR

and with EGR is carried out.

2.10 Scope of the project

CFD analysis of combustion chamber from above points are plays a very important role
in IC engine design, research, development and optimization of emissions.
25

CHAPTER-3

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the brief introduction about geometry creation in ANSYS design
modeller and geometry details are available in the literature [11], checking the mesh
quality details by grid independence and solution convergence. Fluent set-up and steps
considered for the analysis combustion phenomenon, which provides the boundary
conditions, dynamic meshing, computational models in ANSYS fluent and set-up of
exhaust gas recirculation system.

3.2 Geometry creation

Model of the I.C engine has been created using Ansys design modeller from the geometry
details are available in the literature [11] as shown in Fig 3.1.

Fig 3.1: IC engine model

Geometry details

Fig 3.2: Piston bowl design

26

Fig 3.2 shows the piston bowl design [23], geometry details are
Cylinder bore = 87.5 mm
In center piston bowl depth, hc = 5 mm
Depth of a combustion chamber in periphery, hp = 25 mm.

Fig 3.3: Geometry created in ANSYS design modeller

Fig 3.1 shows the IC engine model, it is computationally very expensive to analyze the
whole model of the I.C Engine in CFD; hence 30 sector model is taken for analysis as
shown in Fig 3.3.

3.3 Meshing details

Meshing is performed in Ansys meshing tool, the element size has been defined to be 1mm. The meshing details are shown in Fig 3.4 and 3.5 for complete section and cut
section respectively; convergence and grid independency are carried.

Fig 3.4: Meshing performed in ANSYS meshed tool

27

Fig 3.5: Meshed part in cut view

Fig 3.6: Meshing quality details

The quality of mesh from Fig 3.6 has been found to be 0.8638 mm maximum, 6.57710-4
mm is minimum and average values 0.22777 mm with standard deviation 0.124333 hence
skewness is less than 1mm hence we can go with this mesh. The main parameter to get
conform that our results are satisfactory are to check the convergence and grid
independency. This solution is checked for grid independency and convergence.

Grid independence
Grid independence is the criteria in which we conform that the results are
independent of the size of mesh i.e. as the mesh size is decreased the results
changes but there exists one mesh size after which the results doesnt change that
size we name as grid independent size. In our case we found that the grid
independent size is 1 mm element size, hence this size will be kept constant for all
the models.
28

Solution convergence
The numerical solution is an iterative process. A steady-state solution requires the
solution converge to an accurate approximation of the exact solution. In order to
monitor how much the solution changes with each iteration, a residual is
introduced, which is a quantity that measures the unknown error.

3.4 Fluent set-up

The Steps considered for the Analysis are

Importing the Mesh in Fluent.

Running a transient Analysis

Fig 3.7: Transient analysis

The present solution is based on pressure based hence transient state is taken for
analysis as shown in Fig 3.7.

Selecting species transport model

The fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber. The fuel mixes with the
high pressure air in the combustion chamber and combustion occurs. Due to the
non-premixed nature of the combustion occurring in such engines, non-premixed
combustion model of ANSYS FLUENT 14.5 can be used to simulate the
combustion process as shown in fig 3.8.

Fig 3.8: Species transport model

29

Selection of the materials.

Fig 3.9: Materials selection

Fig 3.9 shows the selection of the material let us choose the material as air and
C12H23 (chemical formula of the diesel).

3.5 Boundary conditions

Fig 3.10: Geometry with boundary conditions

Specifying the injection timings and mass flow rate.

Flow rate: 7.4 10-6 kg/s.
Start crank angle: 300 degree, 370 degree CA (TDC).
Fuel injected at 10 degree before TDC, Stop crank angle: 540 degree
Temperature: 300 K.
30

