South Stream cleared for

Turkish route through

Black Sea
MOSCOW Turkeys Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning has
approved the environmental impact assessment (EIA) report for the South Stream
gas pipelines section through Turkish waters.
The pipelines will be laid more than 110 km (68 mi) offshore Turkey in the
Black Sea in water depths of up to 2,200 m (7,218 ft). Installation of the first string
will start in Russian waters later this year.
The first pipelay vessel will enter the Turkish exclusive economic zone during
1Q 2015, and the completed first offshore pipeline will be commissioned by late
2015.
The report assesses potential environmental impacts caused by the
construction program, including on the seabed geology, water quality, and marine
ecology.
In addition, the report proposes various measures for the lay route including
bypasses the locations of shipwrecks.

07/30/2014
http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/2014/07/south-stream-cleared-for-turkishroute-through-black-sea.html

On-Bottom Stability Design

of Submarine Pipelines
2. Design
2.1 Target failure probability
Excessive lateral displacement due to the action of hydrodynamic loads is
considered to be a serviceability limit state SLS with the target safety levels given in
DNV-OS-F101., Ref. /1/. If this displacement leads to significant strains and stresses
in the pipe itself, these load effects should be dealt
with in accordance with e.g. DNV-OS-F101.
2.2 Load combinations
The characteristic load condition shall reflect the most probable extreme response
over a specified design time period. For permanent operational conditions and

temporary phases with duration in excess of 12 months, a 100-year return period

applies, i.e. the characteristic load condition is the load condition with 10-2 annual
exceedance probability. When detailed information about the joint probability of
waves and current is not available, this condition may be approximated by the most
severe condition among the following two combinations:
1) The 100-year return condition for waves combined with the 10-year return
condition for current.
2) The 10-year return condition for waves combined with the 100-year return
condition for current.
For a temporary phase with duration less than 12 months but in excess of three
days, a 10-year return period for the actual seasonal environmental condition
applies. An approximation to this condition is to use the most severe condition
among the following two combinations:
1) The seasonal 10-year return condition for waves combined with the seasonal 1year return condition for seasonal current.
2) The seasonal 1-year return condition for waves combined with the seasonal 10year return condition for current.
One must make sure that the season covered by the environmental data is
sufficient to cover uncertainties in he beginning and ending of the temporary
condition, e.g. delays. For a temporary phase less than three days an extreme load
condition may be specified based on reliable weather forecasts.
Guidance note:
The term load condition refers to flow velocity close to the seabed. The highest
wave induced water particle velocity does normally not correspond to the highest
wave and its associated period, but for a slightly smaller wave with a longer period.
This effect is more pronounced in deeper waters.
2.3 Weight calculations
Pipe weight should be based on nominal thicknesses of steel wall and coating
layers. If metal loss due to corrosion, erosion and/or wear is significant, the wall
thickness shall be reduced to compensate for the expected average weight

reduction. Pipe content can be included with its minimum nominal mass density in
the relevant condition.
2.4 Resistance calculations
Resistance, both the Coulomb friction part and that from passive resistance should
be calculated based on nominal pipe weight.
2.5 Design criterion
Away from end constraints, the design criterion for lateral stability may be written
on a general form as:

where Yall owable is the allowed lateral displacement scaled to the pipe diameter. If
other limit states, e.g.maximum bending and fatigue, is not investigated, it is
recommended to limit the sum of the lateral
displacement in the temporary condition and during operation to 10 pipe diameters.
When considering the displacement criterion, one should keep in mind that
instability in this sense is an accumulated damage that may also get contributions
for storms that are less severe than the design storm that is normally analysed. For
larger displacements one should perform a full dynamic analysis with adequate
analysis tools, or e.g. data bases established by such analyses. Special
considerations with respect to bending and fatigue should be made.
The design curves given in Section 3.5 are based on maximum displacement from
several dynamic analyses with varying seed value for the random phase shift and
can thus be regarded as upper bound values. I.e. no additional safety factors are
required. It should be noted that these analyses are one dimensional, neglecting
pipe bending and axial stiffness, and that close to constraints and/or if very large
displacements are allowed, two (or three) dimensional analyses may be required.

RECOMMENDED PRACTICE

DNV-RP-F109

OCTOBER 2010

Innovation enhances
deepwater flexible pipe life
Managing riser friction damage, corrosion cuts repair costs

Judimar Clevelario, Helio Marins

Marcio Albuquerque, Wellstream International Ltd.

As flexible pipe applications move into deepwater and ultra deepwater,

attention is focused on enhancing service life, particularly with respect
to corrosion and wearing. In Brazils offshore Campos basin, Petrobras
and Wellstream International Ltd. have addressed both issues for
unbounded dynamic flexible risers and static flowlines.

Flexible pipe cutaway.

The first means of enhancing service life is the use of a latch sleeve
insert to address damage in flexible risers caused by friction between
the outer polymer sheath of the riser and the I-tube at the vessel hangoff. The second is the use of anode clamps to protect flexible pipe
endfittings against corrosion.
Petrobras original I-tube latch sleeve had a metallic trumpet that
interfaces directly with the bend stiffener within the I-tube for a metalpolymer contact between the flexible riser outer sheath and the latch
sleeve.

New latch sleeve design.

This metal-polymer contact, when subjected to cyclic bending, tension,

friction, and pressure loads from the FPUs dynamic response, resulted
in excessive wear and abrasion damage of the riser polymeric outer
sheath. In some cases, the outer sheath was damaged to the point that
the outer tensile wires were exposed to the marine environment and
subject to failure from corrosion and metal-metal contact. Furthermore,
Petrobras found that outer sheath wear damage was critical on FPSO
installations. Damage came from axial displacement of the riser inside
the I-tube causing outer sheath (polymer) friction against the internal
surface of the latch sleeve (metallic).
Wellstream developed a new latch sleeve design to eliminate excessive
wear of the riser outer sheath material within the contact region. The

sleeve was designed for a 20-year dynamic service life in a typical

Campos basin application.
The latch sleeve mechanism has an internal replaceable insert made of
similar materials to those used in typical bend stiffener moldings. The
polymer-polymer contact is similar to that between the riser outer
sheath and the bend stiffener. The new latch sleeve still has a trumpet
design for a smooth transition of the flexible riser within the contact
region.
The design was based on the following:

In-service survey data

Petrobras requirements

Bend stiffener supplier design and field experience

Full-scale dynamic fatigue tests and subsequent detailed dissection.

The most cost-effective solution was a split polymeric replaceable insert

made with the same polyurethane material as the bending stiffener,
assembled on the internal diameter of the latch sleeve adapter. The
polymeric insert prevents direct metal-polymer contact, which is the
major cause of wear.
In developing the design, the design team analyzed concerns such as
design performance, assembly, installation, and maintenance. Upon
completion, the design was submitted to the customer, and following
approval, was installed on the Marlim and Marlim Sul fields. The latch
sleeves were scheduled for installation on all Wellstream flexible pipes
using the I-tube latch sleeve mechanism on Petrobras FPSOs.
The design team developed a non-linear finite element model that
reproduces the contact among the bend stiffener, latch sleeve, and riser
to confirm qualitatively that the compression load magnitude at the
contact surface of the pipe outer sheath and inner bending stiffener has

the same magnitude as the pipe outer sheath and inner latch sleeve
insert.
Analysis results confirmed that the contact pressure between the pipe
outer sheath and inner bending stiffener, and pipe outer sheath and
inner latch sleeve insert have the same magnitude. The team concluded
that using the same bending stiffener material should avoid excessive
wearing damage.
It is important to guarantee that wearing occurs in the polymer insert
before it does in the outer sheath. An abrasion test results-graph of high
and medium performance polyurethane (in accordance with DIN 53516)
shows that medium-performance polyurethane is more susceptible to
wear than high-performance polyurethane, nylon (PA-11), or HDPE - all
typical riser outer sheath materials. Therefore, medium-performance
polyurethanes were used in the new latch sleeve.

Anode clamp
The second area addressed by the design team was corrosion. Offshore
equipment is subject to severe corrosion. Although equipment often is
manufactured of special materials to prevent or minimize corrosion,
cathodic protection still can be required.

Anode clamp design.

Petrobras expressed concern about ancillaries on several installed

flexible pipe. One of the most critical ancillaries is the endfitting, a
metallic device that connects the flexible pipe to a pipeline end
termination (PLET) or a pipeline end manifold (PLEM).
The starting point of the project was the development of cathodic
protection that did not require removal of the endfitting. Removal would
increase the installation cost and possibly halt production.
Wellstream developed a metallic structure with clamps that can be
installed by an ROV without removing the endfitting or stopping
production.
The result was an anode clamp consisting of a metallic structure with
clamps and clamp grooves for surface cleaning to guarantee a contact
between clamp surface and surface to be protected, with aluminum
anodes attached.
In June 2003, the first anode clamp was installed on the subsea
endfitting abandoned on Barracuda field, near RJS-458, in 800 m (2.625
ft) water depth. In May 2004, Petrobras requested a new anode clamp
design for installation on an endfitting near the RO-09 well on the
Roncador field in 1,800 m (5,905 ft) water depth. The second anode
clamp was installed in August 2004.
A major concern during the anode clamp design was guaranteeing
electrical contact between the clamp and the endfitting. Primarily, the
electrical contact is made through the clutches. Internal grooves were
designed to aid the surface cleaning and to enhance contact capability.
Additionally, contact pins on the equipment were designed to give extra
contact between the anode clamp and endfitting.

Anode clamp installation process.

Another issue was to make installation easy. The design team created a
clamp that could be installed by an ROV; no special vessel is required.
Furthermore, production need not stop during installation. Before the
actual clamp placement, an ROV cleans the endfitting surface with a
steel brush for better electrical contact. Then, the anode is set over the
fitting and clamped into place. Then, the contact pin is set.
Wellstream carried out testing that led to the conclusion that the system
could be used on flexible pipes. Inquiries revealed that all of the
materials required were available locally.
To confirm the function of the anode, the electrical potential of the
endfitting was measured before and after the clamp was installed. The
measure indicated the cathodic protection was in place.

Acknowledgement
The authors thank Petrobras S.A. for contributions to both projects.
11/01/2007

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-67/issue-11/transportation-amplogistics/innovation-enhances-deepwater-flexible-pipe-life.html

Metoda Instalasi Pipeline di

Ormen Lange Gas Field
Ormen Lange Gas Field terletak 120 km dari pantai Norwegia merupakan
lokasi cadangan gas sedalam 3000m dari permukaan laut dan memiliki
deposit sebanyak 300 juta m3, mengandung cukup gas untuk mensuplai 20%
kebutuhan gas UK dalam 40 tahun.
Proyek eksplorasi ini direncanakan berjalan selama 10 tahun dengan nilai
sebesar $10 juta untuk mengebor deposit dan mentransfer gas sejauh
120km ke fasilitas proses darat Norwegia untuk kemudian ditransfer
sepanjang 1200km melalui jalur pipa (pipeline) ke UK. Jalur pipeline
digambarkan sebagai berikut:

Gambar jalur pipeline.

Tahap pemasangan pipeline dalam proyek ini, yakni;
Tahap 1 perletakan pipa dilakukan di assembly floor pada barge yakni
dengan membuat joint ganda agar didapat pipa sepanjang 24m. Gambar
tahap ini sebagai berikut;

Gambar pembuatan joint ganda.

Tahap 2 dilakukan assembly lines untuk menggabungkan bagian pipa
sekunder ke pipeline utama.

Gambar pipa yang akan digabungkan.

Pada tahap ini digunakan mesin las khusus sebagai berikut;

Gambar pengelasan pada tahap assembly lines.

Setiap pipa yang telah selesai dilas, dilakukan pengecekan ultrasonik.

Tahap 3 yakni penyegelan koneksi metal yang tidak tertutup pada pipa
menggunakan plastik pelindung untuk mencegah korosi sebagai berikut;

Gambar penyegelan koneksi metal pipi dengan plastik pelindung.

Tahap 4 dilakukan offloading pipa. Bagian sambungan pipa terlebih dahulu
dilapisi dengan foam pelindung agar bagian lasan tidak rusak. Proses
offloading pipeline ditunjukkan pada gambar berikut;

Gambar proses offloading pipeline.

Tahap 5 dilakukan proses trenching pada pipeline selebar 5m dan sedalam
2m diikuti dengan backfill untuk menutup trench dengan lapisan pasir.
Gambar proses trenching sebagai berikut;

Gambar proses trenching.

High integrity alloys:

Selection issues for
corrosion protection
Alan Robinson
Arc Energy Resources
Consider the problems. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2) and
various chlorides are all present in the hydrocarbons delivered from subsea fields,
and they can be accompanied by high pressures and high temperatures. And sour
service at high temperature is more corrosive, while the same service at high
pressure is more erosive. A combination of the two is a potentially expensive and
hazardous situation that impacts materials selection, in terms of protecting low-cost
carbon steels or manufacturing in high-cost corrosion resistant alloys.

Rotating head.
Corrosion and corrosion prevention cost the subsea oil and gas industry billions of
dollars every year, so the decisions taken are vital. The selection of the materials
and the preventative processes used to extend the operating life of materials is
essential to the cost-effective manufacture and safe long-term operation of
equipment such as pipelines and valves, especially in deepwater operations.
When assessing corrosion protection for any production system pipeline, process
engineers have numerous options. The effectiveness of each will vary according to
factors such as the aggressiveness of the product; pressure and temperature; the
size and complexity of the system; projected life expectancy of the well; the
development period available; and, perhaps most important, overall budget
constraints.
So how can welding engineers help the oil and gas industry to resist these attacks?
Protection, where risk of attack is low and life cycle relatively short, may be as
simple as using an injected inhibitor with conventional high-strength carbon or low-

alloy steel. Where greater protection is needed, corrosion-resistant alloys (CRAs)

must be considered. These include austenitic (300 series) stainless steels,
ferritic/martensitic (400 series) stainless steels, duplex stainless steels, or the more
complex high nickel chromium alloys.
Duplex steels and nickel-based alloys, such as alloy 625, are the only materials in
general production which, when welded, achieve suitable levels of protection.
However, there are constraints on the use of these materials in their solid form
namely cost, availability, and the need for very tightly controlled welding
procedures.
Cost is particularly relevant where large quantities of pipe and fittings are needed or
when large forgings or castings are used. Typical examples are wellhead valve
systems and pipe bundle bulkheads.
The use of carbon and low-alloy steels clad with a corrosion-resistant alloy is
common practice for some years now. It is a well-proven, economical, and technical
alternative to solid alloys. It offers the benefits of strength and/or availability of base
materials combined with corrosion resistance, when applied in selected areas.
Weld overlay cladding presents the materials engineer with a choice of processes
and more flexibility. An almost infinite range of component shapes and sizes can be
protected, with an equally wide range of base material/cladding alloy alternatives.
Weld procedures are normally qualified to ASME IX, as are the welding operators.
Additional testing to prove conformity with API 6A and NACE MR01-75 also is
essential. Selection of the most appropriate welding process largely depends on
factors such as the size and geometry of the clad area; access to the area to be
clad; alloy type; specified clad thickness; chemical composition limits; welding
position; and NDT acceptance standards.
There are many common welding processes but given that the process used must
be practical, viable, and provide the mechanical and chemical conditions to achieve
service requirements, economics dictate that the higher deposition rate processes
should prevail.
GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding) provides excellent control and a high quality
result. It can be used in bores as small as 20 mm (0.78-in.), and is suited for

components of varied geometry, where the position of the welding head requires
frequent adjustment. These could range from a simple flange that needs to be clad
through the bore and across the sealing face, to a complex valve body with several
interconnecting bores. Utilizing twin wire, hot wire, and multi-head configurations
increases the deposition rates.
Often such equipment also needs cladding to RTJ (ring-type joint flange) grooves.
The control available with GTAW means cladding can follow the profile of the groove
rather than filling it completely. This not only saves time and material during
cladding, it also reduces the cost of subsequent finish machining.
Using this process the chemical composition of the welding consumable can be
achieved at <2.0 mm (0.08-in.) from the base material/cladding interface (this can
be reduced to <1.0 mm (0.40-in.), in the case of 300 series stainless steels, where
over-alloyed wires are available).
Plasma-transferred arc is another option. The process equipment costs are higher
and the process variables slightly more complex than GTAW, but the increased
control available on the arc makes it more amenable to CNC control. When
combined with oscillation, dilution levels down to 3% have been achieved at 1 mm
from the interface.
Arc's development engineers have been working with the new breeds of GMAW (gas
metal arc welding) to improve control of the arc, and the resulting process likely will
supplant some current GTAW applications.
For more open access applications, the electroslag process is economically
attractive. It does employ a large weld pool that requires substantial base metal
backing (generally a minimum of 20 mm) in order to prevent excessive dilution. The
deposit thickness is nominally 5 mm (0.2 in.) with the strip widths discussed here.
With 60-mm (2.4-in.) strip, deposition rates of up to 22 kg/hr (48.5 lb/hr) can be
achieved.
To enable the chemical composition of the deposit to match that of the consumable
specification within the first layer (3 mm, or 0.12 in., from the interface), overalloyed strip and "loaded" metal containing fluxes are available.

Problems associated with electroslag strip cladding involve the limited availability of
strip, which tends to increase the cost of the material; and the difficulty of feeding
the strip when cladding within bores of pipe. Arc Energy Resources is developing a
multi-wire electroslag configuration for pipe cladding. This should solve both
problems and provide a combination of high deposition, excellent profile, and good
quality.
Submerged arc welding using a solid wire consumable, while not as fast, is a useful
"halfway house" between strip cladding and the slower GTAW and pulsed GMAW.
The welding heads are not as large as strip heads, and the consumable delivery
method is more flexible. Hence, the capability to use this in smaller bore diameters.
Traditionally larger-diameter (2.4 mm+, or 0.09-in.+) consumables have been used
for this process, again resulting in the need for fairly thick substrates to accept the
high heat inputs and large weld deposits.
11/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-11/equipment__engineering/high-integrity-alloys-selection-issues-for-corrosion-protection.html

PIPELINES Vessel-deployed,
free span support system
speeds Transmed
installation
Atlantis pipeline mechanical support system readied for
operation on the Transmed gas line.

Stabilization of submarine pipeline free spans along

uneven sea bottoms is conventionally performed using
gravel dumping, post trenching or mattresses. However,
as SEIC, based in Fano, Italy points out, these
technologies merely support the pipeline: they cannot lift
it.

SEIC has developed a new technique which has been applied to support free spans
along the 26-inch diameter Transmed gas lines crossing the Sicily Channel in water
depths down to 510 metres. The technology is based on the pipeline mechanical
support system Atlantis with its installation module Pegasus: it was developed to
cater for requirements such as short installation time, simple interface with the
support vessel and pipeline lifting capacity.
Reduced installation time is achieved by automatic operational procedures,
including an auto heading function, which are acoustically controlled from the
surface. No umbilical cable, winch, slip ring or power distribution unit are necessary,
meaning that a vessel equipped with a conventional crane and a support ROV are
sufficient to install the system.
The Pegaso module is powered by dedicated battery packs and the ROV is used to
provide video images during marine operations and to drive Pegaso hydraulic
functions in emergency conditions. Three types of supports, with different leg length
and minimum/maximum clamping distance, were built and installed along Transmed
in order to satisfy intervention requirements on the expected as-laid configurations.
Atlantis can be installed and subsequently adjusted or removed in water depths
down to 1,000 metres. Two different installation procedures, one at pre-set lifting
displacement and the other at pre-set lifting force, can be employed to solve free
span problems in terms of pipeline stress level.
No hydraulic component is installed on Atlantis, the mechanisms of which are
operated automatically by hydraulic actuators placed onboard Pegaso. Redundancy
has been achieved by implementing four different operating modes - automatic,
manual, mechanical and emergency - at different levels of system fault.
According to SEIC, the Atlantis/Pegaso system has numerous other advantages over
competing techniques. Gravel, it points out, is subject to scouring and may not
ensure a firm support to the pipeline; and post-lay trenching is often impossible due
to bottom morphology and geotechnical characteristics. The adjustment and
recovery procedures of the SEIC system brings operational flexibility compared with
other passive supporting systems, which cannot be removed once installed.

Copyright 1996 Offshore. All Rights Reserved.

02/01/1996

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-56/issue2/news/pipeline/pipelines-vessel-deployed-free-span-support-system-speedstransmed-installation.html

Eupec to manage Nord

Stream pipeline coating
process
Earlier this year, Dunkerque-based Eupec signed a letter of intent to supply
concrete weight coating and logistics services for the Nord Stream pipeline project.
This will take gas from Russia across the Baltic Sea to mainland Europe via two
lines, each 1,210 km (752 mi) long, with a combined capacity of 55 bcm/yr (1.9
tcf/yr).
Germanys Europipe and Russias OMW will manufacture the pipeline sections from
high tensile steel, with wall thickness varying from 27-41 mm (1.06-1.61 in.), in
accordance with pressure decline along the proposed route. Internally, the pipes will
be coated with an anti-friction coating, while externally, they will be protected with
a layer of anti-corrosion coating.

Schematic shows Eupecs five-layer polypropylene foam coating system.

To provide extra weight and stability on the seabed, the steel pipe joints, each 12 m
(39.4 ft) long, will also undergo external concrete coating with a thickness varying
from 60-110 mm (2.36-4.33 in.). A comprehensive inspection program will then be
applied involving ultrasonic, magnetic particle, radiographic and other nondestructive testing techniques, to ensure the joints can withstand the pipelines
maximum internal pressure of over 200 bar (20 MPa).
Concrete weight coating will be performed at new coating plants to be constructed
on the Baltic coast at Kotka in Finland and Mukran on the island of Ruegen, off
northern Germany. The Nord Stream partners have selected Slite on the island of
Gotland, off eastern Sweden, as the site of the main interim stock yard, with Hanko
in southern Finland and Karlshamm in southern Sweden identified as strategic
locations for additional interim stock yards, the aim being to keep transportation
distances within 100 mi (161 km).
Eupec, as Nord Streams logistics partner, will manage discussions with authorities
at these locations about the type of facilities needed to ensure deliveries of weight
coating and logistics services. The five proposed sites should employ up to 375
personnel for this project.
The two coating plants will employ the same coating processes applied by Eupec at
its factory in Grande Synthe, France. For the first line, 75% of the pipes will be
manufactured in Germany, with Mukran coating 770 km (478 mi) of those pipes.

The coating plant will occupy an area of 10,220 sq m (110,007 sq ft), with a slightly
larger area for the steam-curing facility.
First pipe sections were due to reach Mukran and Kotka in April and June,
respectively, with pipe coating scheduled to start at Mukran next January and at
Kotka in March 2009.
Coating for the first of the Nord Stream pipelines should be completed by the
following December. All completed pipes will then be transported to the interim
stick yards and from there to the designated lay barge. The total budget for the
coating and logistics contract is 650 million ($1.025 billion), with around 100
million ($157 million) allocated to establishment of coating and logistics
infrastructure.
The intake point for the Nord Stream system will be Vyborg in Russia, the delivery
point in Germany being a reception terminal in Lubmin, near Greifswald. The first of
the pipelines should be operational in spring 2011, with annual throughput capacity
of 55 bcm/yr (1.9 tcf/yr) being reached the following year on completion of the
second phase.
Wet/dry insulation
Eupec provides thermal insulation coating services for shallow and deepwater steel
pipelines, currently at depths up to 3,000 m (9,842 ft). These include polyurethanebased systems for wet insulation (solid, foam, syntactic, or glass syntactic). They
are applied either via injection molding, rotational casting, spraying, or in the form
of polyurethane half-shells.
The company also supplies multi-layer anti-corrosion coating systems in a wide
range of layers and thicknesses. Linepipe coating is applied by side extrusion, with
a patented injection moulding technique implemented for field joints, both suited for
reel lay, J-lay, and S-lay installations.
One of the companys more strategic product developments for 2008 is a five-layer
foam polypropylene coating system for applications involving transportation of a
high temperature well stream, where a minimal temperature drop is stipulated - i.e.
to avoid shut down due to hydrates formation, to reduce fluid viscosity, or to
increase pipeline flow.

The coating system, applied via a side extrusion process and an electrostatic
spraying technique, involves application of five different layers of coating:

1st layer (fusion bonded epoxy- FBE) provides the main anti-corrosion
properties

2nd layer (polypropylene PP adhesive) is designed to ensure high strength

properties between the PP and the FBE. The adhesive should be sufficiently
thick to absorb interfacial stress between the epoxy layer and the solid PP
layer

3rd layer (solid polypropylene) is an intermediate layer providing a safe anticorrosion protection, also ensuring that water ingress does not reach the
steel pipe

4th layer (foam polypropylene), is also the thickest, designed to assure the
thermal insulation properties of the five-layer coating

5th layer (solid polypropylene), is the systems outer sheath, which is

stabilized against ultra-violet radiation and also thermally stabilized against
ageing by thermal and UV degradation. This outer coat also reduces the
speed of water ingress through the insulation PP foam, and provides
additional mechanical protection of the PP foam layer.

Immediately after each coat has been applied, cooling is applied with fresh water.
In recent years, Eupec has also managed fabrication of Interpipes pipe-in-pipe (PIP)
systems in Dunkerque, its scope including pipe coating, PIP sleeve installation,
welding, and logistics.

05/01/2008

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-68/issue-5/france/eupec-tomanage-nord-stream-pipeline-coating-process.html

Innovative engineering
solves subsea pipeline tiein challenge
Custom hot tapping machine plays pivotal role
Michel Courbat
T.D. Williamson S.A.
Technip was recently contracted by Burullus Gas Co. (Burullus) to tie in an
expansion to its existing subsea West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) facilities. To
accomplish this, it was necessary to tie in a new 36-in. gas trunkline pipeline, which
is part of the Phase VII project, to the existing system under pressure without
shutting down production. To perform the tie-in, Technip retained T.D. Williamson
S.A. (TDW) to carry out three subsea hot tap intervention operations.
Two traditional 16-in. hot tap operations would be completed on a 26-in. pipeline,
and one innovative 20-in. hot tap on a 36-in. pipeline. To ensure that the hot tap
interventions would be successful, it was necessary to engineer, install and precommission two hot tap assemblies, including one capable of cutting through a
blind weld-neck "tappable flange" made of duplex stainless steel on the 36-in. line.
Hot tap machine
In preparation for the operation that would take place in depths to 95 m (311 ft),
TDW worked with a Belgium-based engineering and construction specialist to
produce the special hot tap tool known as a "cutter." This special tool would be used
for the 20-in. hot tap and would need the ability to effectively cut the duplex plate.
Since the duplex has a very high mechanical strength meaning that it has a high
elongation before reaching breaking point and a high level of hardenability the
cutting process employed must be very rigid and vibration-free while using the TDW
Model 936D subsea tapping machine.

TDW's customized subsea tapping machine onboard the dive support vessel Wellservicer.
Working at TDW's facility in Nivelles, Belgium, a series of engineering, design and
preliminary tests was performed. The first step involved engineering several
alternative designs. The first alternative consisted of using either a proven cutter
design; or that proven design updated with various teeth geometry. However, this
option was not pursued because it could not penetrate the duplex stainless steel.

TDW's customized subsea tapping machines onboard the dive support vessel Wellservicer prior to the operation
A second option involving removable teeth and welded teeth support was
considered, but this was rejected due to its inability to resist vibration.

Ultimately, the design selected for fabrication featured a subsea electro-pump to

supply adequate hydraulic power, a pilot drill with bronze plates to reduce vibration,
and a specially manufactured set of cutters with removable cutting teeth that would
be able to penetrate duplex stainless steel without breaking.
Preliminary trials
After the design was finalized, materials were procured and the prototype was
fabricated and made ready for the first phase of testing: the internal preliminary
trials.

A diver prepares for the vertical hot tapping operation.

During a period of eight weeks, the prototype was subjected to rigorous testing
associated with a number of capabilities. The cutter's ability to make deep cuts on a
plate of the same type of duplex stainless steel as the blind weld-neck "tappable
flange" on the pipeline was an initial challenge.

A diver carries out the horizontal hot tapping operation.

The team made material and design improvements, ultimately achieving a
prototype that could produce a smooth and satisfactory cutline. In addition, special
bronze guides were developed and installed on the pilot drill to control vibration.
By the end of the four-month trial period, several renditions of the prototype had
been used to complete four tapping operations. Before and after each cutting trial,
visual and nondestructive examinations (NDE) of the cutters and pilot drills were
carried out. The final prototype, which featured dual sets of cutting teeth and the
pilot drill with the bronze guides, performed well. As the hot tap machine would be
required to operate at an average pressure of 100 bar, pressure tests were
undertaken to satisfy the requirements of the forthcoming factory acceptance test.
The decision was then made to proceed to the second stage: the official trials.
Official trials
During the official trials three tapping operations were carried out with the custom
machine. Two hot taps were completed on duplex plate, and one cold tap was
executed through equal duplex tappable plate. These tapping operations revealed
that the equipment endured the rigorous process, remained properly aligned and
cut the duplex steel plate effectively. These operations took place as part of a
requisite system integration test (SIT), which confirmed the following:

The teeth accurately cut the duplex stainless steel

The pilot drill remained rigid and vibration-free

The design of the cutter was improved by adjusting the teeth support.

It also proved that the tapping machine could be unset in the middle of the cut and
reset while reaching the cut back without causing the tapping machine to be
misaligned or moved out of proper position.
With the official trials of the custom hot tap cutter successfully completed, the
system received approvals from Burullus, Technip, and the Burullus Independent
Verification Authority to perform the subsea operation well in advance of the project
mobilization. In preparation for the impending operation, two hot tap machines were
produced in order to guarantee 100% back-up of this critical piece of equipment.
Maintaining gas pressure
For three weeks, TDW worked from Technip's dive support vessel Wellservicer to
carry out all three hot taps. Throughout the process, a prevailing pressure of 100
bar (1,450 psi) was successfully maintained in the existing gas export system. The
innovative hot tap on the duplex tappable flange required just six days to complete.
In spite of the fact that the hot tap intervention was carried out subsea, making it
more complicated to mobilize and install equipment than when working onshore,
the operation was carried out by skilled divers as intended, with no lost time
incidents or production downtime.
Much of the success was attributed to the investment in planning and preoperational equipment trials and testing. TDW worked with the Technip and Burullus
teams to ensure that the operation would proceed like clock-work, and that the
customized cutting tool would operate effectively on duplex stainless steel. As a
result, the operation provided three tie in points, preparing the way for Technip to
successfully tie-in the new 36-in. gas trunkline for the WDDM Phase VII
development.
The author
Michel Courbat is offshore project manager for T.D. Williamson S.A.

11/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-11/flowlines__pipelines/innovative-engineering-solves-subsea-pipeline-tie-in-challenge.html

Understanding pipeline
buckling in deepwater
applications
Finite element model predicts local conditions
D. DeGeer - C-FER Technologies
With ultra deepwater pipelines being considered for water depths of nearly 3,000 m,
pipe collapse, in many instances, will govern design. For example, bending loads
imposed on the pipeline near the seabed (sagbend region) during installation will
reduce the external pressure resistance of the pipeline, and this design case will
influence (and generally govern) the final selection of an appropriate pipeline wall
thickness.
To date, the deepest operating pipelines have been laid using the J-lay method,
where the pipeline departs the lay vessel in a near-vertical orientation, and the only
bending condition resulting from installation is near the touchdown point in the
sagbend. More recently, however, the S-lay method is being considered for
installation of pipelines to water depths of nearly 2,800 m. During deepwater S-lay,
the pipeline originates in a horizontal orientation, bends around a stinger located at
the stern or bow of the vessel, and then departs the lay vessel in a near-vertical
orientation. During S-lay, the installed pipe experiences bending around the stinger
(overbend region), followed by combined bending and external pressure in the
sagbend region.

Initial bending in the overbend during pipe installation may result in stress concentrations in
pipe-to-pipe weld offsets or in pipe-to-buckle
In light of these bending and external pressure-loading conditions, analytical work
was performed to better understand the local buckling behavior of thick-walled line
pipe due to bending, and the influence of bending on pipe collapse. Variables
considered in the analytical evaluations include pipe material properties, geometric
properties, pipe thermal treatment, the definition of critical strain, and
imperfections such as ovality and girth weld offset.
Design considerations
As the offshore industry engages in deeper water pipeline installations, design limits
associated with local buckling must be considered and adequately addressed.
Instances of local buckling include excessive bending resulting in axial compressive
local buckling, excessive external pressure resulting in hoop compressive local
buckling, or combinations of axial and hoop loading creating either local buckling
states. In particular, deepwater pipe installation presents perhaps the greatest risk
of local buckling, and a thorough understanding of these limiting states and loading
combinations must be gained in order to properly address installation design issues.
Initial bending in the overbend may result in stress concentrations in pipe-to-pipe
weld offsets or in pipe-to-buckle arrestor interfaces. Initial overbend strains, if large
enough, may also give rise to increases in pipe ovalization, perhaps reducing its
collapse strength when installed at depth. Active bending strains in the sagbend will
also reduce pipe collapse strength, as has been previously demonstrated
experimentally.

Overall modeling approach

In an attempt to better understand pipe behavior and capacities under the various
installation loading conditions, the development and validation of an all-inclusive
finite element model was performed to address the local buckling limit states of
concern during deepwater pipe installation. The model can accurately predict pipe
local buckling due to bending, due to external pressure, and to predict the influence
of initial permanent bending deformations on pipe collapse. Although model
validation is currently being performed for the case of active bending and external
pressure (sagbend), no data has been provided for this case.
The finite element model developed includes non-linear material and geometry
effects that are required to accurately predict buckling limit states. Analysis input
files were generated using our proprietary parametric generator for pipe type
models that allows for variation of pipe geometry (including imperfections), material
properties, mesh densities, boundary conditions and applied loads.
A shell type element was selected for the model due to increased numerical
efficiency with sufficient accuracy to predict global responses. The Abaqus S4R
element is a four-node, stress/displacement shell element with large-displacement
and reduced integration capabilities.
All material properties were modeled using a conventional plasticity model (von
Mises) with isotropic hardening. Material stress-strain data was characterized by
fitting experimental, uniaxial test results to the Ramberg-Osgood equation.
Pipe ovalizations were also introduced into all models to simulate actual diameter
imperfections, and to provide a trigger for buckling failure mode. This was done
during model generation by pre-defining ovalities at various locations in the pipe
model.
Bending case
A pipe bend portion of the model was developed to investigate local buckling under
pure moment loading. Due to the symmetry in the geometry and loading conditions,
only one half of the pipe was modeled, in order to reduce the required
computational effort. The pipe mesh was categorized into four regions

Two refined mesh areas located over a length of one pipe diameter on each
side of the mid-point of the pipe to improve the solution convergence
(location of elevated bending strains and subsequent buckle formation)

Two coarse mesh areas at each end to reduce computational effort.

Clamped-end boundaries were imposed on each end of the pipe model to simulate
actual test conditions (fully welded, thick end plate). Under these assumptions, the
end planes (nodes on the face) of both ends of the pipe were constrained to remain
plane during bending. Loading was applied by controlled rotation of the pipe ends.
In terms of material properties, the axial compressive stress-strain response tends
to be different from the axial tensile behavior for UOE pipeline steels. To accurately
capture this difference under bending conditions, the upper (compressive) and
lower (tension) halves of the pipe were modeled with separate axial material
properties (derived from independent axial tension and compression coupon tests).
In general, the local compressive strains along the outer length of a pipe undergoing
bending will not be uniform due to formation of a buckle profile. In order to specify
the critical value at maximum moment for an average strain, four methods were
selected based on available model data and equivalence to existing experimental
methods.
Collapse case
The same model developed for the bending case was used to predict critical
buckling under external hydrostatic pressure. This included the use of shell type
elements and the same mesh configuration. In the analyses, a uniform external
pressure load was incrementally applied to all exterior shell element faces. Radially
constrained boundary conditions were also imposed on the nodes at each end of the
pipe to simulate actual test conditions (plug at each end). In contrast to the pipe
bend analysis, only a single stress-strain curve (based on compressive hoop coupon
data) was used to model the material behavior of the entire pipe.
Bending case validation
The pipe bend finite element model was validated using full-scale and materials
data obtained from the Blue Stream test program, both for as received (AR) and
heat treated (HT) pipe samples. Geometrical parameters were taken from the

Blue Stream test specimens and used in the model validation runs. Initial ovalities
based on average and maximum measurements were also assigned to the model.
The data distribution reflects the relative variation in ovality measured along the
length of the Blue Stream test specimens.

All of finite element models included analysis input files generated using parametric generator for
pipe type models that allows for variation of pipe geometry (including imperfections), material
properties, mesh densities, boundary conditions, and applied loads.

Axial tension and compression engineering stress-strain data used in the model
validation were based on curves fit to experimental coupon test results. As pointed
out previously, separate compression and tension curves were assigned to the
upper and lower pipe sections, respectively, in order to improve model accuracy.
In the validation process, a number of analyses were performed to simulate the Blue
Stream test results (base case analyses), and to investigate the effects of average
strain definition, gauge length, and pipe geometry. These analyses, comparisons
and results were:

The progressive deformation during pipe bending for the AR pipe bend
showed the development of plastic strain localization at the center of the
specimen

A comparison between the resulting local and average axial strain

distributions for two nominal strain levels indicated that at the lower strain
level the distribution of local strain is relatively uniform, at the critical value
(peak moment) a strain gradient is observed over the length of the specimen

with localization occurring in the middle, the end effects are quite small due
to specimen constraint and were observed at both strain levels

The resulting moment-strain response for the AR pipe base case analysis
found the calculated critical (axial) strain slightly higher than that determined
from the Blue Stream experiments

The effect of chosen strain definition and gauge length on the critical bending
strain for the AR pipe base case analysis, using the four methods for
calculating average strain, gave similar results

The critical strain value is somewhat sensitive to gauge length for a variety of
OD/t ratios

The finite element results are seen to compare favorably with existing
analytical solutions and available experimental data taken from the literature.
For pipe under bending, heat treatment results in only a slight increase in
critical bending strain capacity.

Collapse case validation

Similar to the pipe bending analysis, the plain pipe collapse model was also
validated using full-scale and materials data obtained from the Blue Stream test
program, both for as received (AR) and heat treated (HT) pipe samples. Pipe
geometry and ovalities measurements taken from the Blue Stream collapse
specimens were used in the validation analyses. Initial ovalities based on average
and maximum measurements were also assigned to the model at different
reference points. Hoop compression stress-strain data was used in the model, and
was based on the average of best fit curves from both ID and OD coupon
specimens, respectively. To validate the pipe collapse model, comparison was made
to full-scale results from the Blue Stream test program which demonstrated a very
good correlation between the model predictions and the experimental results.
In addition to the base case, further analyses were run for a number of alternate
OD/t ratios ranging from 15 to 35. Similar to the pipe bend validation, the OD/t ratio
was adjusted by altering the assumed wall thickness of the pipe. The finite element
results have compared favorably with available experimental data taken from the
literature.

The beneficial effect of pipe heat treatment for collapse has resulted in a significant
increase in critical pressure (at least 10% for an OD/t ratio of 15). The greatest
benefit, however, is observed only at lower OD/t ratios (thick-wall pipe). This can be
attributed to the dominance of plastic behaviour in the buckling response as the
wall thickness increases (for a fixed diameter). At higher OD/t ratios, buckling is
elastic and unaffected by changes in material yield strength.
Pre-bent effect on collapse
Finite element analyses were also performed to simulate recent collapse tests
conducted on pre-bent and straight UOE pipe samples for both as received (AR)
and heat treated (HT) conditions. The intent of these tests was to demonstrate
that there was no detrimental effect on collapse capacity due to imposed bending
as a result of the overbend process. In the pre-bend pipe tests, specimens were
bent up to a nominal strain value of 1%, unloaded, then collapse tested under
external pressure only.

To address the pre-bend effect on collapse, a simplified modeling approach was used whereby the
increased ovalities and modified stress-strain properties in hoop compression due to the pre-bend
were input directly into the existing plain pipe collapse model (the physical curvature in the pipe
was ignored).

To address this loading case, a simplified modeling approach was used whereby the
increased ovalities and modified stress-strain properties in hoop compression due to
the pre-bend were input directly into the existing plain pipe collapse model (the
physical curvature in the pipe was ignored).

A comparison between the predicted and experimental collapse pressures for both
pre-bent and straight AR and HT pipes indicates that the model does a reasonable
job of predicting the collapse pressure for both pipe conditions. It is also clear that
the effect of moderate pre-bend (1%) on critical collapse pressure is relatively small.
While the pre-bend cycle results in an increased ovality in the pipe, this detrimental
effect is offset by a corresponding strengthening due to strain hardening. As a
result, the net effect on collapse is relatively small. For the AR pipe samples, there
was a slight increase in collapse pressure when the pipe was pre-bent. Conversely,
for the HT pipe, the opposite trend was observed. This latter decrease in collapse
pressure can be attributed to two effects: the larger ovality that resulted from the
pre-bend cycle and the limited strengthening capacity available in the HT pipe (the
HT pipe thermal treatment increased the hoop compressive strength, offering less
availability for cold working increases due to the pre-bend).
Similar to previous experimental studies on thermally aged UOE pipe, the beneficial
effect of heat treatment was demonstrated in the pre-bend analysis. The collapse
pressure for the pre-bent heat treated (HT) pipe is approximately 8-9% higher than
that for the as received (AR) pipe, based on both the analytical and experimental
results. This increase, however, is lower than that observed for un-bent pipe
(approximately 15-20% based on analysis and experiments).
This unique case of an initial permanent bend demonstrated that the influence on
the collapse strength of a pipeline was minimal resulting from an increase in hoop
compressive strength (increasing collapse strength), and an increase in ovality
(reducing collapse strength). This directly suggests that excessive bending in the
overbend will not significantly influence collapse strength.
Future work includes advancing the model validation to the case of active bending
while under external pressure. This condition exists at the sagbend region of a
pipeline during pipelay and, in many cases, will govern overall pipeline wall
thickness design.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of this program by Medgaz SA
and the technical contributions of Medgaz personnel throughout the model
development phase.