3.6 Dynamic mesh

Due to the transient nature of an internal combustion engine, it is essential to model the
motion of the components inside the chamber. This is accomplished by dynamic meshing
techniques in ANSYS Fluent. With these tools, it is possible to model the piston motion
over the course of a combustion cycle, while maintaining mesh integrity and simulation
accuracy. In order to maintain mesh integrity with such motion, Fluent offers smoothing
and remeshing options that allow the elements in a mesh to stretch, break up, and remesh
as the cylinder volume increases and decreases. The user inputs parameters such as
maximum/minimum cell size and maximum skewness that are evaluated at each time
step, then smoothing or remeshing occurs when the cell size and skewness limits are
exceeded. This enables a consistently accurate mesh throughout the range of motion
encountered in an engine cycle. Fluent offers In-Cylinder options shown in Fig 3.11
and for the simulation of internal combustion engines which greatly aid ease-of-use of
specification of engine from Table- 3.1. These options allow the use to specify operating
parameters such as engine speed, bore x stroke information, and crank information. This
effectively defines the entire simulation in terms of crank angle rotation, which lends
itself to easy visualization. It is also preferential to define events such as spark, injection,
and valve events in terms of crank degrees rather than flow time. This also reduces
likelihood of the user inputting inaccurate parameters.
Table 3.1: Engine specifications
1

Bore

87.5 mm

Stroke

Fuel in both cases

Diesel

Crankshaft speed

1500 rpm

Crank angle step size

0.25 deg

Crank radius

55 mm

Connecting rod length

220mm

110

Fig 3.11: Dynamic mesh model

31

3.7 Computational models in ANSYS fluent

3.7.1 Injection model
In this model we have been using solid cone injection method, in which one injector will
inject diesel as fuel [24]. The injector will inject the fuel at the interval of crank angle
with defined mass flow rate and cetane number. The velocity magnitude, position and
axis of the model for injection have to be entered correctly in order to achieve proper
injection of the fuel.
3.7.2 Flow model
In order to accurately model the in-cylinder flow as the density varies throughout a cycle,
a three-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes solver is utilized in ANSYS Fluent [24].
This enables realistic simulation of the effects of compressibility on the engine cycle,
such as changing fuel injection trajectories as regions of various densities are
encountered. This is coupled with a realizable K- turbulence model, which resolves
turbulent flow based on turbulent kinetic energy as well as turbulent dissipation rate,
therefore solving two transport equations. The K- model, proposed by Launder and
Spaulding, offers good accuracy for many turbulent flow scenarios. The K- turbulence
model is separated into three different subcategories: standard, RNG, and realizable. The
K- has been used for various internal combustion engine simulations with good reported
validations to experimental results.
3.7.3 Fuel evaporation
Once the fuel droplets enter the chamber they interact with the flow and dynamics of the
engine until they reach evaporation criteria [24]. When the temperature, pressure,
turbulence, or combination of above has met sufficient conditions, Fluent allows that
particle to evaporate into a gas. For diesel, the primary evaporation species is C12H23
(diesel).
3.7.4 Auto ignition model
In order to initiate combustion in Fluent, auto ignition model is offered [24]. Enable the
Ignition delay model and let the option be in Hardenberg. Set the required activation
energy and cetane number values for the model. Now enable the discrete phase model,
and choose the droplet breakup model.
3.7.5 Combustion model
To simulate the combustion in the engine, the species transport model was chosen [24].
This is appropriate for the simulation of direct injection engines, so that fuel injector
parameters can be modelled and the effects analysed systematically. This is sufficient for
modeling a direct fuel injection.
32

3.7.6 NOx formation

Three different mechanisms have been identified for the formation of nitric oxide during
the combustion of hydrocarbons, namely:

Thermal NOx
As its name suggests, it is strongly temperature dependent. It is produced by the
reaction of atmospheric nitrogen with oxygen at elevated temperatures.

Prompt NOx
The exact details of prompt NOx formation are still uncertain but are generally
believed to involve the reactions between hydrocarbon radicals and atmospheric
nitrogen. In certain combustion environments (such as low temperature, fuel-rich
conditions and short residence time), prompt NOx can be produced in significant
quantities.

Fuel NOx
This is produced by the reaction of the nitrogenous components present in liquid
or solid fossil fuel with oxygen. The fuel nitrogen is a particularly important
source of nitrogen oxide emissions for residual fuel oil and coal, which typically
contain 0.3 - 2.0% nitrogen by weight.

3.8 Exhaust gas recirculation system

Simulation process of non-premixed combustion in a direct injection single cylinder
diesel engine has been described with initial species model without EGR (Case-1) is
shown in Fig 3.12 and Table 3.2.