Editors Note: This a summary of the OMAE2006-92173 paper presented at the

2006 OMAE conference in Hamburg, Germany, June 4-9, 2006
11/01/2006

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-66/issue-11/pipelinetransportation/understanding-pipeline-buckling-in-deepwater-applications.html

Wet welding critical to

structural maintenance
State-of-the-art work proving product
C.E. Grubbs, Thomas J. Reynolds
Global Divers & Contractors
Offshore structures in place worldwide are an integral part of the oil and gas industry'
infrastructure. These offshore structures provide strategic support for the exploration,
production, and transportation of oil and gas. Maintaining the structures is a challenging task.

Maintenance divisions of offshore operating companies must properly

protect and repair the vital structures after they have sustained
structural damage due to accidents during and after installation,
fatigue, corrosion, boat collisions, and acts of nature.
Global Divers & Contractors and the Center for Welding and Joining
Research at the Colorado School of Mines (CSM) lead a consortium of
major offshore oil and gas companies and the Department of Interior's
Minerals Management Service in the development of improved
underwater welding techniques and welding electrodes for use on
structural steels used in the construction of offshore structures.
Working with the Edison Welding Institute, Global's research also
includes the development of underwater wet welding procedures on
pipeline steels for the Pipeline Research Council (PRC) International. This
work is done at Global's Research and Development Center in New
Iberia, Louisiana. The Center includes hyperbaric facilities capable of
simulating wet or dry welding environments for water depths down to
366 meters.
As the number of offshore structures grows, and those in existence
continue to be exposed to fatigue, corrosion and accidental damage, the
need for underwater structural repairs increases. This, of course,
emphasizes the need for continuing efforts to upgrade underwater
repair technology.
Causes, with typical examples, of underwater damage to offshore
structures include the following:

Corrosion: Depleted sacrificial anodes, intermittent operation of impressed current

systems, inadequate design of cathodic protection systems and improper grounding of
barge/boat mounted welding machines when welding on offshore structures.

Skirt pile installation: Damage frequently occurs when attempts to "stab" skirt piles into
bell-guides are made without a diver or video camera to provide underwater vision.

Dropped objects: Objects dropped overboard have included skirt piles, bundles of pipe
and other items of material and equipment during off-loading, boat landings during
installation, and pile driving adapter caps.

Boat impact: Collisions involving boats and structures are not uncommon and repeated
impact with through the water line members, boat landings, and fendering systems have
resulted in gross structural damage.

Acts of nature: Hurricane Andrew did extensive damage to Gulf of Mexico structures and
the dragging of ship's anchors displaced several subsea pipelines. Infrequent mud slides
have also damaged structures and pipelines in the Gulf.

Design engineering: While infrequent, design errors and unanticipated loads have
resulted in severe damage to offshore structures.

Repair options
Viable repair methods include mechanical clamps, with and without grout, wet welding, and dry
hyperbaric welding.

Hundreds of wet welded structural repairs have been made by

welder/divers qualified in accordance with the requirements of the
ANSI/AWS Specification for Underwater Welding (AWS D3.6), using
qualified welding procedures, with no known failures.
However, prior to developments during the Global/CSM Joint Industry
Underwater Welding Development Program (JIP), wet welds were not
attempted on base metals with carbon equivalents (CE) greater than
0.40 wt pct (CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Cu + Ni)/15) due to
hydrogen-induced underbead cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
of the base metal.
Underwater dry hyperbaric welds, qualified in accordance with
requirements of AWS D3.6, have mechanical properties equal to similar
welds made above water. However, under some conditions, installation
of a dry weld chamber can impose unacceptable loads on the structure.
For example, a chamber installed on structural members near the
splash zone can be subjected to excessive loads imposed by prevailing

ground swells and wave action. Transfer of loads to structural members

can cause failure of the members.
Wet versus dry welds
Wet welding is done at ambient pressure with the welder/diver in the water without any
mechanical barrier between the water and the welding arc. Simplicity of the process
makes it possible to weld on even the most geometrically complex node sections. While
wet welding procedures have been qualified, and used for underwater repairs, down to
100 meters, further development of electrodes and welding processes will be required if
satisfactory wet welded structural repairs are to be made much deeper than that depth.

Dry hyperbaric welding is done at ambient pressure in a custom built

chamber from which the water has been displaced with air or other gas
mixture, depending on water depth. Dry welds, when qualified in
accordance with the requirements of AWS D3.6 for Class A welds, meet
all the requirement for welds made above water.
Several dry welded pipeline tie-ins have been made down to 220m plus
one subsea tie-in was made at 308 m. Repair costs and time for dry
welded repairs are usually at least double that for wet welded repairs.
AWS D3.6 defines Class A (dry) welds as underwater welds that are
intended to be suitable for applications and design stresses comparable
to their conventional surface counterparts by virtue of specifying
comparable properties and testing requirements. Class O welds are
intended to meet requirements of some other designated code or
specification as well as the AWS D3.6 requirements for Class A welds.
AWS D3.6 defines Class B (wet) welds as underwater welds that are
intended for less critical applications where lower ductility and greater
porosity and other discontinuities can be tolerated, and states that the
suitability of Class B welds for a particular application should be
evaluated on a "Fitness for Purpose" basis.

Welding program
The Global/CSM JIP program started in 1993. Phase I of the program was completed in 1995.
Phase II, with the objective of increasing the depth at which code quality (AWS
"Specification for Underwater Welding" D3.6) welds can be made, is ongoing.

Objectives of Phase I of the program were to improve the properties of

wet welds to the highest practical levels, and to determine what those
properties are so they may be used as fundamental engineering design
principals for solutions to underwater repair/construction problems
where wet welding versus dry hyperbaric welding, usually results in
significant savings in time and costs.
Areas of expected improvements included increased ductility and
toughness of weldments and the reduction of hardness and elimination
of hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of crack susceptible (CE.40) base
metals.
Program work was guided by the Technical Activities Committee (TAC)
which was made up of one member from each of the participating
organizations, Global and CSM. Phase I participants were: Amoco
Research Center, Chevron Research & Technology Company, Shell
Offshore Engineering Research Department, Marathon Oil Company,
Mobil Research & Development Corporation, Exxon Production Research
Company, the US Navy, US Offshore Minerals Management Service
(Department of the Interior) and the UK Health and Safety ExecutiveOffshore Safety Division.
Global provided management, welding engineering, technicians,
welder/divers, hyperbaric facilities, welding/diving equipment and
materials. CSM provided scientists, a graduate research engineer
dedicated to the program, welding electrode formulations, analytical
equipment and technical reports on their research tasks.
Matrix and base metal
The test Matrix for Phase I of the program included the following tasks:

Refinement of the multiple temper bead (MTB) wet welding technique used for the
prevention of hydrogen cracking and reduction of hardness in the heat affected zones of
crack susceptible base metal.

Selection of optimum welding power source and auxiliary equipment for underwater wet
welding.

Development of improved electrodes through reformulation of flux coatings and selection

of core wires.

Qualify welding procedures for all position wet fillet and groove welds at 1 meter and 10
meters and make groove welds at 1, 10, 20, 30 and 50 meters with the improved
electrodes.

The test matrix for Phase II concludes with 19 mm groove welds made at depths of 21, 43, 61
and 91 meters, with electrodes formulated for welding at those depths.

ASTM A537 Class 1 19-mm steel plate was selected as the program
base metal because of its proven propensity for hydrogen induced
cracking, and excessive hardness, in the heat affected zone, when
welded with conventional wet welding procedures. The carbon
equivalent of the A537 material was .462 including .20 wt pct carbon.
The specified minimum yield and tensile strength were 50 ksi and 70
ksi, respectively.
Multiple temper bead
The unique and proprietary multiple temper bead (MTB) wet welding technique involves three
essential variables which were methodically investigated and are described as follows.

Toe-to-toe distance: The distance between toes of primary weld beads that tie in to the
base metal and toes of temper beads is one of the variables that govern temper bead
heat input to the crack susceptible HAZ. During this part of the program, multiple temper
bead welds were made on the A537 material with toe-to-toe distances of 1.59, 2.38,
3.175, and 22.22 mm. Results of microscopic (250x) examinations, and Vickers 10 kg
(VH 10) hardness tests of the heat affected zone were used to determine unacceptable,
acceptable, and optimum toe-to-toe distances.

Time intervals: For the prevention of HAZ hydrogen cracking, it is essential that we know
how long it takes for HAZ hydrogen cracks to develop, such as the maximum allowable
time between deposition of primary weld beads and temper beads. Based on the data
from five experiments using electrodes other that the Program Ex 7 electrode, on the
A537 material, a baseline crack initiation time was determined to be 3-10 minutes.

To determine the maximum acceptable time between deposition of primary and temper beads,
welds were made with the Program Ex 7 electrodes with the time intervals reported below. The
following are time intervals and results based upon microscopic (250 x) examination of the HAZ:

4-10 minutes with 30-second intervals - no cracks.

10-60 minutes with 10-minute intervals - no cracks.

1.0-1.5 hours with 30 minute intervals - no cracks.

2.0-4.0 hours with 30 minute intervals - all specimens had typical HAZ hydrogen-induced
cracks.

For validation of the highly desirable results (1.5 hours with no cracks), additional experiments
were conducted. The Ex 7 electrodes were used to make an untempered in 19 mm by 305 cm)
groove weld on ASTM A516 Gr. 70 (CE .44) material. Previously, when this material was welded
with commercially available wet welded electrodes, HAZ cracks developed within 10 minutes.
After burning the third electrode, the welder/diver observed cracks in the HAZ of weld metal
deposited with the first electrode.

When welding with Ex 7 electrodes, the welder saw no cracks, and when
the weld was completed, none were detected with magnetic particle
examination. Later, one of four cross sections showed no cracks when
examined at 250x.
A second weld was made on the same material with the Ex 7 electrodes
utilizing the MTB technique. For this MTB weld, HAZ hydrogen cracking
was eliminated.
Knowing the maximum time interval between deposition of primary
weld beads and temper beads is essential to the selection of the most
efficient sequence for deposition of filler metal.

HAZ hardness reduction

Throughout the many MTB welding experiments, prevention of HAZ hydrogen cracking was
consistently accomplished without any deliberate action to increase temper bead heat
input by increasing welding amperage or reducing travel speed. For the same welds - with
the exception of a very small area (3.175 mm by 4.76 mm) in the HAZ beneath the toes of
cap passes - maximum hardness of the weld metal and HAZ was well below the Vickers
10kg (VH10) specified by AWS D3.6 for Class A (dry) welds.

Because of the high carbon equivalent (.462) and especially the high
carbon content (.20), hardness in the small areas in the HAZ beneath
the toes of the cap passes ranged from 400 to 442. To meet the AWS
D3.6 maximum hardness of 325 for dry welds, a series of welds were
made using progressively increased levels of temper bead heat input in
the cap passes. For these welds, optimum heat input reduced the
aforementioned range of 400-442 to 252-300.
Weld comparisons
Table 1 [139,813 bytes] and Table 2 [102,064 bytes] provide a practical comparison of the
mechanical properties of the state-of-the-art welds made during Phase I of the Joint
Industry Underwater Welding Program. Table 1 compares the mechanical properties of
the JIP wet welds with the AWS D3.6 "Underwater Welding Specification" requirements
for Class A (dry) welds.

Table 2 compares the JIP wet welds with the American Petroleum
Institute "Recommended Practice For Planning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms - Working Stress Design" (RP-2AWSD) for welds made above water.
Mechanical properties reported in Table 3 [153,425 bytes] are the
results of tests performed on welds made by Global Divers in 1984
(prior to JIP), and are provided as general information reference the
variation in mechanical properties of wet welds as depth increases.
When Phase II of the ongoing research program is completed,
comprehensive mechanical test results will be available for wet welds
made at depths of 10, 21, 43, 61 and 91 meters, plus baseline

information reference pressure/water depth induced changes in the

chemistry and microstructure of wet weld metal deposited from 26
meters to 122 meters.
Figure 1 [23,926 bytes] shows that Charpy V-notch values of the JIP
quenched and tempered wet welds were significantly greater than the
AWS D3.6 requirements for Class A (dry) welds. During a Joint Industry
Underwater Development Welding Program, Sea-Con Services (later
acquired by Global Divers) made a series of wet welds to determine the
fatigue properties of wet weldments and how they compared to welds
made above water (Figure 2 [15,467 bytes]).
Five dry welded and 19 wet welded fatigue specimens were taken from
25.4 mm thick fillet welded T-plates. Wet welds were made at -10
meters. Specimens were tested in simulated sea water with fully
reversible cantilever axial loads of 20 ksi tension and 20 ksi
compression with 28,840 cycles until the first appearance of macro
cracks and 29,635 cycles to failure.
As shown on Figure 2, fatigue properties of the heat affected zone (the
area most vulnerable to fatigue failure) of the wet welds were equal to
those of the welds made above water, and significantly exceeded the
minimum fatigue properties specified by the American Petroleum
Institute, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms - Working Stress Design" (RP 2AWSD).
Other projects
In addition to the welding done during the Joint Industry Underwater Welding Development
Program, the following welding projects executed by Global Divers are indicative of the
state-of-the-art of underwater wet welding. Unless specified otherwise, welds were
qualified in accordance with the requirements of the AWS "Specification for Underwater
Welding".

Wet welding procedures were qualified, and used for the repair of an offshore production
platform, at the record depth of 300 meters. Ferritic (mild steel) welding electrodes were
used on carbon manganese structural steel.

Wet welding procedures were qualified with nickel welding electrodes on high strength,
high carbon equivalent (CE .476 wt pct) steel for repairs to an offshore structure. When
wet welded with ferritic electrodes, base metals with a carbon equivalent of more than .
40 are subject to hydrogen induced cracking in the heat affected zone.

Qualified underwater wet welding procedures on the new micro alloyed high strength
(TMCP) steels used in the fabrication of deep water offshore structures.

Global was first to qualify underwater wet welding procedures on carbon steel with
ferritic welding electrodes in accordance with the requirements of ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code for Underwater Welding, Section XI, Div. 1, Code Case N-516-1.

Provided proprietary welding procedures, proprietary welding electrodes and technical

consulting services to the repair contractor, plus project oversight for the offshore
platform operator, for the first underwater wet welded structural repair in the North Sea.

During a joint industry wet welding development program, Sea-Con Services (later
acquired by Global Divers) performed a fatigue test on a series of specimens taken from
1-in. thick fillet welded T-plates in simulated seawater with fully reversible cantilever axial
loading (20 ksi tension, 20 ksi compression). The results, shown in Figure 2, significantly
exceeded the American Petroleum Institute RP 2A - WSD requirements for welds made
above water.

Copyright 1998 Oil & Gas Journal. All Rights Reserved.

06/01/1998

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-58/issue-6/news/generalinterest/wet-welding-critical-to-structural-maintenance.html

Deepwater remote welding

technology for pipeline
repair and hot-tapping
Kjell Edvard Apeland, Jan Olav Berge, Richard Verley - Statoil ASA

Michael Armstrong, Neil Woodward - Isotek Electronics Ltd.

The second paper highlighted from the subsea/flow assurance track addresses
flowline and pipelines. Remotely operated dry hyperbaric welding technology has
been further developed in recent years and is now becoming the basis for offshore
applications both in subsea pipeline repair and hot-tapping technology. This paper
outlines the welding technology and the operational systems developed and built to
provide an offshore service.
The Pipeline Repair System pool (PRS pool) is a joint development between Statoil
and Hydro to provide repair and construction support for the large oil and gas
pipeline transportation system on and from the Norwegian Continental Shelf in the
North Sea.
The development is funded by a consortium of companies sharing costs in exchange
for access to the equipment. In 1987 Statoil was appointed to manage and operate
the system and since then a continuous development has been undertaken.
Currently PRS is the main repair contingency for approximately 10,000 km of subsea
pipelines with dimensions ranging from 8 to 44 in. and water depths down to 600 m.
This coverage is now being extended to water depths of 1,000 m as new pipelines
come onstream.
The PRS is a comprehensive suite of subsea pipeline construction and repair tools,
from isolation plugs and cleaning tools to large manipulation and installation
frames, and welding habitat enclosures. The repair methods range from applying
support clamps to weakened sections to cutting away damaged sections and
replacing with new pipe, joining to the old by either mechanical connections or
hyperbaric welding.
The PRS pool has over the last few years also invested in technology for remote hottapping into subsea pipelines, the objective being to provide technology for
development projects which the commercial supplier market does not provide on
short notice.
In order to achieve this, new unique equipment and welding technology has been
developed and qualified with the objective to provide a fully remote operated
system without the need for diver-assisted tasks.

Pipeline repair by welded sleeve technique

Traditional hyperbaric welding techniques involve the use of precision machining of
the pipe ends and performing butt welds using the GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding)
process. This involves precision alignment that can be very demanding (particularly
on the second end and especially for large-diameter pipes).
The new approach avoids the need to achieve butt to butt closure and limits the
requirement on precision alignment by threading a sleeve (slightly oversized to the
pipe) over one end and drawing it back over the two pipe ends to be joined and
making the welded join between the end of the sleeve and the pipe using a GMAW
(gas metal arc welding) fillet weld. This technique is used on relatively smalldiameter onshore pipelines and is part of the tools of the plumbing trade, but it has
not been deployed subsea for production pipeline repair.
The development described in this paper is intended for use for repair of up to 44in. pipelines down to depths in excess of 1,000 m.
Such a method is not covered directly in the existing regulations and codes of
practice, although some work has been performed to establish fitness for purpose
assessment criteria for sleeve welds, and as a result the project has been working in
conjunction with Det Norske Veritas to establish criteria that could eventually form a
code of practice.
The authors discuss next the structural design of the welded sleeve against all
relevant limit states for maximum loads that can occur and with a safety margin
dictated by the use of appropriate safety factors.
The relevant limit states are bursting, global yielding (including buckling), local
overstressing/overstraining, unstable fracture (including possible lifetime crack
growth) and fatigue. The relevant load cases are pressure testing (after repair),
maximum loading during operation and fatigue during operation. It is necessary to
consider axial loads that are both tensile-dominated (e.g., for unrestrained pipe
segments) and compressive-dominated (e.g., for partially or fully restrained
segments). Generally the design is governed by the tensile-dominated maximum
loading case in operation.
Remote hot-tapping into subsea pipelines

The basic principle of hot-tapping is to establish a new branch pipeline connection

to an existing (mother) pipeline while under full pressure. This involves connecting
the branch pipe, including a valve, to the mother pipeline, usually by means of
welding or mechanical clamp connections, cutting a hole in the pipe wall by a
machine attached to the valve, retracting the cutting head, closing the valve, and
disconnecting and recovering the cutting machine. The pipe branch may now be
extended by spools and tied-in to a new pipeline in the usual manner. This strategy
has been shown to be very cost-effective compared to alternative methods,
including shutdown and tie-in at ambient pressure.
So far, divers have been used to weld the branch pipe to the mother pipeline and
for all installation and cutting operations.
The primary focus of the remote hot-tap project is the development of a novel
design combining the use of a remotely installed mechanical clamp (the retrofit
tee), providing the necessary structural strength as well as interfaces toward the
isolation valve module and the hot-tap cutting tool, and a saddle-formed seal weld
made by remotely operated hyperbaric GMA welding inside the branch pipe.
The authors continue to provide a comprehensive overview of the structural design
of the hot-tap tee, the hyperbaric GMAW process, welding qualifications,
experimental equipment, procedural development, and installation of the welded
sleeve and hot-tap tee.
Dry hyperbaric GMAW technology has been formally qualified for water depths down
to 1,000 m and demonstrated and verified to a water depth down to 2,500 m.
The offshore systems and welding technology is part of the PRS pool in Norway and
is ready for real applications offshore.
11/01/2006

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-66/issue-11/dot-technicalpreview/deepwater-remote-welding-technology-for-pipeline-repair-and-hottapping.html

ROV-operable pipeline
flushing and pigging
Flushing and pigging of subsea flowlines generally requires traditional vessel-based
operated pigging and testing systems that are equipped with large high-pressure
pumps and long umbilicals. In deepwater, these systems become extremely large,
heavy, and awkward to handle and to operate.
Cybernetix is developing Sapps, a cost-effective, compact, light weight subsea
flowline flushing and pigging system that is operable by ROV and that does not
require a dedicated umbilical to the surface.

Artist's impression of a Sapps system in operation on the seabed.

After the flowline has been laid in an air-filled mode, the Sapps module is installed
adjacent to the pipeline lay-down head, and the flexible connection is made up
using a work ROV. The ROV is connected to the Sapps control module to allow data
transmission and commands between the surface and the seabed through the ROV
umbilical.
The Sapps system filters seawater at ambient pressure and feeds it into the air-filled
pipeline, thereby flooding the line and pushing the pig forward. A flow meter and a
hydraulically operated flow control valve ensure a controlled manner of flooding of
the pipe, and a backwash system can be activated in the event of filter blockage.
If seawater has to be treated, the chemicals that are to be injected are pre-mixed on
the surface and stored in elastomer reservoirs inside the Sapps structure. These

reservoirs are fitted with an injection pump that is controlled by an injection flow
meter to ensure a correct water/chemicals ratio.
Sapps is equipped with a booster pump to provide additional pressure to complete
pigging of the full length of the line or to send additional pigs through the line. The
system is being designed for deployment by the vessel's crane; alternatively, the
system can be connected onto the ROV as a tool-skid.
The system is designed for high precision remote control and data transmission
through the telemetry of a standard work ROV via a simple interface of the Sapps'
PC surface control with the ROV's control system. In air, the Sapps is expected to
weigh 3 tons, and variable buoyancy allows it to be handled by a work ROV. The
depth rating will be 3,000 m, and the frame support allows it to be installed on very
soft seabeds (5 Kpa). Commissioning of an operational system is scheduled for
completion in mid-2003.
05/01/2003

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-63/issue-5/news/rov-operablepipeline-flushing-and-pigging.html

Detection system tracks

minutest pipeline leaks
Co.L.Mar's Acoustic Leak Detector (ALD) technology has pinpointed defects this year
on three subsea pipelines in a variety of settings.