Fig 3.12: Initial species model for diesel without EGR

33

Table 3.2: Initial mass fraction of species

Species
Fuel
Oxide
C12H23

N2

0.7670

O2

0.2330

After completing the case-1 that is engine operated without EGR, Let us taken the output
average mass fraction of species at 540 deg crank angle N2, O2, C12H23, H2O, H2, CO, CO2
are tabulated in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: The output average mass fractions
N2
0.7426
O2

0.1402

C12H23

0.00254

H2O

0.0308

H2

0.0005911

CO

0.01571

CO2

0.06738

Adopting 25% of EGR hence take the 25% of each species from output average mass
fraction of species from diesel analysis at 540 deg crank angle (without EGR) available in
the Table 3.3, calculations are carried out using equation 3.1[25].
Case-2 for EGR,
Mass fraction of species = Output of diesel analysis 25% + Initial value (1 - 25%) (3.1)
N2 = output of diesel analysis 25% + Initial value (1 - 25%)
= 0.7426 0.25 + 0.7670 (1 - 0.25)
= 0.7609
O2 = output of diesel analysis 25% + Initial value (1 - 25%)
= 0.1402 0.25 + 0.2330 (1 - 0.25)
= 0.2098
C12H23 = 0.00254 0.25
= 6.35 10-4
H2O = 0.0308 0.25
= 7.7 10-3
H2 = 0.0005911 0.25
= 1.477 10-4

34

CO = 0.01571 0.25
= 3.927 10-3
CO2 = 0.06738 0.25
= 0.01684.
Stoichiometric ratio for diesel = 14.6 (default for diesel)
Equivalence ratio = 1.2
Fuel injected = fresh fuel 75%
= 7.4 10-6 0.75
= 5.55 10-6.
Table 3.4: Average mass fractions admitted to species model
N2
0.7609
O2

0.2098

C12H23

6.35 10-4

H2O

7.7 10-3

H2

1.477 10-4

CO

3.927 10-3

CO2

0.01684.

Fig 3.13: Species model for EGR

Mass fractions of species are added to species model in Ansys fluent from Table 3.4 as
shown in Fig 3.13 hence analysis become a with EGR.

35

CHAPTER - 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the validation of pressure-crank angle results with experimental
datas available in the literature [11]. Comparative analysis of pressure variation,
temperature variation, velocity magnitude, emission characteristics and effect of
temperature on NOx for engine operated without and with EGR are carried. Graphical
representation of pressure v/s crank angle, temperature v/s crank angle, mass fraction of
species v/s crank angle and NOx v/s temperature are plotted for engine operated without
EGR and with EGR.

Pressure, bar

4.2 Validation of pressure-crank angle results

70

Experimental

60

CFD

50
40
30

20
10
0
320

340

360

380

400

420

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.1 Validation of CFD results with experimental results
Mahalakshmi et al [11] conducted an experiment on a four stroke single cylinder DI diesel
engine Kirloskar TAFI make of 4.4 kW at rated speed of 1500 rpm using poon oil and its

diesel blends. In their experiment they have evaluated performance, emissions and
combustion characteristics by blending poon oil in diesel. For the CFD analysis I have
taken specification of the engine used by the Mahalakshmi et al. for validation of my
CFD works taken experimental results presented in there paper and presented as shown in
Fig 4.1. It can be observed that P- diagram of experimentation and my CFD values are
well comparable and acceptable. This validates the CFD results evaluated in this project.

36

4.3 Combustion chamber without EGR

Mass fraction of C12H23

Fig 4.2: Contours of mass fraction of diesel at 370 degree CA without EGR

Fig 4.3: Contours of mass fraction of diesel at 540 degree CA without EGR

37

Temperature variation

Fig 4.4: Contours of static temperature at 370 degree CA without EGR

Fig 4.5: Contours of static temperature at 540 degree CA without EGR

38

Pressure variation

Fig 4.6: Contours of static pressure at 370 degree CA without EGR

Fig 4.7: Contours of static pressure at 540 degree CA without EGR

39

Pressure-crank angle diagram

70

60

Without EGR

Pressure, bar

50
40
30
20
10
0
310

330

350

370

390

410

430

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.8: Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle without EGR