ALD installed on a work class ROV.

Leaks in pipelines stem from transition of the transported fluid from the internal
pressure to the lower external pressure. The resultant turbulence and sudden
expansion of the fluid mass generate acoustic signals which the ALD processes to
extract from the ambient noise to indicate leakage.
The system's main components are an underwater acoustic sensor that acquires
data along the pipeline; a transmission line that relays data to the surface vessel;

and PC-based software that evaluates the acquired signal in real time, and its
development along the pipeline track. This signal is converted by the ALD's receiver
to an audible lower frequency. Depending on the application (inspection or
monitoring), different sensors can be deployed by divers, towed fish, ROVs, or
lowered vertically over the side of a surface vessel.
One recent project was on a newly installed pipeline offshore in the Middle East.
Co.L.Mar was called out following the hydrotest reporting a leak of just 0.21 liter/min
which divers had been unable to locate. At the time, according to Managing Director
Luigi Barbagelata, the line was filled with water and colorant.
"We found the leak at our first attempt on a valve flange this was the smallest leak
we had ever dealt with and proves the effectiveness and sensitivity of our system,"
he said. "We used an equipment spread deployed by divers and an ROV."
Another job was in the Indian Ocean, where Co.L.Mar used an ROV configuration to
detect a leak in an umbilical in 200 m (656 ft.) water depth. Leakage was reported
during tests following installation of the umbilical, which at the time was filled with
air.

Leak generated by corrosion and its ALD image.

"Even though conditions were not ideal a combination of air and pressure of just a
few bar - we were still able to find the leak easily," said Barbagelata.

The third job was Co.L.Mar's first-ever assignment in the Americans. The location
was a lagoon in very shallow water (1 m or 3 ft. deep). To work in this awkward
environment, an ALD sensor, similar to that used with towed fish for tracking
purposes, was mounted on the side of a small aluminum vessel with a very limited
draft.
"The leak [the pipeline was water-filled] turned out to be in an area where the
pipeline was covered by over 10 ft. (3 m) of sand," Barbagelata said. "I believe the
reason it was buried by so much sand was not due to backfilling, but the dynamics
of the seafloor in that area."
In June, Co.L.Mar was also commissioned to perform monitoring of the status of a
subsea pipeline during a pigging operation.
"The contractor was concerned about potential stress that would be imposed on the
pipeline. We monitored the pipeline using a towed fish continuously over the 10-day
campaign, night and day, to ensure that if there were a leak, we could deal with it.
The pigging team was working from the platform, while our specialists were based
on the survey vessel with equipment ready for a repair if a leak were found."
Over the past two years. Co.L.Mar has been working on a new monitoring system for
leak detection on subsea structures such as christmas trees, manifolds, or valves.
Currently a basic prototype version is undergoing tests in a 6 x 10-m (20 x 33-ft.)
indoor tank in 8 m (26 ft.) water depth: the sensor is designed to give an indication
of the presence of a leak and the direction of the leakage.
"It comprises an array of four elements, which have so far given good results in the
pool. Our next step is to repeat and optimize the test in the pool, then perform
further tests out at sea with real leak detection equipment."
11/01/2012

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-72/issue-11/supplementitaly/detection-system-tracks-minute-pl-leaks.html

Leak detection system

extended to AUV
inspections

Schematic shows an ALD in action on an offshore pipeline.

Co.L.Mar is developing new applications for its Acoustic Leak Detector (ALD)
technology on subsea pipelines.
Leaks in pipelines are generally caused by the transition of the transported fluid
from the internal pressure to the lower external pressure. The resulting turbulence

and sudden expansion of the fluid mass generate acoustic (ultrasound) signals. The
ALD system extracts these signals from the ambient noise, even when they are very
weak. Due to this sensitivity, the system has located leaks down to 0.2 liter/min on
an offshore installation.
The system's main components are an underwater acoustic sensor, which acquires
data along the pipeline; a transmission line that relays the data to the surface
vessel; a hardware receiver; and PC-based software that evaluates the acquired
signal in real time and its development along the pipeline track.
Depending on the application, the ambient conditions, and the means available on
site, the inspection equipment may be hand-held by divers to check flanges,
deployed in a towfish version, ROV-installed, or lowered vertically over the side of
the surface control/support vessel.
This year Co.L.Mar has used the technology intensively for leak inspections offshore
West Africa. According to managing director Luigi Barbagelata, one assignment
involved a pipeline with numerous flanges.
"Using our equipment, the divers were able to detect which flange was leaking," he
said. "Following tightening of the flange bolts, they reapplied the ALD and verified
that a smaller flow was still present, which meant that further tightening was
needed. They could also identify which flange sector was leaking and which bolts
had to be tightened. Without our equipment they would have probably assumed
that the first repair was fine and the leak controlled, but the resultant hydrotest
would have revealed that this was not the case."
In May, Co.L.Mar used the ALD in vertical mode installed for the first time with multibeam sonar and an underwater camera. These items were used to verify the
positioning of the sensor against the pipeline, the as-laid chart for which was not
accurate. Another project was a leak inspection on a pipeline offshore Japan
operated by a major oil company. Scope of the four-day inspection was to verify the
integrity of the pipeline.
This spring, the company completed the first ALD prototype for installation on an
autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), with successful trials in a test pool and at
sea. The system can be adapted to different kinds of AUVs to be used for inspecting
and checking the integrity of pipelines. "The advantage of using an AUV for

inspecting pipelines is significant, if the vehicle is equipped with a navigation

system for automatically tracking and following the pipeline. In that case there is no
need for an acoustic beacon for navigation of the AUV," Barbagelata said.
The checking capability is applicable to "resident" AUVs, which are deployed to
permanently monitor the conditions of a subsea installation, periodically returning
to a subsea base to recharge batteries and download data.
"The ALD version we have developed at the moment is recording inspection data,
but that needs to be played back to check if there is a leak," he said. "We are now
working on software that processes the data automatically and in real time, and
decides autonomously if there is a leak. Once this is determined, the ALD can
interface with the AUV's navigation system, modifying the mission in case of leak
detection. We hope to have this solution ready within six months."
Another ongoing Co.L.Mar development is a monitoring system for detecting leaks
on subsea structures such as christmas trees and manifolds. The company has
completed work on an omnidirectional prototype following extensive tests in an
indoor tank. Sea trials are scheduled before the end of the year, simulating different
leaks and pressures. Assuming these are successful, the next step will be to test the
equipment on a real subsea installation. Additionally, the company is working on a
more sophisticated directive sensor.
11/12/2013

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-73/issue-11/equipmentengineering/leak-detection-system-extended-to-auv-inspections.html

Subsea pig launcher option

on marginal, deepwater
fields
Machar deployment rationalizes CAPEX, OPEX costs
Brian Smith
GD Engineering
The rapidly expanding development of deepwater marginal fields using subsea
production systems with long flow lines has led to the need to consider routine
pigging operations as an integral part of the pipeline maintenance program.
To maintain pipeline operating efficiency, wax and liquid removal may be required
on a continuous basis using conventional pigging and/or chemical treatments. Until
now, subsea pig launchers have been technically inflexible and not always reliable.
As a result, they have only been installed where there was no real option, their use
being mainly restricted to commissioning operations.
Reliable pigging facilities are critical to the development of marginal fields which
use subsea production systems. Many of these fields are located some distance
from the production platform, requiring long flow lines to be laid. The ability to

reliably and economically pig these lines from the subsea installation, without the
need to lay a second line to provide a round trip pigging facility, can result in
substantial overall cost savings when full account is taken of the CAPEX and OPEX
costs.
Even when the field layout does allow round trip operations, the problems inherent
in pushing solids and wax to the wellhead before returning it to the platform may
eliminate this as an option. Pipeline insulation costs can impact significantly
achievement of a favorable cost trade between CAPEX and OPEX for dual lines.
Temporary launcher
GD Engineering in Worksop, UK has developed a new subsea pig launching unit
which combines economic and technical flexibility with positive pig launching. Two
basic systems have been developed around the need to match system deployment
and operation with the field's operational philosophy.
The recent provision of a subsea multiple pig launching system for BP ETAP is an
example of a temporarily installed launcher deployed subsea only when pigging
operations are stipulated. ETAP is the largest North Sea development for a decade
and also one of the most complex. The pig launching system was originally
developed to meet the demanding requirements for continuous pigging of the 22mile, 16-in. multiphase flow line from the Machar Field subsea manifold to the
Marnock central processing facilities platform.
The length of this pipeline and the resulting temperature drop from the 120! well
temperature meant that heavy wax deposition could be expected in the pipeline.
Process studies indicated that a continuous program of mechanical pigging would
be needed through the field's life in order to maintain maximum operating
efficiency.
Two pigging philosophies were considered:

Round trip, two-line pigging using surface launchers and receivers

A single-line subsea pig launcher then installed on the Machar manifold.

Comparisons between the two systems showed that the single line subsea pig
launcher would be most cost-effective when CAPEX/ OPEX, pigging philosophy and
operational factors were fully evaluated. But the overriding factor was the

prohibitive cost of providing an additional flow line to the manifold for the total
round trip pigging distance of 44 miles.
Brown & Root, which performed ETAP development engineering, contracted GD for
the launcher system, which comprises the following elements:

Vertically deployed pig launcher with a capacity for three conventional pigs or
a single intelligent pig

High pressure cap structure to provide positive sealing of the pipeline when
the launcher is not installed

Test stand to allow on-site pressure and function testing

Manifold interface framework to provide terminations for the flowline and pig
kicker line

Conventional guide wire deployment system to allow deployment/retrieval of

the launcher using a standard diving support vessel

Pig stop and bypass (PSB) mechanism to provide positive pig launching.

This equipment, operated by a work class ROV using standard API tooling interfaces,
was developed by GD Engineering to meet the continuous demand for reliable pig
launching at pre-determined intervals throughout the field's operating life.
A standard DSV is required for installation of the launcher using guide wire
alignment (guide post and funnel) and heave-compensated lifting equipment. Two
hydraulic subsea connectors (16-3/4-in. nominal size for the pipeline and 5-1/8-in.
nominal size for the kicker line) would provide the interface between launcher and
manifold. Installation of the launcher demanded simultaneous makeup of both
connectors to their respective hubs, installed on the manifold structure.
Pig launcher installations are anticipated to be performed four times annually,
assuming current predictions of wax deposition are accurate. On each occasion,
three pigs will be deployed, each removing up to 10 tons of wax.
The pigs' sealing discs form a tight fit with the launcher bore, which provides a
positive launch situation when kicker fluid is introduced behind the pigs. The
launcher barrel is long enough to hold three pigs or a single intelligent pig.

Each pig launcher will require the high pressure cap assembly to be retrieved from
the manifold, after first establishing pipeline sealing integrity. Deployment of the
launcher and subsequent fill and pressurization with manifold product (multiphase
hydrocarbon) would follow.
Pig release mechanism
The mechanism developed by GD Engineering for pig release comprises a pressure
balanced spool mounted in a rigid housing. This arrangement provides the
integrated function of a pig stop and bypass (PSB) facility. In operation, the pigs are
loaded into the line-sized launcher barrel to predetermined positions.
The PSB mechanism spools are extended to provide positive retention of the pigs
should they slip during installation of the launcher. The PSB mechanisms are
interconnected by pipework to provide a continuous flow path for the kicker fluid.
Connection of this pipework to the manifold kicker line is achieved through the 51/8-in. connector.
Following pressurization with hydrocarbon, flow from the kicker line will pass
through the mechanisms to the front and back of each pig, and between the sealing
discs via the pigs' bypass facility, giving a pressure-balanced situation.
To launch the first pig, the spool of the first PSB mechanism is retracted. As the
spool is withdrawn level with the inside bore of the launcher barrel, the kicker flow
passing through the spool is restricted and full flow is diverted through this
mechanism to the adjacent PSB mechanism. A pressure differential is created that
causes the first pig to be pushed along the barrel into the pipeline.
Launching of subsequent pigs follows the same procedure. The PSB mechanism
design ensures that the pig stop is fully retracted before full bypass occurs to
prevent the pig from creeping under the stop as pressure differential increases.
The selected configuration contains a blend of proven subsea technology with new
innovations, where required. By its nature, new technology carries some technical
risk until proven in service. To offset this, detailed test procedures have been
introduced to determine, as far as is practical, the likely performance of such
equipment.

The Machar manifold pipelay was completed in March 1997, with site integration
testing of the complete structure last September. GD Engineering manufactured the
equipment described, which was integrated into the manifold structure this
February. Pigging operations are due to begin in October.
Deepwater version
For deepwater applications, an alternative to the temporary installation of the
launcher uses a pig cassette system, the pig launcher being permanently located on
the subsea manifold. Instead of deploying the pre-loaded launcher, a lightweight
cassette containing the pigs is used to re-load the subsea launcher with pigs.
Both ROVs or conventional guide wire systems can be used to deploy the cassette,
which is loaded into the launcher through a subsea closure. Sequential release of
the pigs is achieved by operation of pig release latches mounted on the cassette.
Kicker flow is directed to each pig in sequence, in a similar manner to the PSB
mechanism on ETAP. This method is especially economic for large diameter
pipelines requiring subsea pigging operations or when continual ROV interventions
are required on the manifold system.
The cassette system incorporates numerous design features to suit different
operating philosophies:

A lightweight cassette (reduces installation needs)

No requirement for multi-make/break and aliagnment of connectors for

launcher barrel

Deployment by conventional guidance systems or ROV

Horizontal or vertical launcher orientation

Control and operation by ROV or umbilical

Launcher barrel of simple construction - pig release mechanism forms

integral part of the cassette and is recovered to the surface for routine
maintenance

Intelligent pig launching and pipeline intervention tool capability with same
cassette replenishment of pigs from subsea storage when availability of
surface vessels is limited.

In conclusion, the single line pig launcher can provide a cost-effective solution for
marginal and deepwater applications, whether the requirement is for frequent
routine pigging or infrequent intelligent pig inspections. The system's basic building
blocks are designed to provide a standard interface to other subsea equipment and
may allow equipment pooling, leading to further cost savings.
Copyright 1998 Oil & Gas Journal. All Rights Reserved.
04/01/1998

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-58/issue4/news/production/subsea-pig-launcher-option-on-marginal-deepwater-fields.html

Challenges to manufacture of
pipe for deepwater,
corrosive hydrocarbons
Richard Freeman - Corus Tubes Energy

Gas is increasingly important in a historically oil-driven world economy. Its increased

value is a driver of pipeline technology developments. To meet the demand for gas
transportation through more onerous environments, there are factors the pipe and
plate makers need to consider to ensure the finished product meets the standards
required especially for sour service and deepwater applications.
One trend driving pipeline demand is the gas production from deepwater fields.
Traditionally this gas would either be flared or re-injected into the well for enhanced
recovery. However, operators now are keen to capture this production and trade it
as either liquefied natural gas (LNG) or domestic gas. These gas-gathering
prospects present challenging combinations of deepwater installation, corrosive well
fluids, and difficult shore approach conditions. These all combine for demanding
pipe specifications for manufacturers to meet.
These requirements can be met only with a holistic technical approach from plate
procurement to pipe dispatch. The foundation of this approach is to use the highest
quality sour plate, which is delivered using state-of-the-art primary and secondary
steel making, continuous casting, and proper plate rolling practices. During UOE (Uing, O-ing, and Expanding) pipe manufacture, the forming process is optimized so
strain is managed to minimize any reduction in sour resistance. For these
demanding applications, low-temperature toughness in the heat affected zone,
demanding hardness, and Battelle drop weight tear test requirements commonly
are specified. In combination with forming, welding using optimum consumables
and design parameters ensures the mechanical properties and integrity of the pipe.

Gas-gathering in West Africa

Corus recently completed a series of gas-gathering development projects in West

Africa to link fields and to transport the gas for export as LNG. In total, the company
supplied 81,000 metric tons (89,287 tons) of thick-walled, sour-resistant steel
linepipe to three projects
The pipe, ranging from 457 mm (18 in.) to 610 mm (24 in.) in diameter and up to
33.5 mm (1.3 in.) in wall thickness, is to transport gas in water depths of up to

1,500 m (4,921 ft) over difficult seabed bathymetry and also with critical shore
approach areas. Corus exported the pipe from its Hartlepool 42 in. capacity mill in
the UK to West Africa where the project is being completed with first gas scheduled
for 2012.

Thick-walled sour service pipe manufacturing

Gas lines typically are larger diameter and generally constructed from welded
linepipe the most economical production method. However, for deepwater
prospects, the parameters for gas transmission are restricted by the following:

The offshore lay process and the need for speedy, reliable welding restricts
the line chemistry to strength grades at X65 or below

Seabed stability restricts the diameter of the line that can be installed
larger diameter pipe is more buoyant and less stable

Larger diameter pipe is more vulnerable to hydrostatic collapse, meaning wall

thickness needs to be increased

Wall thickness also needs to be increased because of corrosion concerns and

fatigue life considerations.

Corus supplied 81,000 metric tons (89,287 short tons) of thick-walled, sour resistant steel linepipe to
three projects offshore West Africa.
These reasons drive a need for thicker pipe wall with higher induced strain during
forming, but pipe which also conforms to international standards such as DNV, ISO,
and API. Successful manufacture of these pipes needs not only an expert
understanding of steel and pipe making but also an appreciation of the service
demands.

Challenges of pipe forming

During service, the pipe bore is exposed to a wet, sour (H2S) environment. Atomic
hydrogen is generated at the pipe surface via a cathodic reaction, and enters the
steel. Migrating hydrogen atoms move through the structure, gather and combine
with each other at discontinuities, voids, and susceptible zones in the
microstructure to produce molecular hydrogen (H2). The increasing quantity of H2
at the initiation site creates a high hydrogen pressure, which can be magnified by
the shape of the site, leading to a stress concentration that ultimately cracks the
microstructure.

Strain compromises sour service phenomena such as hydrogen induced cracking

(HIC), and with the industry looking for more stringent sour resistant ratios, pipe
milling influence on these factors need to be understood.
Total micro-strain from forming could contribute to an increase in the number of
available sites for molecular hydrogen formation throughout the microstructure.
Therefore, the effects of compression and expansion may have to be considered as
cumulative. Control of these features within the microstructure is essential to
ensure the pipes sour performance is achieved.
The sour resistance of the plate is imparted via the chemistry and microstructure.
Most modern steelmakers agree that to balance the mechanical properties needed
with sour resistance, the required microstructure is a very clean, fine-grained,
equiaxed/polygonal, or acicular ferrite structure with limited volumes of secondary
phases such as an artensite/austenite (M/A) phase.

Fine grained equiaxed/acicularferrite structure.

To deliver optimum sour properties in the final pipe, attention needs to be paid to
each stage of the process from steel making to final pipe fabrication. During steel
making, the process must be monitored where the material is treated prior to
casting with the correct composition, homogeneity, and temperature suitable for
HIC resistant quality.
Casting is integral to ensuring sufficient quality for plate rolling to HIC grade. This
includes controlling macro-segregation, which occurs as steel transitions from the
liquid to the solid phase, achieved through soft reduction, Statistical Process
Control, and Caster configuration processes.
In terms of plate rolling, single-phase austenitic rolling is favored to meet the sour
service and drop weight tear test (DWTT) requirements of a thick wall for offshore
projects. However, recent experience shows that material with a higher proportion
of acicular ferrite in the microstructure can be susceptible to a phenomenon known
as inverse fracture with associated low shear values, which has not been seen
previously in bainitic/acicular ferrite structures. A program is under way to

understand this behavior and to determine whether DWTT is a viable evaluation of

the resistance to long running brittle fracture for these steels.

Pipe making

While the amount of strain imparted to form the pipe is set by dimensions, there are
key parameters to consider, specifically strain management when forming and
welding.
Control of shape and formability is required to ensure a consistent product; poorly
controlled forming leads to variable strain effects within each pipe. The forming in
the crimp, U- and O-press, and subsequent expansion must be accurate and
consistent to ensure each pipe produced is representative of the pipeline as a
whole.
Suitable welding consumables are selected to achieve the weld hardness and
toughness requirements, and to deliver good HIC performance across the weld. For
toughness, a moderate manganese wire is used with alloying additions of silicon
and molybdenum; titanium and boron also can be used, depending on the
toughness required. The wire is combined with a high-performance, semi-basic and
fully agglomerated flux, which combine to promote formation of acicular ferrite in
the weld bead, and confer good Charpy and crack tip opening displacement (CTOD)
toughness at low testing temperatures while maintaining a stable welding
performance.
In addition to the mechanical performance of the weld, a high level of integrity must
be maintained through production. This means low levels of slag entrapment and
gas defects, for example, as well as cracks to ensure a clean seam is presented to
the welding machine to avoid gas defects. The weld arc and flux burden must be
sufficiently stable to minimize slag entrapment.

Future trends

The question remains whether these pipelines will continue to be required as

technology offers other methods to transport gas such as FLNG. However, the
diversity of the offshore industry almost certainly means a variety of technologies
both old and new will be used in the future.
Deploying an FLNG liquefaction vessel directly to a field similar to an FPSO for oil,
may remove the need in some instances for gas export pipeline projects, but infield
subsea connections still will be needed.
Additionally, regassification and liquefaction are being considered for some
applications offshore, opening further pipeline prospects for product transfer from
ship to shore. These offshore pipelines are likely to have demanding specifications,
crossing high-risk shore approach areas and shallows. Additionally, the increasing
trend towards deepwater production means the linepipe must counteract higher
concentrations of impurities, driving the need for products to meet severe sour
conditions.
03/01/2010

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-70/issue-3/flowlines__pipelines/challenges-to-manufacture-of-pipe-for-deepwater-corrosivehydrocarbons.html

New pipe-in-pipe design

ensures effective insulation
Close control of bends is key to success in assembly
Derek Bish
Tata Steel
Increasing demand for energy, matched with high commodity prices and advances
in technology, are driving operators to extract whatever reserves remain in the
challenging UK continental shelf. Therefore, the requirement to transfer these multiphase products from often high-pressure/high-temperature (HP/HT) wells back
onshore is an even more demanding prospect.
Up until now, the common belief in the industry was that pipe-in-pipe systems able
to withstand environmental challenges such as corrosion, structural integrity, and
thermal management, would be too costly and complex to apply to riser systems.
Tata Steel worked closely with supply partners to engineer, procure, and construct
these assemblies to further develop this innovative technology as a cost-effective
solution to flow assurance issues.
Need for insulation

HP/HT fields are technically more complex to develop because of the inherently
higher energy in the well fluid and its multi-phase composition. Managing the
extreme pressure and operating temperature must be based and evaluated on
criteria such as corrosion, maintaining structural integrity, and thermal
management.
One particular challenge is the management of pipeline shutdown. Less expensive
solutions for managing the insulation of bends such as wet coatings, compromise
overall shutdown times due to reduced thermal efficiency. Solutions, such as "selfdraining" spools, present a significant design challenge that can be mitigated by the
inclusion of pipe-in-pipe bends, enabling the same thermal integrity to be
maintained in the whole line.
Tata Steel has previously implemented a solution for pipe-in-pipe bends for a North
Sea development. Since then, new insulation techniques have been developed that
give far superior insulation properties.
Risers, spools, and bends
The main challenge with the construction of pipe-in-pipe bends is how to pass the
inner flowline bend into the outer casing pipe. It is important that pipe bends have a
straight portion on the end to enable efficient welding to the next pipe section and
this can present the insertion of one bend into the other.
The second construction challenge is efficient insulation. Wrapping or sheathing is
simply not practical here as the insulation would occupy the annulus of the
assembly and prevent the integration.
New insulation system

Drawing of the geometry of one pipe into another.

The system developed by Tata Steel overcomes these problems by deploying
granular Nanogel insulation into the annulus of the pipe-in-pipe system. Nanogel is
made by first forming a silica gel, then expelling the water from the silica matrix.
The resulting material is granular with trapped nanopores of air, inhibiting heat
transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation (with the inclusion of an opacifier).
The deployment of a novel polymeric bulkhead, cast directly into the annulus,
provides a solid barrier to retain the insulation, which allows for the relative
movement of the inner and outer bends. The polymer is a "syntactic" material,
silicone rubber with glass microspheres dispersed through the matrix with high
strength, flexibility, and thermal efficiency. The tangent ends of the inner and outer
bends are held rigidly to ensure that the assembly tolerances achieved at
manufacture are retained when the unit is transferred to the welding contractor for
incorporation into the pipeline spool or riser.
In order for the insulation to be effectively deployed and provide the consistent
thermal performance, the annular gap throughout the assembly must be uniform. It
is important the manufacturing tolerances of the pipe and bends are closely
controlled.
Steel pipe and bend manufacture

Together with Tata Steel, Eisenbau Krmer (EBK) and the pipe bending plant of
Salzgitter Mannesmann Grobblech (SMGB) have developed a series of controls,
including a process and measurement system, to ensure all bend dimensions are
closely controlled and mating bends can be produced, matched, and paired to
ensure the most accurate assembly is produced.
In respect to the process-related thinning in the extrados of the hot induction bends,
the wall thickness for the inner and outer mother pipes was increased accordingly.
To match precisely, the mother pipes have been manufactured with the same ID as
the riser pipes.

16-in. clad bends being transferred to the quenching tank after austenitization at SMGB pipe bending mill.
EBK supplied Tata Steel with the mother pipe, which has material properties that
allow formation through hot induction bending. The main material challenges are to
ensure the mechanical properties are suitable after bending. Therefore, SMGB is
taking responsibility for the chemical design of the pre-material. This also involves
the consideration of a series of heat treatment and forming processes. EBK uses a
multi-pass welding process and steel plate from premium mills in Europe. The
manufacturing process at EBK generates pipe of the closest dimensional control
through a series of cold forming and sizing operations such as external calibration.
At the SMGB pipe bending plant, the special mother pipes are bent by hot induction
bending. Heat is applied through electrical induction to the mother pipe materials
and the pipe is slowly formed to give the correct geometry. In most pipeline

applications the critical dimensions are the positions and attitudes of the ends of
the bends (center-to-end dimension) to maintain the overall geometry of the
pipeline. However, with pipe-in-pipe bends it is important that the bend radius is
also accurately controlled to ensure the two bends can be integrated. The precise
dimensions after bending also need to be maintained following heat treatment. For
the inner clad bends, a full-body quench and temper heat treatment is applied at
the SMGB bending mill in order to guarantee homogenized material properties for
the bends, to fulfill mechanical and corrosion requirements.
HP/HT material properties
Additional material complexities have to be overcome. Generally, in HP/HT lines
there are challenges because of corrosion, low temperature toughness, and
strength. These parameters require careful material selection to maintain the
balance of properties from the outset through to bend production. Thermal stresses
need to be managed as the loads are shared between inner and outer pipe. In
addition, the insulation can lead to extremes of temperature being retained in the
pipe materials during operation and shutdown that can form challenging conditions
for conventional steel products.
Conclusion
HP/HT well environments present some of the most challenging and technologically
demanding conditions for field developments, not least because the properties in
each reserve offer significant challenges in terms of material selection and design.
Tata Steel and its supply partners have expanded capabilities further with the
design and creation of cost-effective insulated pipe-in-pipe bends for risers and
spools - an accomplishment previously considered too difficult.
Pipe-in-pipe bends, while challenging technologically, can lead to simplification of
overall pipeline design and can give better pipeline performance in times of
operation and shutdown.
04/11/2013

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-73/issue-4/engineeringconstruction-installation/new-pipe-in-pipe-design-ensures-effective-insulation.html

Innovative engineering
solves subsea pipeline tiein challenge
Custom hot tapping machine plays pivotal role
Michel Courbat
T.D. Williamson S.A.
Technip was recently contracted by Burullus Gas Co. (Burullus) to tie in an
expansion to its existing subsea West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) facilities. To
accomplish this, it was necessary to tie in a new 36-in. gas trunkline pipeline, which
is part of the Phase VII project, to the existing system under pressure without
shutting down production. To perform the tie-in, Technip retained T.D. Williamson
S.A. (TDW) to carry out three subsea hot tap intervention operations.
Two traditional 16-in. hot tap operations would be completed on a 26-in. pipeline,
and one innovative 20-in. hot tap on a 36-in. pipeline. To ensure that the hot tap
interventions would be successful, it was necessary to engineer, install and precommission two hot tap assemblies, including one capable of cutting through a
blind weld-neck "tappable flange" made of duplex stainless steel on the 36-in. line.
Hot tap machine
In preparation for the operation that would take place in depths to 95 m (311 ft),
TDW worked with a Belgium-based engineering and construction specialist to
produce the special hot tap tool known as a "cutter." This special tool would be used
for the 20-in. hot tap and would need the ability to effectively cut the duplex plate.
Since the duplex has a very high mechanical strength meaning that it has a high
elongation before reaching breaking point and a high level of hardenability the
cutting process employed must be very rigid and vibration-free while using the TDW
Model 936D subsea tapping machine.

TDW's customized subsea tapping machine onboard the dive support vessel Wellservicer.
Working at TDW's facility in Nivelles, Belgium, a series of engineering, design and
preliminary tests was performed. The first step involved engineering several
alternative designs. The first alternative consisted of using either a proven cutter
design; or that proven design updated with various teeth geometry. However, this
option was not pursued because it could not penetrate the duplex stainless steel.

TDW's customized subsea tapping machines onboard the dive support vessel Wellservicer prior to the operation
A second option involving removable teeth and welded teeth support was
considered, but this was rejected due to its inability to resist vibration.

Ultimately, the design selected for fabrication featured a subsea electro-pump to

supply adequate hydraulic power, a pilot drill with bronze plates to reduce vibration,
and a specially manufactured set of cutters with removable cutting teeth that would
be able to penetrate duplex stainless steel without breaking.
Preliminary trials
After the design was finalized, materials were procured and the prototype was
fabricated and made ready for the first phase of testing: the internal preliminary
trials.

A diver prepares for the vertical hot tapping operation.

During a period of eight weeks, the prototype was subjected to rigorous testing
associated with a number of capabilities. The cutter's ability to make deep cuts on a
plate of the same type of duplex stainless steel as the blind weld-neck "tappable
flange" on the pipeline was an initial challenge.

A diver carries out the horizontal hot tapping operation.

The team made material and design improvements, ultimately achieving a
prototype that could produce a smooth and satisfactory cutline. In addition, special
bronze guides were developed and installed on the pilot drill to control vibration.
By the end of the four-month trial period, several renditions of the prototype had
been used to complete four tapping operations. Before and after each cutting trial,
visual and nondestructive examinations (NDE) of the cutters and pilot drills were
carried out. The final prototype, which featured dual sets of cutting teeth and the
pilot drill with the bronze guides, performed well. As the hot tap machine would be
required to operate at an average pressure of 100 bar, pressure tests were
undertaken to satisfy the requirements of the forthcoming factory acceptance test.
The decision was then made to proceed to the second stage: the official trials.
Official trials
During the official trials three tapping operations were carried out with the custom
machine. Two hot taps were completed on duplex plate, and one cold tap was
executed through equal duplex tappable plate. These tapping operations revealed
that the equipment endured the rigorous process, remained properly aligned and
cut the duplex steel plate effectively. These operations took place as part of a
requisite system integration test (SIT), which confirmed the following:

The teeth accurately cut the duplex stainless steel

The pilot drill remained rigid and vibration-free

The design of the cutter was improved by adjusting the teeth support.

It also proved that the tapping machine could be unset in the middle of the cut and
reset while reaching the cut back without causing the tapping machine to be
misaligned or moved out of proper position.
With the official trials of the custom hot tap cutter successfully completed, the
system received approvals from Burullus, Technip, and the Burullus Independent
Verification Authority to perform the subsea operation well in advance of the project
mobilization. In preparation for the impending operation, two hot tap machines were
produced in order to guarantee 100% back-up of this critical piece of equipment.
Maintaining gas pressure
For three weeks, TDW worked from Technip's dive support vessel Wellservicer to
carry out all three hot taps. Throughout the process, a prevailing pressure of 100
bar (1,450 psi) was successfully maintained in the existing gas export system. The
innovative hot tap on the duplex tappable flange required just six days to complete.
In spite of the fact that the hot tap intervention was carried out subsea, making it
more complicated to mobilize and install equipment than when working onshore,
the operation was carried out by skilled divers as intended, with no lost time
incidents or production downtime.
Much of the success was attributed to the investment in planning and preoperational equipment trials and testing. TDW worked with the Technip and Burullus
teams to ensure that the operation would proceed like clock-work, and that the
customized cutting tool would operate effectively on duplex stainless steel. As a
result, the operation provided three tie in points, preparing the way for Technip to
successfully tie-in the new 36-in. gas trunkline for the WDDM Phase VII
development.
The author
Michel Courbat is offshore project manager for T.D. Williamson S.A.
11/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-11/flowlines__pipelines/innovative-engineering-solves-subsea-pipeline-tie-in-challenge.html

Advancing the art of subsea

inspection
Shell deploys autonomous underwater vehicles to inspect assets offshore Nigeria
Steve Keedwell
Shell Companies in Nigeria (SCiN)
Shallow-water autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are a valuable tool for asset
inspection, providing benefits for customers, operators, and contractors alike.
However, the technology has not been widely used in the oil and gas industry for
asset inspection in shallow water. Working together with partners, Shell Petroleum
Development Co. (SPDC) has achieved several notable firsts in utilizing shallowwater AUVs offshore Nigeria, including the first survey under the hull of an
operational FPSO vessel.
In a notable first for the industry in West Africa, SPDC, together with partners, has
utilized shallow-water AUVs off the Nigerian coast to survey and inspect subsea
assets. These include production systems, such as three platforms and infield
pipelines/flowlines located in the EA field, the Sea Eagle FPSO, as well as the
Offshore Gas Gathering System (OGGS), a 260-km (~160 mi) pipeline spanning the
edge of the Niger Delta.
Due to the challenging near-shore security situation, the deployment of a slowmoving traditional survey vessel towing sensors was risk-assessed as unacceptable.
The assets to be surveyed are located only some 20-40 km (~12-25 mi) off the
Niger Delta coastline, in water depths of 15-40 m (~50-130 ft). OGGS pipeline and
EA field surveys had previously been delayed due to security concerns. In order to

ensure safe offshore operations, regular surveys are required to assess the integrity
of subsea assets as well as evaluate any detailed inspection or maintenance needs
that may have emerged.
Shell has a track record of adapting new technology to reduce the HSSE exposure of
personnel. So it came as no surprise that, with a growing need to gather data on the
offshore assets, SPDCs Geomatics Team was tasked to review alternative survey
options. This led to the selection and deployment of the REMUS 100 AUV operated
and managed by Fugro Survey Nigeria Ltd. (FSNL), and supported by Fugro Survey
Africa (Pty) Ltd. (FSAPL).
Fugro Chance Inc., part of the Fugro group, provided two REMUS 100 (Remote
Environmental Measuring Units) systems with associated equipment, with FSNL and
FSAPL providing project management and personnel. SPDC provided the overall
project management, in-country logistics and vessels to execute the work.
The REMUS 100 is a compact, portable, and lightweight (37 kg in air) AUV with an
operating depth of 100 m (~330 ft) that can be deployed either from a vessel of
opportunity or the quayside. A specially designed rake is used to launch and recover
the AUV. An additional tool adapted for the project was a dog leash to secure the
nose of the AUV and to control its entry to the rake. When safely in the rake, the
AUV was manually lifted back onboard the vessel. The AUV can be fitted with a
range of sensors and Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).
Immediate results
To complete the survey operations in Nigeria, two AUVs were operated
simultaneously. Inspection surveys were managed from a main operations vessel
that maintained a safe distance from the Niger Delta coastline. Launch and recovery
of the AUVs, carried out by SPDC personnel, was undertaken by a smaller and faster
vessel. Careful planning around logistics, operations, and continual risk assessment
was important to minimize security risks and personnel exposure.

Work scope in the EA field offshore Nigeria.

The ability of the AUV to survey within a few meters of platforms and facilities
provided additional value. First, it avoids the HSSE exposure of the traditional
survey method of vessels making close passes to structures. Second, the time to
complete a 600-m (~2,000-ft) survey centred on a structure is reduced, as the AUV
turns significantly faster than a vessel equipped with a standard towed array of
sensors (which requires approximately 30 minutes to turn as opposed to the AUV
turning time of 20 seconds). Also, the time required to mobilize the AUV on a vessel
is significantly shorter than to install a survey package of a side-scan sonar and
winch on a traditional vessel. Ultimately, a high-quality dataset was acquired more
quickly, more safely, and at reduced cost.
Pushing boundaries
To monitor the AUV during the mission, an operational practice was established to
receive iridium calls (via satellite) from the AUV, at the control center on board the
operations vessel. On receiving the iridium message from the AUV, the position
would be plotted and an update on the estimated time to complete the survey
established.

Mission design example.

As confidence grew in the performance of the REMUS AUV, more complex missions
were conducted, including combined long baseline (LBL) and dead reckoning
missions. An LBL array uses seabed transponders placed at known locations on the
seabed with baselines that can be several kilometers in length. The position of each
transponder is uploaded into the AUV navigation software and, during the mission,
the AUV navigates by calculating its position relative to each of the transponders,
which are set to transmit when interrogated by the AUV.
The process of dead reckoning is used to determine the current position based
upon a previously known position fix, and advancing that position based upon
measuring speed over elapsed time and course deviation. The REMUS AUV is fitted
with a range of sensors Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP), Doppler Velocity
Log (DVL), conductivity, temperature and pressure sensors and uses internal
software to update its position based on the sensor inputs received for navigation.
An L1 GPS antenna with iridium satellite communication, was also installed to send
updates on the AUVs health, and to derive its sea-surface position. The AUV sensor
payload can be modified to include a dual high-resolution side scan sonar (900 kHz),
video camera, and INS.
Using this hybrid approach, the purpose of these missions was to acquire surveys
around the structures and decrease the number of infill pipeline/flowline surveys
that would be required on completion of the platform surveys.

During these missions, there were a number of notable firsts:

Utilization of a shallow water AUV in Nigeria

Multiple platform surveys completed in Nigeria by an AUV

Dual launch and operation of AUVs in Nigeria

Survey under the hull of an operational FPSO in Nigeria by an AUV.

Great potential
The primary challenge was to conduct an important survey in a volatile area with
many security challenges, and to do so in line with Shells principle of zero harm to
people and the environment. The use of AUVs enabled SPDC to achieve this goal,
but also to leverage technical and commercial benefits for surveying seabed assets
in shelf and near-shore environments.

AUV recovery using the specially designed rake.

There is potential for using this method to conduct offshore surveys in high-risk
locations. These include risks of security, unexploded ordnance or mine surveys,
requiring a low profile and presence on the actual site. Further opportunities include
environmentally sensitive areas such as coral reefs, where minimal impact is
desired. The possibility of acquiring high-quality datasets with a reduced footprint is
in the early stages. The surveys conducted by SPDC and partners have effectively
proven the value of this method from cost, quality, and safety perspectives.

Other scenarios could include launching multiple AUVs from one survey vessel,
which could also conduct survey operations. For example, during annual pipeline
inspection surveys, the vessel could target pipeline crossings, leaving the AUVs to
complete other tasks, and carry out passes close to structures. AUVs have also been
deployed in shallow water by Shells Geomatics Team in the Netherlands at the
Ameland platforms.
Recommendations
Opportunities to leverage benefits of shallow-water AUV operations in debris,
inspection, and general seabed surveys, plus operational recommendations, include
the following:

AUVs can operate in sea conditions that would preclude standard towed
system operations. Depending on water depth and prevailing weather
conditions, a heave effect on side-scan sonar records could impact data
quality. This would need to be assessed on a project-by-project basis.

For deployment of AUVs from smaller vessels, a team of three to four people
(depending on operational hours) is recommended to manage the AUV in the
field party chief, electronics engineer, and online surveyor (plus one if
required). Good pre-planning of logistics (e.g. fueling) would enable extended
field operations. It is recommended that the data be checked in the field for
integrity before transfer onshore for processing. This reduces the number of
personnel in the field, hence HSSE exposure.

Launch and recovery of the AUV needs to be improved. These activities were
managed by modifying the rake to contain two supporting ropes on either
side. In addition, the head of the AUV was snared with a dog catcher on a
long pole to bring it under control. The person who catches the AUV guides it
into the rake. AUV recovery time was reduced to less than 15 minutes in a
well-managed and safe manner.

The REMUS AUV GPS antenna would benefit from enhancement from L1 to
L1/L2, the ability to receive differential corrections and for dual operation
(currently the iridium and GPS share same components and do not operate
simultaneously).

Installation of a screen visible on the deck for the AUV launch team to view
their location.

Ensure that there are sufficient connecting cable lengths for the AUV power
and VIP interface to keep laptops away from the open deck.

Strobe lights are recommended when searching for the AUV in poor light
conditions.

Addition of two handles on the exterior casing for lifting the unit.

The use of shallow water AUVs for subsea asset inspection have been positive, and
for shelf and nearshore operators, the AUV is cost-effective. Other possible
scenarios could include multiple AUV launches from one vessel, which could also
conduct survey operations, e.g., during annual pipeline inspection surveys, the
vessel could target pipeline crossings, leaving the AUVs to complete other tasks
such as close passes to structures. Under-ice surveying is another possibility, since
technology is being developed to provide the operator with the ability to track,
monitor, command, and interact with the AUV remotely while it is under way, and
share information with all interested parties. Two more possibilities are surveys in
high-risk locations (unexploded ordnance/mine surveys) that require a low profile
and surveys in environmentally sensitive areas, such as coral reefs.
04/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-4/subsea/advancingthe-art-of-subsea-inspection.html

High integrity alloys:

Selection issues for
corrosion protection

Alan Robinson
Arc Energy Resources
Consider the problems. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2) and
various chlorides are all present in the hydrocarbons delivered from subsea fields,
and they can be accompanied by high pressures and high temperatures. And sour
service at high temperature is more corrosive, while the same service at high
pressure is more erosive. A combination of the two is a potentially expensive and
hazardous situation that impacts materials selection, in terms of protecting low-cost
carbon steels or manufacturing in high-cost corrosion resistant alloys.