Velocity magnitude

Fig 4.9: Contours of velocity magnitude at 360 degree CA without EGR

Fig 4.10: Contours of velocity magnitude at 370 degree CA without EGR

40

Fig 4.11: Contours of velocity magnitude at 540 degree CA without EGR

Fig 4.2 to 4.11 shows the various contours at different crank angles without EGR. Mass
burnt fraction of diesel at 370 and 540 crank angle. Fuel is injected into the cylinder at
360 CA. The movement injected fuel is starts to burn, gradually the pressure and
temperature very close to the spray starts increasing. After 10 rotation that is 370 CA
40% of the mass of diesel get burns raising the pressure and temperature to 69.4 bars and
1923K respectively. The velocity of the flame front is the order of 90 m/sec. At the end of
power stroke that is 540 CA mass fraction of diesel burnt is almost nil, except a small
amount at nozzle tip. The pressure in the cylinder is of the order 2.44 bars and maximum
temperature is of the order of 1430K and minimum at wall is 372K. By looking at the
velocity contours we can say that there is anticlockwise current starting from centre plane
to the surface.

41

4.4 Combustion chamber with EGR

Mass fraction of C12H23 (diesel)

Fig 4.12: Contours of mass fraction of diesel at 370 degree CA with EGR

Fig 4.13: Contours of mass fraction of diesel at 540 degree CA with EGR

42

Temperature variation

Fig 4.14: Contours of static temperature at 370 degree CA with EGR

Fig 4.15: Contours of static temperature at 540 degree CA with EGR

43

Pressure variation

Fig 4.16: Contours of static pressure at 370 degree CA with EGR

Fig 4.17: Contours of static pressure at 540 degree CA with EGR

44

Pressure-crank angle diagram

70
60

With EGR

Pressure, bar

50

40
30
20
10
0
310

330

350

370

390

410

430

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.18: Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle with EGR

Velocity magnitude

Fig 4.19: Contours of velocity magnitude at 360 degree CA with EGR

Fig 4.20: Contours of velocity magnitude at 370 degree CA with EGR

45

Fig 4.21: Contours of velocity magnitude at 540 degree CA with EGR

Fig 4.12 to 4.21 shows the various contours at different crank angle with EGR. At 370
crank angle average mass burnt fraction is of the order of 55% against 40% of without
EGR at the end of combustion it varies from 20% to 0.028%. The maximum pressure
attained at 370 CA is 63.2 bars against 69.4 bars without EGR, the maximum
temperature attained is 2259 K.

4.5 Comparison of pressure and temperature with crank angle

Pressure v/s crank angle diagram

70

Without EGR
With EGR

60

Pressure, bar

50
40
30
20
10
0
310

330

350

370

Crank angle, degree

390

410

430

Fig 4.22: Comparison of cylinder pressure with crank angle for without and with EGR
46

Temperature v/s crank angle diagram

3000

Tempareture, K

2500
2000
1500
Without EGR
1000

With EGR

500
0
340

360

380

400

420

Crank angle, degree

440

Fig 4.23: Comparison of temperature with crank angle for without and with EGR
Fig 4.22 and 4.23 shows the variation of pressure and temperature with crank angle for
without and with EGR. Trend of the pressure raise and temperature for without EGR and
with EGR is same. However the maximum pressure without EGR is 69.9 bars and against
63.2 bars with EGR as shown in Table 4.1. The maximum temperature without EGR
occurs at 390 CA i.e. 2500 K against 380 CA of that with EGR i.e. 2259 K as shown in
Table 4.2. Throughout the combustion temperature of the gas inside the cylinder is lower
with EGR.
Table: 4.1 Comparison of pressure
Engine

Pressure at 370 CA

Pressure at 540 CA

Without EGR
With EGR

69.4 bars
63.2 bars

2.40 bars
1.69 bars

Form observations the pressure in case of with EGR is reduced by 9%.

Engine
Without EGR
With EGR

Table: 4.2 Comparison of temperature

Maximum temperature
Temperature at 540 CA
2500K
1690 K
2259K
1600 K

Form observations the temperature in case of with EGR is reduced by 10%.

47

4.6 Comparison of mass fraction of emissions

Mass fraction of CO

Fig 4.24: Contours of mass fraction of CO at 370 degree CA without EGR and with EGR

Fig 4.25: Contours of mass fraction of CO at 540 degree CA without EGR and with EGR
48

0.16

Mass fraction of CO, g/kg of fuel

0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08

Without EGR

0.06
0.04

0.02
0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.26: Variation of mass fraction of CO with crank angle without EGR

0.18

Mass fraction of CO, g/kg of fuel

0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1

With EGR

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.27: Variation of mass fraction of CO with crank angle with EGR

49

0.18

Mass fraction of CO, g/kg of fuel

0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08

Without EGR

0.06

With EGR

0.04
0.02
0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.28: Comparison of mass fraction of CO with CA for without and with EGR
Fig 4.24 and 4.25 shows the contours of mass fraction of CO at 370 and 540 CA
respectively for without and with EGR. The pattern of the CO emission for EGR is higher
than that of non EGR for the both cases. The maximum CO emission occurs at 370 CA
with EGR against 0.176 g/kg of fuel at 370 CA without EGR. Further for complete
power stroke mass fraction of CO burns is higher with EGR than that of without EGR as
shown in Fig 4.28 and Table 4.3. This attributes to incomplete combustion, due to non
availability of fresh air, delay the ignition timing and thus lower the combustion
temperature it leads to greater formation of CO in case of with EGR.
Table: 4.3 Comparison of CO emissions
Engine
Without EGR
With EGR

CO emission at 370 CA
g/kg of fuel
0.143
0.176

CO emission at 540 CA
g/kg of fuel
0.141
0.157

From observations the percentage of mass fraction of CO increased by 10% in case of

with EGR as shown in Fig 4.28.

50

Mass fraction of CO2

Fig 4.29: Contours of mass fraction of CO2 at 370 degree CA without EGR and with EGR

Fig 4.30: Contours of mass fraction of CO2 at 540 degree CA without EGR and with EGR

51

Mass fraction of CO2, g/kg of fuel

0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1

Without EGR

0.08
0.06
0.04

0.02
0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.31: Variation of mass fraction of CO2 with crank angle without EGR
0.2

Mass fraction of CO2, g/kg fuel

0.18
0.16
0.14

0.12
With EGR

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0

300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.32: Variation of mass fraction of CO2 with crank angle with EGR

52

0.2

Mass fraction of CO2, g/kg fuel

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12

Without EGR

0.1

With EGR

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02

0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.33: Comparison of mass fraction of CO2 with CA for without and with EGR
Fig 4.29 and 4.30 shows the contours of mass fraction of CO2 at 370 and 540 CA
respectively for without and with EGR. This is reverse case of mass fraction of CO
produced. Due to availability of fresh air carbon monoxide converts carbon di oxide in
case of without EGR, however with EGR due to the dilution of charge inside the
combustion chamber CO2 emission lower for full power stroke as shown in Fig 4.33 and
Table 4.4.
Table: 4.4 Comparison of CO2 emissions
Engine
Without EGR
With EGR

CO2 emission at 370 CA

g/kg of fuel
0.146
0.157

CO2 emission at 540 CA

g/kg of fuel
0.197
0.140

From observations the percentage of mass fraction of CO2 was decreased by 28% in case
of with EGR compared to without EGR as shown in Fig 4.33.
The CO2 emission from diesel engines can be absorbed by plants for photosynthesis
purposes, so that the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is kept in balance.

53

Mass fraction of NOx

Fig 4.34: Contours of mass fraction of NOx at 370 degree CA without EGR and with EGR

Fig 4.35: Contours of mass fraction of NOx at 540 degree CA without EGR and with EGR
54

Mass fraction of NOx, g/kg of fuel

0.0007

0.0006
0.0005
0.0004

Without EGR

0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.36: Variation of mass fraction of NOx with crank angle without EGR

Mass fraction of NOx, g/kg of fuel

0.000003

0.000003

0.000002

0.000002

With EGR

0.000001

0.000001

0.000000

0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.37: Variation of mass fraction of NOx with crank angle with EGR