Rotating head.
Corrosion and corrosion prevention cost the subsea oil and gas industry billions of
dollars every year, so the decisions taken are vital. The selection of the materials
and the preventative processes used to extend the operating life of materials is
essential to the cost-effective manufacture and safe long-term operation of
equipment such as pipelines and valves, especially in deepwater operations.

When assessing corrosion protection for any production system pipeline, process
engineers have numerous options. The effectiveness of each will vary according to
factors such as the aggressiveness of the product; pressure and temperature; the
size and complexity of the system; projected life expectancy of the well; the
development period available; and, perhaps most important, overall budget
constraints.
So how can welding engineers help the oil and gas industry to resist these attacks?
Protection, where risk of attack is low and life cycle relatively short, may be as
simple as using an injected inhibitor with conventional high-strength carbon or lowalloy steel. Where greater protection is needed, corrosion-resistant alloys (CRAs)
must be considered. These include austenitic (300 series) stainless steels,
ferritic/martensitic (400 series) stainless steels, duplex stainless steels, or the more
complex high nickel chromium alloys.
Duplex steels and nickel-based alloys, such as alloy 625, are the only materials in
general production which, when welded, achieve suitable levels of protection.
However, there are constraints on the use of these materials in their solid form
namely cost, availability, and the need for very tightly controlled welding
procedures.
Cost is particularly relevant where large quantities of pipe and fittings are needed or
when large forgings or castings are used. Typical examples are wellhead valve
systems and pipe bundle bulkheads.
The use of carbon and low-alloy steels clad with a corrosion-resistant alloy is
common practice for some years now. It is a well-proven, economical, and technical
alternative to solid alloys. It offers the benefits of strength and/or availability of base
materials combined with corrosion resistance, when applied in selected areas.
Weld overlay cladding presents the materials engineer with a choice of processes
and more flexibility. An almost infinite range of component shapes and sizes can be
protected, with an equally wide range of base material/cladding alloy alternatives.
Weld procedures are normally qualified to ASME IX, as are the welding operators.
Additional testing to prove conformity with API 6A and NACE MR01-75 also is
essential. Selection of the most appropriate welding process largely depends on

factors such as the size and geometry of the clad area; access to the area to be
clad; alloy type; specified clad thickness; chemical composition limits; welding
position; and NDT acceptance standards.
There are many common welding processes but given that the process used must
be practical, viable, and provide the mechanical and chemical conditions to achieve
service requirements, economics dictate that the higher deposition rate processes
should prevail.
GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding) provides excellent control and a high quality
result. It can be used in bores as small as 20 mm (0.78-in.), and is suited for
components of varied geometry, where the position of the welding head requires
frequent adjustment. These could range from a simple flange that needs to be clad
through the bore and across the sealing face, to a complex valve body with several
interconnecting bores. Utilizing twin wire, hot wire, and multi-head configurations
increases the deposition rates.
Often such equipment also needs cladding to RTJ (ring-type joint flange) grooves.
The control available with GTAW means cladding can follow the profile of the groove
rather than filling it completely. This not only saves time and material during
cladding, it also reduces the cost of subsequent finish machining.
Using this process the chemical composition of the welding consumable can be
achieved at <2.0 mm (0.08-in.) from the base material/cladding interface (this can
be reduced to <1.0 mm (0.40-in.), in the case of 300 series stainless steels, where
over-alloyed wires are available).
Plasma-transferred arc is another option. The process equipment costs are higher
and the process variables slightly more complex than GTAW, but the increased
control available on the arc makes it more amenable to CNC control. When
combined with oscillation, dilution levels down to 3% have been achieved at 1 mm
from the interface.
Arc's development engineers have been working with the new breeds of GMAW (gas
metal arc welding) to improve control of the arc, and the resulting process likely will
supplant some current GTAW applications.

For more open access applications, the electroslag process is economically

attractive. It does employ a large weld pool that requires substantial base metal
backing (generally a minimum of 20 mm) in order to prevent excessive dilution. The
deposit thickness is nominally 5 mm (0.2 in.) with the strip widths discussed here.
With 60-mm (2.4-in.) strip, deposition rates of up to 22 kg/hr (48.5 lb/hr) can be
achieved.
To enable the chemical composition of the deposit to match that of the consumable
specification within the first layer (3 mm, or 0.12 in., from the interface), overalloyed strip and "loaded" metal containing fluxes are available.
Problems associated with electroslag strip cladding involve the limited availability of
strip, which tends to increase the cost of the material; and the difficulty of feeding
the strip when cladding within bores of pipe. Arc Energy Resources is developing a
multi-wire electroslag configuration for pipe cladding. This should solve both
problems and provide a combination of high deposition, excellent profile, and good
quality.
Submerged arc welding using a solid wire consumable, while not as fast, is a useful
"halfway house" between strip cladding and the slower GTAW and pulsed GMAW.
The welding heads are not as large as strip heads, and the consumable delivery
method is more flexible. Hence, the capability to use this in smaller bore diameters.
Traditionally larger-diameter (2.4 mm+, or 0.09-in.+) consumables have been used
for this process, again resulting in the need for fairly thick substrates to accept the
high heat inputs and large weld deposits.
11/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-11/equipment__engineering/high-integrity-alloys-selection-issues-for-corrosion-protection.html

UK pipeline decommissioning
provides potential for
innovation
Need for new lifting, cutting, and trenching techniques
MickBorwell
Oil & Gas UK

Since 1966, 45,000 km (27,962 mi) of pipeline has been installed in the North
Sea to transport hydrocarbons from the UK continental shelf (UKCS) to shore. Of this
pipeline, less than 2% has been decommissioned.
The UK government and industry continue to focus on maximizing recovery of
around 15-24 Bboe from the UKCS, and 2013 brought record investment in new
projects. Collaborative work has resulted in fiscal change and technological
advances, but as the basin continues to mature, decommissioning is emerging as a
parallel and growing business opportunity.
Decommissioning expertise is available within the UK supply chain, but without
significant activity in this area, the sector has not been fully tested. To help
contractors better understand the opportunities, Oil & Gas UK has produced several
documents.
In its "Decommissioning Insight" published in 2013, the association forecasts that
between 2013 and 2022 more than 2,300 km (1,429 mi) of pipeline, infrastructure
from 74 fields, more than 70 subsea projects, and about 130 installations are
scheduled for decommissioning at a total forecast expenditure of 10.4 billion ($17
billion).
Inventory of UKCS pipelines
The pipelines mentioned in the forecast represent a fraction of the extensive
network of pipeline currently installed in the North Sea to transport oil and gas
production to host platforms or to shore. Overall, the UKCS pipeline inventory covers
a broad range of equipment designed to accommodate the transportation of many
different fluids under diverse conditions, varying water depths, and different
oceanographic environments.
In many cases, the existence of nearby pipeline infrastructure has led directly to the
exploitation of marginal fields that would otherwise be uneconomic. Such
opportunities remain a key factor in the timing of any pipeline decommissioning. A
more detailed description of the different types of pipeline infrastructure can be
found in Oil & Gas UK's 2013 report, "The Decommissioning of Pipelines in the North
Sea Region."

Trunklines represent the major element of subsea infrastructure transporting large

quantities of oil and gas from offshore to onshore receiving facilities and end users
across Europe. They account for 18% of the total number of pipelines and 63% of
the total pipeline length in the North Sea inventory.
Such pipelines include some of the longest in the North Sea, often with diameters of
more than 30 in., and tend to be installed offshore using the S-lay pipelay method
from a specialist lay vessel.
The pipeline inventory also includes rigid flowlines, flexible flowlines, umbilicals, and
power cables, as well as associated equipment such as the concrete mattresses
used extensively in the UKCS to provide protection and stability to subsea pipelines,
cables, and umbilicals. These flexible mattresses are typically manufactured by
joining different shapes of concrete blocks together with polypropylene or Kevlar
rope. Oil & Gas UK estimates that 35,000-40,000 mattresses have been deployed
since operations began in the North Sea.
While pipelines are integral to field life extension and future development
opportunities, some fields in the UKCS have reached the end of their economic life.
Specific parts of the pipeline system naturally become redundant, and with no
potential future use, they are available to be decommissioned.

Seven Navica reeling vessel. (Image reproduced with permission from Subsea 7)
Decommissioning to date

Oil and gas pipeline decommissioning has been taking place in the North Sea since
the early 1990s, when the Crawford field pipelines were decommissioned. Since
then, pipeline decommissioning has continued at a modest rate and only when all
potential reuse options for the infrastructure, including new field developments,
have been carefully considered.
Less than 2% of the North Sea pipeline inventory has been decommissioned, and of
the pipelines which have been decommissioned, 80% are less than 16-in. in
diameter. Half of the larger diameter pipelines (16 in. or greater) decommissioned
to date were removed; these were all infield pipelines less than 1 km (0.6 mi) long.
The longest large diameter trunkline to be decommissioned so far is the 35-km
(21.7-mi) Piper A to Claymore 30-in. export line, which was decommissioned in situ.
Under current regulations, decommissioning of oil and gas pipelines is considered
on a case-by-case basis using the comparative assessment (CA) process to
determine the best option for decommissioning. The CA process enables the
particular diameter, length, and configuration of individual pipelines to be taken into
account when considering decommissioning options against the criteria of safety,
environmental impact, cost, and technical feasibility.
Health and safety is a dominant factor in any CA, with the focus aimed at
minimizing the long-term risks to other users of the sea and the short-term risks to
those carrying out decommissioning operations. An integral part of the process is
the environmental impact assessment, which is prepared to support all pipeline
decommissioning plans.
Each decommissioning solution needs to be considered on its individual merits, as
pipeline installations vary widely according to model, location, environment, and
maintenance status. It is at the CA stage, when a number of options are considered,
that significant opportunities exist for supply chain companies to develop innovative
technologies for decommissioning pipelines.
Opportunities for innovation
When evaluating a preferred option for decommissioning a pipeline and its
associated equipment, the availability and track record of technology used in
previous projects provides the context for the other key CA criteria of safety,
environmental impact, and cost.

Supply chain companies specializing in particular services will have the opportunity
to develop innovative techniques in the key technology areas for pipeline
decommissioning, many of which are in their infancy. These are:

Pipeline cleaning

Trenching, burial, and de-burial

Subsea cutting

Lifting

Reverse installation methods

Mattress removal.

Pipeline cleaning is performed prior to decommissioning and involves the

depressurization of a pipeline and the removal of any hydrocarbons in accordance
with the Pipelines Safety Regulations. At this stage there are opportunities for
companies skilled at minimizing the potential contamination of the marine
environment.
The technology for trenching and burial of pipelines during installation is well
established, and a number of contractors offer a range of trenching tools capable of
trenching and burying pipelines of various diameters in all soil types. There is,
however, limited experience of existing pipelines, laid on the seabed surface, being
buried specifically for decommissioning in situ.
While there are different methods and types of equipment for cutting pipelines
subsea using "cold cutting" tools such as abrasive water jets, diamond wire cutting,
reciprocating cutting, and hydraulic shears, significant opportunities exist for
contractors capable of developing new technologies to improve these techniques.
These might include automated techniques to help reduce the use of divers in these
activities. Lifting sections of infrastructure from the seabed is another area where
innovative thinking is in demand. The "cut and lift" process of decommissioning
requires cut sections of pipeline to be lifted from the seabed to a transportation
vessel; supply chain companies providing innovative cutting techniques could help
increase efficiency in this area by reducing the duration of lifting operations for long
lengths of pipeline.

Reverse installation methods encompass both reverse reeling and reverse S-lay
techniques. The process by which rigid or flexible pipelines can be recovered from
the seabed by reeling them from the seabed using a specialist reel vessel is known
as "reverse reeling."
For rigid pipe, there are a limited number of specialist reel vessels available from
the leading installation contractors. These vessels are usually engaged in
installation activities, but can be adapted to recover pipelines as part of a
decommissioning project. Subsea 7's Seven Navica is one vessel capable of
performing this work.
For larger diameter and concrete coated trunklines, the industry is considering a
reversal of the S-lay installation process by which pipelines could be removed and
recovered on to the deck of a specialist S-lay vessel. However, this has not been
done in the North Sea, and more study is needed before the technique can be
considered feasible for decommissioning long distance large diameter pipelines.
As yet, no established technique or technology has been universally adopted for
mattress recovery. Solutions developed by contractors will need to take into account
the age and condition of the mattresses being recovered.

Regional variations
Oil & Gas UK's 2013 "Decommissioning Insight" highlights the contrast between
different UKCS basins, noting that in the central and northern North Sea (CNS and
NNS), decommissioning of pipelines and mattresses is estimated to cost more than
400 million ($655 million) from 2013 to 2022. Over this period, nearly 40 trunklines
(130 km/81 mi), 115 rigid and flexible flowlines (420 km/261 mi), 87 umbilicals (250
km/155 mi), and almost 900 mattresses have been identified for decommissioning
in these basins.

The forecast indicates significant expenditure will take place from 2019 to 2022,
suggesting that pipeline decommissioning will occur toward the latter end of
decommissioning programs. The peak in 2019 can be attributed to at least 10
pipeline decommissioning projects.
While containing a similar number of pipelines to the southern North Sea (SNS), the
decommissioning of rigid and flexible flowlines in the CNS and NNS basins is more
expensive, suggesting a greater degree of complexity in these regions.
Over the same period in the SNS and the Irish Sea, four trunklines (64 km), 116
other pipelines (1,300 km/808 mi), and 21 umbilicals (150 km/93 mi) will be
decommissioned at a cost of around 100 million ($164 million). Additionally, 2,100
mattresses have been scheduled for decommissioning.
While these decommissioning activities represent a fraction of the overall market of
oil and gas activities, they are part of a burgeoning sector. By making more
information on decommissioning available, Oil & Gas UK aims to help the industry
prepare for decommissioning projects, increase the efficiency of processes involved,
and help ensure that future projects are enabled by an "at the ready" supply chain.
02/05/2014

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-74/issue-2/engineeringconstruction-installation/uk-pipeline-decommissioning-provides-potential-forinnovation.html

New technologies reduce

pre-commissioning time,
cost
Range of new products and services aim to help bring facilities online in deeper
waters
John Grover
Baker Hughes Process and Pipeline Services
The increasing number of subsea and deepwater developments brings new
challenges when there are no surface connections to the pipeline available for
testing and pre-commissioning.
Once constructed/installed, such subsea and deepwater systems still must undergo
certain pre-commissioning and commissioning operations, from initial flooding,
gauging and testing, up to final start up.
While the provision of such services in shallow water and topside-to-topside
developments is routine, the same services at water depths in excess of 1,000 m
(approx. 3,300 ft) pose many challenges. These challenges, and the current/planned
technologies to address them, include:

Flooding and pigging subsea pipelines using a remote flooding module (RFM).
This enables the use of available hydrostatic head to flood and pig subsea
pipelines while meeting the project requirements in terms of pig speed,
filtration, and chemical treatment.

Use of ROV driven pumping units to complete flooding and pressurization. By

using the hydraulic power from a work class ROV to power a custom built
pump skid connected onto the RFM, all pigging and pipeline testing can be
performed subsea.

Use of smart gauge tools (SGT) to gauge pipelines without using aluminum
gauge plates. This allows the gauging of lines with reduced bore PLETs at
each end. Also, this gives the ability to communicate the result of the
gauging run through-wall without the need to recover the gauge plate to
surface. This allows testing without pig recovery.

Use of subsea data loggers to record pressures and temperatures during

subsea testing, and use of systems to transmit this data to surface in realtime during the test.

The need for new and improved pre-commissioning technologies is expected to be

particularly acute in the Asia/Pacific market, where there has been a significant
increase in deepwater pipeline projects over the past few years.
Pre-commissioning defined
This flow chart illustrates the pre-commissioning process as typically applied to oil
pipelines. The process for gas lines is similar but involves additional steps prior to
handover such as removal of hydrotest water (dewatering), drying, MEG swabbing,
and nitrogen packing (not covered here).
Subsea pipeline flooding
The first subsea pigging units were conceived and developed to overcome problems
associated with flooding and pigging pipelines in deepwater. The latest subsea
flooding device is the BHI Remote Flooding Module, which essentially achieves the
same objectives using the latest ROV and subsea technologies. The RFM is a subsea
flow control and regulation system. Once positioned on the seabed and connected
to the pipeline to be flooded or pigged via the HP loading arm, it is operated by
the ROV opening the valves to the pipeline. The hydrostatic head of the sea then
enters the pipeline through the RFM because of the differential pressure between
the inside of the pipeline, which is at atmospheric pressure, and the sea.

The pre-commissioning process as typically applied to deepwater oil pipelines.

Seawater enters the RFM via a filter manifold with a specified filtration level, usually
between 50 and 200 microns. It passes through a venturi device, which creates a
small pressure drop in the onboard flexible RFM chemical tanks which connect to
the water flow pipework. This small differential pressure induces anti-corrosion
chemicals into the water flow at the desired rate. This is pre-set prior to deployment
and adjusted subsea by ROV if necessary.
The chemically treated water is held to a pre-determined rate by a flow regulation
system. This maintains the water flow at the desired speed to match specified or
optimum pig speed or flooding rates. Again, this can be pre-set prior to deployment
and because the rate is controlled at a steady level, the chemical inducement is
assured throughout the entire unassisted operation. A boost pump is required to
complete final pigging operations due to pressure equalization. This pump is ROV
driven, usually operated when the ROV returns to disconnect and recover the RFM,
and in deepwater is required only for a very short time.

The vessel and ROV can leave the unit in isolation on the seabed during the
unassisted operations and go on to other tasks. There is no need for connection to
anything other than the pipeline. Onboard batteries power data-logging
instrumentation which logs flows and chemical rates. Visual readouts allow the ROV
to check status before it leaves and when it returns.
The RFM is positioned on the seabed by the ROV and connected to the pipeline to
be flooded via the innovative rigid loading arm pipe system. The ROV then positions
itself on the units roof from where it can monitor instruments and operate valves to
manage the initial stages of the operation and adjust chemical control valves as
needed.
Filtration and chemical treatment specifications are met by onboard facilities.
Chemicals are stored in flexible tanks and introduced by a venturi system regulated
by detecting changes in the water flow through the unit, and automatically adjusts
the chemical flow accordingly.
To summarize, the aims of subsea pipeline flooding are to:

Reduce the size of vessel required for pre-commissioning

Negate the need for the vessel to remain on station during the bulk of the
operations

Remove the need for an expensive down-line, which is prone to damage

Reduce schedule by increasing possible pig speed

Reduce schedule by use of seabed water removing thermal stabilization for

hydrotest

Reduce crew size, equipment spread size, and environmental impact by

removal of diesel engines on pumps, and also to improve safety by taking
operations off-deck.

Offshore vessel requirements

RFM loading arm stabbed in.

In the following, we look at the commercial drivers for using such a system. For
example, experience suggests that we need to inject 3,420 lpm (903 gpm) of
filtered, treated seawater into a pipeline at a water depth of 1,000 m. Looking for
example at flooding a 8-km (5-mi), 16-in. line at 1,000 m (3,281 ft) water depth, we
can draw the following conclusions:

The down-line option requires almost 10 times the deck space of the RFM
option with the current shortage of DP vessels and with vessel rates of
around $40,000 per day, this can have a major impact on project cost.

As the RFM floods the line with ambient temperature water, there is no
stabilization period this could save two days.

The deployment and recovery time for the RFM is far quicker than for a 4-in.
down-line.

ROV operating RFM.

As with all new technologies, there are circumstances where the RFM may not be
suited to a deepwater project. These include:

Where one or both ends of the line terminate at a platform/FPSO, as with

SCRs

Where a down-line will be deployed for other operations and can conveniently
be used for flooding

Where a large number of pigs are used

Where the line has to be flooded with either fresh water or MEG

Where one on of the line terminates in shallow water.

Subsea pigging equipment

The original subsea pigging unit was designed by pre-commissioning engineers with
little input from ROV and subsea specialists (despite efforts to include them). While
the device was successful in achieving its pre-commissioning objectives, it was not
the optimum method of operation for the ROV or deployment vessel. Unwieldy HP
flexible jumper hoses, relatively crude instrumentation, and new ways to use choke

assemblies meant there were areas to improve. With this in mind, recent
improvements on the RFM included:

Holding more chemical than the original subsea unit, allowing less recovery
and deployment cycles and use on longer and larger lines

Using rigid loading arm technology to reduce subsea connection times and to
reduce the risk of HP flexible jumper hose damage

Being extremely ROV friendly ROV specialists were involved in design to

ensure minimum ROV interface issues.

Other improved features include:

An on-board latching mechanism that allows fast ROV connection for boost
pumping

An on-board emergency release system means no risk of an ROV getting

stuck on the RFM

Advances in electronics mean more reliable instrumentation

Deployment times are less than one hour in deepwater.