55

Mass fraction of NOx, g/kg of fuel

0.0007
0.0006
Without EGR
0.0005

With EGR

0.0004

0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0
300

350

400

450

500

550

Crank angle, degree

Fig 4.38: Comparison of mass fraction of NOx with CA for without and with EGR
Fig 4.34 and 4.35 shows the contours of mass fraction of NOx at 370 and 540 CA
respectively for without and with EGR. It is observed that there is considerable reduction
of mass fraction of NOx generated in case of with EGR.
NOx emission is decreased in case of with EGR. Its formation is depends on the following
factors those are air-fuel mixture, ignition timing and amount of oxygen in the cylinder.
In presence of EGR involves replacement of oxygen and nitrogen of fresh air entering in
the combustion chamber with the carbon dioxide and water vapour from the engine
exhaust. It dilutes the intake mixture, dilution of mixture leads to enriching the air fuel
mixture and reducing the amount of oxygen in the cylinder. This chemically slows and
cools the combustion process by several hundred degrees Fig 4.41, thus reduction in NOx
formation as shown in Fig 4.38 and Table 4.5. NOx emission is the most harmful gaseous
from diesel engines; its reduction is always the aim of engine researchers and
manufacturers.
Table: 4.5 Comparison of NOx emissions
NOx emission at 370 CA NOx emission at 540 CA
Engine
g/kg of fuel
g/kg of fuel
-6
Without EGR
8.33 10
1.02 10-4
With EGR
1.00 10-5
3.99 10-7
From observations, NOx is reduced in case of with EGR compared to without EGR as
shown in Fig 4.38.
56

4.7 Effect of temperature on NOx

Mass fraction of NOx, g/kg of fuel

7.00E-04
6.00E-04
5.00E-04
4.00E-04
3.00E-04
Without EGR
2.00E-04
1.00E-04
0.00E+00

1660

1680

1700

1720

1740

1760

1780

1800

1820

Tempareture, K
Fig 4.39: Variation of NOx with temperature for without EGR

Mass fraction of NOx, g/kg of fuel

1.80E-06
1.60E-06
1.40E-06
1.20E-06
1.00E-06
8.00E-07

With EGR

6.00E-07
4.00E-07
2.00E-07
0.00E+00
1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850

Tempareture, K
Fig 4.40: Variation of NOx with temperature for with EGR

57

Mass fraction of NOx, g/kg of fuel

7.00E-04
6.00E-04
5.00E-04

4.00E-04
3.00E-04

Without EGR
With EGR

2.00E-04
1.00E-04
0.00E+00
1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850

Temperature, K
Fig 4.41: Comparison of mass fraction of NOx with temperature for without and with EGR

Fig 4.39 and 4.40 shows the variation of NOx with temperature for without and with
EGR, it shows that the mass fraction of NOx increased with increase in temperature. Due
to the principal source of NOx formation is the oxidation of the nitrogen present in
atmospheric air. The nitric oxide formation chain reactions are initiated by atomic
oxygen, which forms from the dissociation of oxygen molecules at the high temperatures
during the combustion process. Let us reduce the oxygen concentration (by using EGR) it
will reduce the dissociation of oxygen molecules and decreased the flame temperatures in
the combustion chamber it leads to the significant reduction NOx in case of with EGR as
shown in Fig 4.41.
From observations
Table: 4.6 Comparison of pressure and temperature results
Engine Operated
Static pressure (bar)
Static temperature (K)
Without EGR
69.40
2330
With EGR
63.20
2190
% decreased
9
6
Table: 4.7 Comparison of emissions at 540 degree CA
Engine
Operated
Without EGR
With EGR

Mass fraction of
CO, g/kg of fuel
0.141
0.157

Mass fraction of
CO2, g/kg of fuel
0.197
0.140

Mass fraction of
NOx, g/kg of fuel
1.02 10-4
3.99 10-7

58

CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSIONS
A CFD combustion simulation has been carried out for a four stroke, single cylinder DI
engine, for without EGR and with EGR using ANSYS FLUENT 14.5. Due to complexity
of problem only a 30 sector of a model is modelled in ANSYS WORKBENCH.
Variation (contours) of mass fraction of diesel burnt, static pressure, temperature, velocity
of gas, CO, CO2 and NOx for power stroke i.e. 360 to 540 CA were presented without
and with EGR.
From this project following conclusions are drawn:
The CFD results validate the experimental results of the given engine.
The magnitude of the pressure is lower with EGR compared to without EGR.
Static temperature is also lower for EGR; this is due to dilution of incoming
charge.
Mass burnt fractions have some traces in case of EGR due to incomplete
combustion.
Mass fraction of CO in the flue gas is higher for with EGR compared to that of
without EGR. This is due to the dilution of incoming air, where sufficient oxygen
not available for complete combustion of CO into CO2. However CO2 emission is
contradicter to CO emission.
There is a considerable reduction in pressure and temperature with EGR because
of that there is reduction in NOx formation.
Results obtained from the CFD analysis are quicker and economical compared to
experimentation. The CFD tool is most useful in engine design, research development and
optimization of emissions.

59

CHAPTER-6

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61