Subsea hydrotesting unit

Recent developments in subsea pumping systems have allowed ROV pump skids to
carry out subsea hydrotesting and leak testing of pipeline systems, thus affording
additional savings on vessel size and cost. When used in with the RFM, significant
benefits can be achieved. Naturally, the systems that can be tested are limited by
the maximum performance available from an ROV test pump skid. The BHI SHP
(subsea hydrotesting unit) can produce over 40 lpm (10.5 gpm) pressurization rate
from typical project ROVs.

Subsea hydrotesting unit.

Previously, we examined a down-line system that was needed to flood an 8-km, 16in. line. Deepwater lines typically require hydrostatic testing at between 200 barg
and 350 barg. A typical 4-in. downline would not be rated for such pressures
(specialized down-lines that can handle such pressures often cost too much for such
applications). Thus, a different down-line must be deployed to pressurize the line.
Deployment times for the down-line are similar to those of the flooding down-line.
The SHP can be deployed with the RFM boost pump; hence there is no delay
between completion of flooding and commencement of pressurization. It has been
estimated that this saves a minimum of 24 hours per pipeline.
Smartgauge technology
We need to examine the gauging of the line. All offshore pipeline pre-commissioning
operations include the proving of the internal bore of the line. This is achieved
normally by fitting a segmented aluminum disk to one of the filling pigs, the disk
having an outside diameter equal to between 95% and 97% of the minimum
pipeline internal diameter. The principle is that any restriction in the line (buckle,

dent, etc.) would cause one of the aluminum petals to bend, indicating a
restriction in the line.

Gauge pig prior to launch

The gauge pig is then run as part of the pipeline filling pig train and most
specifications require that the gauge plate be inspected visually prior to the
hydrotest. This ensures there is no mechanical damage within the line that could be
affected by the hydrostatic test.
Removing and inspecting the gauge plate is simple onshore (and for pipelines with
above surface terminations); but requires additional work on pipelines terminating
subsea and in deepwater. It was for this application that BJ developed the
Smartgauge tool to meet the following needs of deepwater pipelines. This
technology:

Allows lines with restrictions (heavy wall bends, PLET hub restrictions,
reduced bore valves) to be gauged.

Permits gauging data to be reviewed and analyzed. This helps users pinpoint
and identify any restrictions.

Incorporates a system to remotely annunciate the result of the gauging run.

This means that the hydrotest can start immediately upon completion of
flooding without the need to recover the gauge plate to surface for visual
inspection.

A standard mechanical gauge plate gives no indication of where damage occurred;

this makes identification of location difficult, time consuming, and expensive. By

using the multi-channel Smartgauge tool with a segmented flexible gauge plate,
both the clock position and the location of multiple defects can be ascertained,
reducing the time needed to find the problem.
Future developments
Improving ROV capabilities and advances in electronics will benefit remote flooding
and pigging systems. Use of remote data transmission and signaling will allow
associated tasks to be reduced in impact and cost, or taken completely off of project
critical paths.
All future developments will be driven by these common objectives:

Reduce the in-field time required to complete subsea pre-commissioning,

hence saving on both the vessel costs and hire periods for pre-commissioning
spreads.

Remove or replace operational processes that have high risk (such as

deployment of large diameter down-lines in deepwater).

Minimize offshore vessel deck space for pre-commissioning equipment,

allowing smaller and cheaper vessels to be used.

6/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-6/flowlines__pipelines/new-technologies-reduce-pre-commissioning-time-cost.html

Designing large-diameter
pipelines for deepwater
installation
Upcoming South Stream project in Black Sea calls for 560 mi of 32-in. pipe in
depths to 7,200 ft
Martijn van Driel
Alex Mayants
Intecsea BV
Alexey Serebryakov
OAO Gazprom
Andrey Sergienko
OAO Giprospetsgaz
Gazprom has successfully realized some of the world's largest offshore gas
transportation systems, with pipelines in the 24-in. (61-cm) diameter range
traversing water depths of more than 2,100 m (6,889 ft) with the Blue Stream I and
II projects.
Now, with South Stream, project planners are considering the challenges of
installing 32-in. (81-cm) diameter pipeline in depths that will exceed 2,200 m (7,200
ft). The 900-km (560-mi) pipeline will extend from the Russian coast to a western
landfall on either the Bulgarian or Romanian coastline. Some of the key challenges
include:

Water depths exceeding 2,200 m (7,200 ft)

Relatively large pipeline diameter for given water depth

Difficult seabed conditions with steep slopes and geohazards

Potentially aggressive/corrosive subsea environments.

The complexity of an offshore pipeline typically is expressed in terms of the water

depth and diameter. While these are not the only drivers for a project's complexity,
this expression does provide a good insight in the position of a project in relation to
the current status of the industry.
While a 24-in. pipeline in 2,150 m (7,053 ft) as installed for Blue Stream in 2003 was
a major challenge at the time, that project did lead to the development of
technology that is now considered proven, and similar projects have been realized
in various regions in the world. With projects like South Stream, the industry is now
exploring a new frontier and preparing for the next step.
Seabed conditions
Pipelines across the Black Sea need to traverse a deep abyssal plain bordered by
steep and sometimes rugged continental slopes. While the deepwater of the abyssal
plain leads to a high external pressure, which is important for the wall thickness
requirement, the continental slope crossings also can be challenging, often with
high risk of pipeline spanning and geohazards.

Offshore section of the South Stream project.

In deepwater, the current and wave effects are limited, causing little dynamic
loading. Allowable pipeline spans are typically longer than in shallow water and

governed by local buckling criteria. Excessive spans can be corrected either by

shoulder shaving, support placements, or combination thereof; the tooling for both
seabed intervention methods has been developed and is available.
Geohazards are defined as features of the natural seabed that threaten the integrity
of submarine pipeline systems. Such features include submarine channels, faulting,
unstable slopes, landslides, mud volcanoes, seabed hydrates, pockmarks, debris,
and turbidity flows.
Historically, the risk posed by such features has been eliminated often simply by
routing around them. However, for pipelines crossing a continental slope into
deepwater, it becomes less likely that all such potential hazards can be avoided.
Hence, engineering solutions must take into account the underlying geological
and/or sediment movement processes.
Geohazards can lead to significant loads on or displacements of a pipeline. In the
Black Sea, the most relevant geohazards include:

Faults

Unstable slopes resulting in slumps or slides

Mudflows / mass gravity flows

Earthquake or wave induced liquefaction in the shore approach area

Mud volcanoes

Gas-expulsion features.

All of the above features have been identified in the project area, and need to be
addressed through rigorous survey and engineering. Earthquake-induced slope
stability and mass gravity flows could pose a significant risk to the integrity of the
pipeline at the Russian continental slope, and a similar situation exists for the
western continental margin. An extensive feasibility survey has been performed to
identify these risks and to develop preliminary route options. To further quantify
these risks, it is important to perform a comprehensive design survey campaign to
capture and analyze these geohazards. This can save a significant amount of
time/costs on subsequent detailed surveys, studies, and construction.

It is one of the best-known Black Sea properties: deeper than approximately 150 to
200 m (490 to 656 ft), Black Sea water does not contain oxygen, but does contain
dissolved sulfuric hydride. Water mixing (driven by currents and waves) is needed
for the oxygen captured from air and generated by algae at the sea surface to reach
lower layers of the sea. In the Black Sea, there is extremely little vertical water
mixing, resulting in the world's largest stratified water body.
For the Blue Stream project, the environment of the Black Sea was classified as sour
(or H2S containing) based on extensive measurement campaigns and supported
by historical research data that showed accelerated corrosion rates in parts of the
Black Sea environment. The likely cause of the corrosion was identified as a
combination of H2S and sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB). Detailed water and soil
tests are being performed for the South Stream project to establish the chemistry of
the Black Sea environment over the vertical water column, as well as the top soil to
a depth of 4 to 6 m (13 to 19.7 ft) below the seabed surface.
Contrary to normal sour service pipelines in which sour medium is introduced inside
of the pipe, the Black Sea environment may cause H2S exposure to the outer
surface of the pipe. This service condition applies over the system lifetime. It is
difficult to quantify, since it depends on highly localized soil conditions and
pipe/soil/water chemical interactions over the complete length and lifetime of the
system. When present, high H2S concentration is typically found at a depth of 2 to 4
m (6.5 to 13 ft) below the seabed. Its effects on the pipe steel and welds are being
investigated.
Since there are no concepts readily available to mitigate an external H2S-containing
environment after pipeline operation, it is essential to correctly assess the
associated risks and costs. For South Stream, this issue is being investigated in
detail through an extensive geochemical survey and analysis program, as well as a
detailed material testing and development program.
Hydraulic performance
For a project like South Stream, the investment involved is considerable and the
ability to transport significantly more gas at limited additional cost improves the
commercial performance of the project. Hence, an increase in diameter has
significant benefits for the project economics, enabling more gas to be transported

over longer distances. As part of project analysis, planners have examined the
typical relationship between inlet pressure and outside diameter for different
throughputs for a 900-km (560-mi) pipeline. The research showed that a diameter
increase from 24 to 32-in. allows twice the volume of gas to be transported. While
the friction loss increases exponentially for smaller diameters, it also increases with
the higher velocities required to transport the same volume through a smaller pipe.
While this figure only relates to a typical pipeline length, the same considerations
apply for shorter distance pipelines, justifying the desire to implement larger
diameter pipelines for deep water application. For inlet pressure requirements up to
30 MPa (4,350 psi), the application of existing and field proven technologies is
available. No technology gap is foreseen.
For pipelines as long as South Stream, the minimum allowable arrival temperature
requirement can become the governing factor rather than the pressure loss. The
gas cools when ascending the continental slope and passing through the buried
shore approach section on the receiving end. Good knowledge of pipeline
settlement (and therefore soil conditions) and concrete coating becomes important
to accurately predict the hydraulic performance of the system. In case that the insitu sediment at the downstream shore approach is found to be susceptible to frost
heave, it would be wise to consider engineered backfill.
The parameter that strongly influences the system's thermo-hydraulic performance
is the embedment on the continental shelf at the receiving end. Overall,
embedment in the soft, often liquid clay of the Black Sea can easily be 50 to 100%
or more of the diameter. Thermo-hydraulic performance is verified against existing
operational information to provide additional certainty; given the importance of pipe
burial, the hydraulic analyses will be revisited after geotechnical survey results are
obtained and pipe burial has been calculated.
Another parameter influencing the receiving temperature is the application of
concrete coating. Concrete coating provides a thermal insulation in comparison to
an uncoated pipe. One option being considered is to continue the deepwater wall
thickness up to the receiving landfall, thereby reducing the extent of concrete
coated pipe. While this would most likely result in a higher capex, the overall
throughput capacity could be improved.

Steel grade selection

It is generally practical to apply the highest possible line pipe grade to minimize the
wall thickness, weight, and cost of the pipeline. For deepwater offshore applications,
DNV SAWL 450 has been used in numerous sour and non-sour conditions. DNV
SAWL 485 grade has been produced almost exclusively for non-sour service,
although recent developments and trials in sour service conditions have been
initiated for small-diameter pipelines. Nevertheless, additional qualifications for
H2S-resistant application are required to ensure the performance of DNV SAWL 485.

Full-scale collapse test rig.

Installability
The combination of pipeline diameter and maximum water depth for South Stream
exceeds that previously achieved in the worldwide pipeline industry. The first issue
to be addressed in terms of overall construction feasibility is, therefore, the ability
to install the selected pipeline dimensions in the deepwater segment of the route.
Furthermore, the significant route length introduces additional challenges to
maximize installation efficiency. Installation of the pipeline will require extension of

the existing global pipelay installation capacity. In doing so, the success factors and
experiences from previous record-setting pipeline projects such as Blue Stream and
Nord Stream must be evaluated and applied where appropriate.
The feasibility of the installation of the deepwater section of the route governs the
overall system construction feasibility. As part of this process, the capabilities of the
existing deepwater pipeline installation vessels are being assessed against the
deepwater installation requirements on this project. The three existing deepwater
pipeline installation vessels usually considered suitable for a project like South
Stream are the Saipem S7000, Allseas Solitaire, and HMC Balder. Furthermore, the
deepwater installation capacity will increase in the future if several newbuild vessels
are completed on schedule. These include the Saipem FDS-2 and Castorone; the
Allseas Pieter Schelte, and a new vessel being developed by Hereema Marine
Contractors (HMC). In general, it has been concluded that installation is feasible
using the existing deepwater installation vessel fleet. However, the assessment of
the existing three deepwater pipeline installation vessels shows that all three
vessels will require some modifications/upgrades to install the South Stream system
safely and efficiently.
Wall thickness
Core to the capability to develop large diameter projects in deepwater is the wall
thickness design in combination with the manufacturability of the linepipe.

Full-scale collapse test pipe.

For the pipe diameter and wall thickness under discussion, only two pipe
manufacturing processes are feasible: JCOE and UOE.
In the JCOE process, the plate is formed to a J-shape using a pressed module, stepby-step at a fixed width interval. Then using a similar method, the plate is formed to
a C-shape until it obtains an O-shape. The pipe is subjected to cold expansion after
tack weld and submerged arc welded at the inside and outside parts.
The UOE process consists of forming the plate into U-shape and O-shape using a
pressed module, followed by tack weld and longitudinal weld of the pipe. As
opposed to the JCOE process, both the U-shape and O-shape are obtained using
one-step forming. Thereafter the pipe is cold expanded to obtain the required
dimension. For both pipe manufacturing methods, the current DNV code formulation
results in a reduction of the compressive strength after the manufacturing process,
with 15% compared with tensile strength.
The wall thickness required for South Stream is at the limit of the leading mills'
capability. One limitation for some mills is the capacity of the pipe-forming process
(such as the capacity of the O-press). While this restriction may be avoided through
a considerable investment in upgrade of the mill, the control of pipe properties in
the weld area for such thick-walled pipes remains a major issue (in particular
parameters such as ductility and toughness). For deepwater application, these pipe
properties are critical to the pipe performance. Achieving the desired material
parameters for the wall thickness required using standard calculation methods is on
the edge of what can be produced. A small reduction in wall thickness can result in
a major improvement in manufacturability, and thereby drive the actual feasibility
of the project for a specific throughput and OD combination.
For the deepwater section of the pipeline, the design is governed by the local
buckling criterion. This condition occurs during installation at the pipeline sagbend
where the pipeline will experience the most extreme combination of external
pressure and bending. In the calculation of the required wall thickness for this
design limit state, the following critical technological advances can be applied:

Recovery of collapse resistance through thermal aging

Tighter dimensional control on line pipe manufacture

Tight control on bending strain during installation

A partly displacement-controlled condition is applied in the design for the

sagbend.

The largest contribution to wall thickness optimization is from the recovery of

collapse resistance through thermal aging. Pipe collapse resistance is linked to the
pipe hoop compressive strength. Many studies including small-scale and full-scale
tests have been performed in the past 20 years (for example Oman-India, Blue
Stream, and Mardi Gras), evidencing that a significant recovery in collapse strength
can be gained for DNV SAWL 450 steel (in the order of 30%). In fact, test results
suggest the collapse resistance is recovered even beyond the original value.
Using the current DNV F101 formulation, most mills, nowadays, indicate that they
are able to produce pipe with a significantly improved fabrication factor,
incorporating strength recovery through thermal aging. Thermal aging effect is the
ability of steel to recover its strength due to strain aging. It is possible to take
advantage of thermal aging through application of external coating, which usually
takes place at the same temperature range as where the thermal aging process
occurs.
For a deepwater, large-diameter pipeline such as South Stream, using a thinner wall
without compromising system reliability is desirable not only for the obvious
economics in steel saving but also out of necessity, as blind compliance to the
current international design codes would result in a wall thickness that is beyond
manufacturability.
To give the owner, designer, and manufacturer sufficient confidence, Gazprom has
commissioned a full testing program, which is currently ongoing. This testing
program includes full scale testing of as-received and thermally treated pipe joints,
subjected to combined loading of external pressure and bending.
Deepwater repair contingencies
In the past, even though the probability of failure of a properly planned deepwater
pipeline is small, the risk associated has been a concern because of the difficulties
in making repairs. While the effort required remains considerable, current
deepwater technology provides the tooling that allows repairs large-diameter,

deepwater pipelines. Even within the region, repair systems are available for the
water depth (Blue Stream) or diameter (Green Stream) under discussion. To
combine these into a new application is relatively straightforward, with little
technology gap.
Conclusions
A 24-in. pipeline in 2,150-m water depth or 32-in. pipelines in 1,400-m water depth
are accepted by the offshore industry as proven technologies. The South Stream
project is now investigating the feasibility of using larger diameters (such as 32-in.)
in 2,200-m-plus water depths, and its successful construction will be another stepchange for the offshore industry. The use of a larger diameter will provide obvious
benefits for the project economics, allowing a considerably higher throughput; but
this requires an advance application of existing technologies.
For the present installation fleet, the installability of such a pipeline is complex but
not governing. This capability will be further improved if the currently scheduled
deepwater installation vessels are completed on schedule. Still, rigorous design is
essential, regardless of the selected diameter.
Key to the success of such projects is the manufacturability of the line pipe with the
requisite wall thickness. The wall thickness required for large-diameter pipelines is
on the edge of leading mills' capabilities. Several technology advances need to be
applied to achieve feasibility, and a rigorous development program is ongoing for
successful implementation.
Acknowledgment
Based on a paper presented at the Deep Offshore Technology International
Conference and Exhibition held on Nov. 30-Dec. 2, 2010, in Amsterdam.
08/01/2011

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-71/issue-8/flowlines__pipelines/designing-large-diameter-pipelines-for-deepwater-installation.html

New depth-independent, high

resolution subsea pipeline
inspection tool released
Matthew Kennedy - AGR Integrity UK
Nick Terdre - Contributing Editor

External scanning of pipelines traditionally is undertaken by divers who require

support vessels. AGR Groups Neptune system, however, provides inspection
without diver intervention and associated availability issues and depth limitations.
Neptune combines an external state-of- the-art ultrasound scanner with a small
ROV. The system can be mobilized anywhere in the world to examine and predict
the remaining life of subsea tubulars. The system delivers high-resolution ultrasonic
data in real time, which is used to underpin the detailed finite element analysis
(FEA) calculations used in industry-standard, fitness-for-service (FFS)
determinations.

AGRs Neptune pipe inspection tool undergoing deployment.

The neutral buoyant Neptune system, weighing 150 kg (331 lb) in air but neutrally
buoyant in water, is deployed via an inspection class ROV to the work site. The
scanner comprises a hydraulically opening and closing twin collar, 600-mm (23.6-in)
wide construction containing a fully automated X-Y scanner. This clamshell
construction is self-aligning to allow rapid installation by the ROV.
Self-centering rams within the clamshell hold the scanner firmly on the pipe,
creating a stable platform for the X-Y probe carriage. The probe carriage has an axial
range of 500 mm (20 in.) and a circumferential movement of over 360. It is
configured to deploy Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) transducers for volumetric

weld inspection, and compression wave transducers to perform color graphic

material mapping.
The historic restriction of analogue data transmission has been removed by locating
the AGR Technology Design ultrasonic digital flaw detector on the Neptune scanner.
This allows the inspection data to be digitized and processed at the subsea
worksite, then sent through the ROV umbilical to be viewed in real time on the
surface.
Currently, the Neptune system is configured to operate in water depths of up to
1,000 m (3,280 ft), but this could be extended. The systems ultimate working or
depth range is equivalent to the ROV umbilical length: some ROVs today operate to
a range of 6,000 m (19,685 ft).
The ROV pilot and Neptune operator sit together during operations to ensure
optimum operational interface. The objective of any examination performed with
the Neptune system is to obtain high quality graphical images of parent material,
welds, and adjacent HAZ material.
As the probe carriage rasters around the pipe, the data is stored and viewed in real
time for both mapping and weld inspection. In TOFD mode, the two transducers
straddle the weld at a pre-set standoff to allow volumetric imaging of the weld in
one pass.
There are a multitude of ROVs in service around the world, hence the importance of
being able to interface mechanically and electronically with any type of inspection
class ROV. The size and weight of the self-contained Neptune system allow
deployment from, small supply vessels or fixed offshore installations to monitor
risers and caissons.
The system also can check pipeline areas following subsea impact, anomaly
verification and quantification following IP runs, and to assess potential hot-tap
locations. In its current configuration the double-collar scanner is ideal to examine
straight pipe and upstream and downstream of bends.

Close-up of Neptune system.

The examination is performed on production pipelines from the external surface.

The cleaner the surface, the higher quality the resulting images. Thanks to an
existing range of cleaning, excavation, and dredging options, some residing within
the AGR group, each proposed inspection site can be addressed individually to
optimize the data quality.
Gaining direct access to the pipeline wall may be difficult if the line is concretecoated, buried, or rock-dumped. In such cases, internal inspection techniques may
offer a more cost-effective solution, which AGR again can address via its suite of
inspection tools.
Neptunes current inspection diameter range is 12-18-in. (30-46 cm), with plans to
build both smaller and larger diameter collars deploying the same techniques. There
are further plans to use the systems scanner as a platform for other techniques
such as ACFM, eddy current, and phased array.
AGR embarked on the development of this technology in the mid 1990s aiming to
inspect pipelines not designed for pigging. There are a number of reasons why such
services may be required. Many non-piggable lines have reached the limit of their
design life, so their integrity needs to be demonstrated if they are to remain in
operation.

Again, operators in general are giving greater priority to ensuring the integrity of
their pipelines, of any age. Production downtime resulting from loss of a pipeline
due to corrosion or a defective weld more than outweighs the cost of regular
inspection. And operators also find themselves facing more stringent regulations as
authorities seek to avoid environmental damage from pipeline leaks.
Crack detection
Demand has grown for internal and external inspection of pipelines and welds the
past year. Last fall, AGR introduced Claycutter X, a technology to excavate the sea
bottom and to remove soil from old pipelines. AGR plans to provide the Neptune
Subsea Inspection system and Claycutter X as a package to combine excavation,
examination, and recovering.
Another development is the WeldScan tool, which the AGR PipeTech division says it
aims to promote in the Gulf of Mexico and West Africa. To date the system has been
applied only in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea.

A pipeline inspection train is readied, with AGRs PipeIntruder, which supplies the motive force, at the front.
Like its predecessor PipeScan, WeldScan is equipped with ultrasonics to measure
wall thickness and to detect weld defects. However, using TOFD takes accuracy to
new levels, capable of detecting cracks in welds of less than a millimeter for both
width and depth. In other words, cracks can be identified much earlier.

This meets the needs of increasing application of exotic and high-grade steels in
pipelines and risers to cope with multiphase flows and corrosive wellstreams. These
materials are often difficult to weld, so regular monitoring of welds is required.
The move into deeper waters also places a premium on reliable integrity monitoring
techniques, i.e. for inspecting steel catenary risers which are exposed to severe
loadings.
WeldScan has proved its worth in examining pipelines made of high-grade steel in
this case 13% chrome in a number of assignments carried out for an operator in
the Norwegian sector.
AGR also has developed a method to transport its inspection tools through the
pipeline. This is self-propelled pig, known as PipeIntruder, incorporates a seal disc
with an internal bypass. Water is pushed through the seal disc by a pump at the
front, creating back-pressure to push the tool forward. Pumping can be reversed,
sending the tool backwards.
An odometer wheel tracks PipeIntruders position in the pipeline. The tool also has
axial and circumferential motors to position WeldScan alongside a weld with 1mm
(0.04 in.) axial accuracy. Video cameras monitor this operation. Data from WeldScan
is transmitted to the surface via fiber-optic cable in real time.
The PipeIntruder is available for pipe diameters from 8-30 in. (20.3-76.2 cm). Above
30 in. (76 cm), electro-hydraulic tractors are available. The pig hauls all
combinations of inspection tools, and can travel up to 10 km (6.2 mi), the maximum
range of the umbilical winch.
The string made up of the PipeIntruder and inspection tools is inserted into the
pipeline at the host platform. The tools can be used to inspect other tubular
structures such as risers, J-tubes, and loading lines.
04/01/2008

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/2008/04/new-depth-independent-highresolution-subsea-pipeline-inspection-tool-released.html

Detection system tracks minutest pipeline leaks

Co.L.Mar's Acoustic Leak Detector (ALD) technology has pinpointed defects this year
on three subsea pipelines in a variety of settings.

ALD installed on a work

class ROV.
Leaks in pipelines stem from transition of the transported fluid from the internal
pressure to the lower external pressure. The resultant turbulence and sudden
expansion of the fluid mass generate acoustic signals which the ALD processes to
extract from the ambient noise to indicate leakage.
The system's main components are an underwater acoustic sensor that acquires
data along the pipeline; a transmission line that relays data to the surface vessel;
and PC-based software that evaluates the acquired signal in real time, and its
development along the pipeline track. This signal is converted by the ALD's receiver
to an audible lower frequency. Depending on the application (inspection or
monitoring), different sensors can be deployed by divers, towed fish, ROVs, or
lowered vertically over the side of a surface vessel.
One recent project was on a newly installed pipeline offshore in the Middle East.
Co.L.Mar was called out following the hydrotest reporting a leak of just 0.21 liter/min
which divers had been unable to locate. At the time, according to Managing Director
Luigi Barbagelata, the line was filled with water and colorant.
"We found the leak at our first attempt on a valve flange this was the smallest leak
we had ever dealt with and proves the effectiveness and sensitivity of our system,"
he said. "We used an equipment spread deployed by divers and an ROV."
Another job was in the Indian Ocean, where Co.L.Mar used an ROV configuration to
detect a leak in an umbilical in 200 m (656 ft.) water depth. Leakage was reported
during tests following installation of the umbilical, which at the time was filled with
air.

Leak generated by
corrosion and its ALD
image.
"Even though conditions were not ideal a combination of air and pressure of just a
few bar - we were still able to find the leak easily," said Barbagelata.
The third job was Co.L.Mar's first-ever assignment in the Americans. The location
was a lagoon in very shallow water (1 m or 3 ft. deep). To work in this awkward
environment, an ALD sensor, similar to that used with towed fish for tracking
purposes, was mounted on the side of a small aluminum vessel with a very limited
draft.
"The leak [the pipeline was water-filled] turned out to be in an area where the
pipeline was covered by over 10 ft. (3 m) of sand," Barbagelata said. "I believe the
reason it was buried by so much sand was not due to backfilling, but the dynamics
of the seafloor in that area."
In June, Co.L.Mar was also commissioned to perform monitoring of the status of a
subsea pipeline during a pigging operation.
"The contractor was concerned about potential stress that would be imposed on the
pipeline. We monitored the pipeline using a towed fish continuously over the 10-day
campaign, night and day, to ensure that if there were a leak, we could deal with it.

The pigging team was working from the platform, while our specialists were based
on the survey vessel with equipment ready for a repair if a leak were found."
Over the past two years. Co.L.Mar has been working on a new monitoring system for
leak detection on subsea structures such as christmas trees, manifolds, or valves.
Currently a basic prototype version is undergoing tests in a 6 x 10-m (20 x 33-ft.)
indoor tank in 8 m (26 ft.) water depth: the sensor is designed to give an indication
of the presence of a leak and the direction of the leakage.
"It comprises an array of four elements, which have so far given good results in the
pool. Our next step is to repeat and optimize the test in the pool, then perform
further tests out at sea with real leak detection equipment."
11/01/2012
http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-72/issue-11/supplementitaly/detection-system-tracks-minute-pl-leaks.html

Common Types of Pipeline

Flange Faces
Flanges provide the necessary connections to link pipelines. Faces are the mating
surface of a flange. Flange faces have to be smooth enough to ensure a tight, leakfree seal for bolted flanges. For the purpose of this article, we will be focusing on
five common types of flange faces:
1. Raised Face (RF)
2. Flat Face (FF)
3. Ring-Type Joint (RTJ)
4. Male-and-Female (M&F)
5. Tongue-and-Groove (T&G)
Raised Face (RF)
The Raised Face type is the most applied flange type, and is easily to identify. It is
called raised face because the gasket is raised 1/16" to 1/4" above the bolt circle
face. This face type allows the use of a wide combination of gasket designs,
including flat ring sheet types and metallic composites such as spiral wound and
double jacketed types.
The purpose of a RF flange is to concentrate more pressure on a smaller gasket area
and thereby increase the pressure containment capability of the joint.

Flat Face (FF)

The flat face (full face) flange has a gasket surface in the same plane as the bolting
circle face. Applications using flat face flanges are frequently those in which the
mating flange or flanged fitting is made from a casting.
Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange. When connecting
flat face cast iron flanges to carbon steel flanges, the raised face on the carbon
steel flange must be removed, and that a full face gasket is required. Flat face
flanges are used on pump facings or on fiberglass flanges where the torque of
compressing the gasket will damage the flange body and on cast iron flanges
sometimes found on mechanical equipment that can cause complications due to the
brittle nature of cast iron. Forged steel flat face flanges are often found 150# and
300# ratings.
The Flat Face flange has a gasket surface in the same plane as the bolting circle
face. Applications using flat face flanges are frequently those in which the mating
flange or flanged fitting is made from a casting.

Ring-Type Joint (RTJ)

The Ring Type Joint flanges are typically used in high pressure (Class 600 and higher
rating) and high temperature services above 800F (427C).
RTJ flanges have grooves cut into their faces. An RTJ flange may have a raised face
with a ring groove machined into it. This raised face does not serve as any part of
the sealing means. For RTJ flanges that seal with ring gaskets, the raised faces of
the connected and tightened flanges may contact each other. In this case the
compressed gasket will not bear additional load beyond the bolt tension, vibration
and movement cannot further crush the gasket and lessen the connecting tension.
Ring-type joints (RTJ) are considered to be the most efficient flanges for use in
pipeline design. Rather than using a gasket between connecting flanges, RTJ have a
deep groove in a ring shared around the face.
Ring type gaskets must be used on this type of flange. Ring Type Joint gaskets are
metallic sealing rings, suitable for high-pressure and high-temperature applications.

Tongue-and-Groove (T&G)
With this type the flanges must be matched. One flange face has a raised ring
(Tongue) machined onto the flange face while the mating flange has a matching
depression (Groove) machined into its face. These facings are commonly found on
pump covers and valve bonnets.
Tongue-and-groove facings are standardized in both large and small types. They
differ from male-and-female in that the inside diameters of the tongue-and-groove
do not extend into the flange base, thus retaining the gasket on its inner and outer
diameter.
Tongue-and-groove joints also have an advantage in that they are self-aligning and
act as a reservoir for the adhesive. The scarf joint keeps the axis of loading in line
with the joint and does not require a major machining operation.

Male-and-Female (M&F)
This type of flanges also must be matched. One flange face has an area that
extends beyond the normal flange face (Male). The other flange or mating flange
has a matching depression (Female) machined into its face. Custom male and
female facings are commonly found on the heat exchanger shell to channel and
cover flanges. The female face and the male face are smooth finished. The outer
diameter of the female face acts to locate and retain the gasket.
Advantages:
Better sealing properties, more precise location and exact compression of sealing
material, utilization of other, more suitable sealing and specialized sealing material.
Disadvantages:
Normal raised faced is far more common and ready available both regarding Valves,
flanges and sealing material. Another complexity is that some rigid rules must be
applied to the piping design.

Posted: 2014-06-10 10:01:16

Post URL: http://www.landeeflange.com/common-types-of-pipeline-flange-faces.html

Pig Launchers/ Receivers

Jamison Products Pig Launcher/ Receivers offered are a custom engineered design
products that meets customer, environmental and industry standards. The Pig
Launcher/ Receiver is built for ease of operation and longevity of service. With a
multiple of option available, Jamison will supply the ultimate design that readily
meets your technical and commercial requirements.
What is a Pig Launcher/Receiver?
Pigging in the maintenance of pipelines refers to the practice of using pipeline
inspection gauges or 'pigs' to perform various operations on a pipeline without
stopping the flow of the product in the pipeline. Pigs get their name from the
squealing sound they make while traveling through a pipeline. These operations
include but are not limited to cleaning and inspection of the pipeline. This is
accomplished by inserting the pig into a Pig Launcher - a funnel shaped Y section in
the pipeline. The launcher is then closed and the pressure of the product in the
pipeline is used to push it along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap the 'pig catcher'.
If the pipeline contains butterfly valves, the pipeline cannot be pigged. Ball valves
cause no problems because the inside diameter of the ball can be specified to the
same as that of the pipe.
Pigging has been used for many years to clean larger diameter pipelines in the oil
industry. Today, however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now
increasing in many continuous and batch process plants as plant operators search
for increased efficiencies.

Pigging can be used for almost any section of the transfer process between, for
example, blending, storage or filling systems. Pigging systems are already installed
in industries handling products as diverse as lubricating oils, paints, chemicals,
toiletries, and foodstuffs.
Pigs are used in lube oil or painting blending: they are used to clean the pipes to
avoid cross-contamination, and to empty the pipes into the product tanks (or
sometimes to send a component back to its tank). Usually pigging is done at the
beginning and at the end of each batch, but sometimes it is done in the midst of a
batch, e.g. when producing a premix that will be used as an intermediate
component.
Pigs are also used in oil and gas pipelines: they are used to clean the pipes but also
there are "smart pigs" used to measure things like pipe thickness along the pipeline.
They usually do not interrupt production, though some product can be lost when the
pig is extracted. They can also be used to separate different products in a multiproduct pipeline.
Why use a Pig Launcher/ Receiver?
A major advantage of piggable systems is the potential resulting product savings. At
the end of each product transfer, it is possible to clear out the entire line contents
with the pig, either forwards towards the receipt point, or backwards to the source
tank. There is no requirement for extensive line flushing.
Without the need for line flushing, pigging offers the additional advantage of a
much more rapid and reliable product changeover. Product sampling at the receipt
point becomes faster because the interface between products is very clear, and the
old method of checking at intervals, until the product is on-specification, is
considerably shortened.
2/6/2015
http://www.jamisonproducts.com/pipeline-products/pig-launchers-receivers.html

Innovation enhances
deepwater pipeline precommissioning and
inspection
Mark J. Slaughter
Weatherford
Deepwater pipeline pre-commissioning and in-line inspections are logistical and
technical challenges, and vessel time is typically a major expense. The Tamar gas
field project in the Mediterranean Sea met these challenges using specialized
subsea commissioning technology to mechanically displace and introduce pipeline
fluids, and ultrasonic in-line inspection tools to assure pipeline integrity.
The long-distance, deepwater pipeline project for Noble Energy involved a subsea
gas production and transportation system connecting the Tamar gas field to an
offshore receiving and processing platform linked to the existing Mari-B platform.
The system produces gas from five high-flow-rate subsea wells through separate
infield flowlines to a subsea manifold. Dual subsea pipelines transport production
from the subsea manifold approximately 149 km (92.5 mi) to the Tamar offshore

receiving and processing platform. The processed gas goes to the existing Ashdod
Onshore Terminal (AOT) for sales into the Israel Natural Gas Line (INGL).
Weatherford's Pipeline and Specialty Services (P&SS) group was contracted to
provide the pipeline pre-commissioning and inspection, including tieback pipelines,
monoethylene glycol (MEG) pipelines, infield flowlines, gas and condensate injection
pipelines, Tamar sales gas export pipeline, and utility pipelines. Integration of these
services through a single contractor was one key to reducing logistical and
scheduling constraints for overall project success.
Infield flowline operations
Challenges and solutions engaged in the project revolved around subsea flooding,
testing, and MEG injection; dewatering, MEG conditioning, and nitrogen purging;
and ultrasonic wall measurement base line inspection.
A key aspect of the pre-commissioning involved flooding, cleaning, gauging, and
hydrotesting the 5 x 10-in. deepwater (1,600 m to 1,800 m/5,248 ft to 5,904 ft)
infield flowlines of 4-km to 6-km (2.5-mi to 3.7-mi) lengths. These operations were
performed from the seabed using Weatherford's Denizen subsea pre-commissioning
system.

e Tamar gas field presented many logistical and technical challenges to pre-commissioning and inspection.
Flowline operations were independent of the tieback lines and jumper installation.
Schedule flexibility increased as a result, and the remote subsea operations avoided

the use of a large, vessel-based pumping spread or deepwater downline. Subsea

pumps for the flood and hydrotest operations were driven by high ambient
hydrostatic pressure during the pipeline free-flood phase and by ROV hydraulic
power.
The Denizen pigging pump launched the dewatering pig train with slugs of MEG. A
custom, high-volume MEG skid was deployed subsea and connected to the flooding
skid to avoid the cost of downline intervention to inject the MEG.
Pre-launching the pigs allowed dewatering of the 10-in. infield lines via a jumper
from the 16-in. tieback lines. As a result, all dewatering nitrogen injection was
performed from the shallow end of the tieback lines.
Another novel subsea operation used multiple remote subsea data-logging skid
packages during hydro-testing. Typically, the ROV and pumping skid hold station at
the end of the pipeline for the full 12- or 24-hr pressure test. This was unworkable
with five pipelines requiring testing and hold periods.
The solution was to deploy multiple independent hydro-test logging skids. The
system's pumping skid has a built-in hydro-test data logging system that displays
pipeline pressure, temperature, and pump flow rate. A high-pressure triplex pump,
powered by the ROV's hydraulic system, elevated pipeline pressure by injecting
chemically treated and filtered seawater.
The logging skids were stabbed into the pipeline and the pressure test was
conducted through them. Instead of remaining on station during the hold period, the
pump skid was freed to pressurize the next pipeline.
Twin 16-in. pipelines
Flooding, cleaning, and gauging the twin 147-km (91.3-mi) x 16-in. pipelines was
done from a vessel at the shallow end of the 240-m to 1,700-m (782-ft to 5,576-ft)
water depth run. In-line inspection surveys were conducted during flooding. A
caliper tool was pumped to verify minimum bore followed by a UTMW tool to acquire
the wall thickness baseline survey.
The inspection was followed by dewatering operations for all 5 km (3 mi) of the
Tamar infield and tieback pipelines. Pipeline diameter and water depth required a
pressure range of 170 to 235 bar (3,465 psi/17 MPa to 3,408 psi/23.5 MPa), which

required specialized compression equipment. Weatherford's Temporary Air

Compression Station (TACS) fleet provided sufficient compression power to
complete the dewatering, MEG conditioning, and nitrogen purging in a single
pigging operation.
The procedure eliminated additional post-dewatering pigging/purging, and left the
pipelines ready to accept hydrocarbons. MEG batches between pigs in the
dewatering train conditioned the post-dewatering residual water and prevented the
formation of hydrates. Additional MEG was included for pipe wall desalination.

nizen pumping skid with ROV reduced vessel time for subsea operations.
A novel approach was also used to dewater the 10-in. infield lines via the 16-in.
tieback lines without using a downline or a second vessel. The tieback lines were
packed to a higher gas pressure (232 bar/3,365 psi/23.2 MPa) than required for
dewatering (170 bar). Later, the nitrogen in from these lines was directed through a
manifold and set of jumpers to drive the pig trains in the 10-in. infield lines. Because
the pig trains were launched earlier, no deepwater downline was required for MEG
injection.
Dewatering efficiency was achieved by regulating pig speed using a stab-mounted
orifice plate installed at the discharge end of each 10-in. infield line. Days of vessel
time were saved by dewatering all five infield lines using the pressurized nitrogen
contained in the long tieback lines.

UTWM line inspection

The cost of deepwater repair makes inspection accuracy critical to pipeline integrity
assessment. An ultrasonic wall measurement (UTWM) baseline survey was
performed on the 16-in. tieback using Weatherford's latest ultrasonic in-line
inspection (ILI) tools.
Ultrasound non-destructive testing has been used for in-line inspection since the
1980s. The technology measures wall thickness based on ultrasound compression
waves directed into the pipe wall. Ultrasonic transducers positioned 90 to the pipe
wall use an impulse-echo mode to transmit an acoustic wave and to receive return
echoes. The echoes represent the locations of the internal and external pipe wall,
and metallurgical anomalies such as laminations. A UTWM baseline inspection
identifies and classifies non-injurious signals such as mid-wall laminations and other
mill-related anomalies.
Baseline corrosion survey
Accurate anomaly classification and sizing is valuable when comparing the baseline
to future inspection data. Accuracy also enhances future integrity efforts such as
engineering assessments and growth rates. It is important for deepwater subsea
lines where normal onshore non-destructive examination validation practices are
cost prohibitive. A higher level of accuracy is also important when assessing
anomalies, assigning risk, and prioritizing maintenance and expenses.

vanced ultrasonic inspection tool was used to examine pipeline integrity.

Compared to magnetic flux leakage (MFL) tools, ultrasonic technology results in

better sizing accuracy in determining wall loss and pipe wall thickness. This is
because ultrasonic pulse echo physics are a more direct measurement of wall loss.
In some cases, however, MFL is a better solution because it can be more forgiving of
dirt, debris, rough internal pipe surfaces, and waxy liquids. This necessitates a
comprehensive pre-inspection assessment prior to selection of the appropriate
technology.
Accurate measurement of wall thickness has a direct influence in calculating the
failure pressure of a corrosion feature. Typical MFL tools do not measure wall
thickness but infer it from API pipe specification, pipeline construction data, and/or
estimated variations in the magnetic field. This provides a relative assessment due
to pipeline data inaccuracies or difficultly obtaining data because of asset ownership
transfers, unavailable data, or unrecorded pipeline reroutes and modifications.
In addition, inferred measurements do not consider wall thickness tolerances from
the pipe mill. As a result, an MFL corrosion wall loss depth measurement depends on
a relative measurement of the pipe wall. This decreases the sizing accuracy beyond
the normal ILI tool sizing tolerance because, in addition to tolerances associated
with the ILI tool anomaly sizing, there are also tolerances associated with the actual
pipe spool wall thickness from the mill.
Acceptable tolerances from the mill can be as high as 10% for pipe wall
thicknesses between 5 mm (0.2 in.) and 15 mm (0.6 in.) in welded pipeline.
Tolerances for pipe walls greater than or equal to 15 mm are 15% in welded pipe.
These pipe mill tolerances and the high corrosion-anomaly sizing tolerances of an
MFL tool mean the calculated failure pressure from an ILI survey can be significantly
over or under as the result of sizing inaccuracies caused by quantifying depths as a
percentage of the assumed wall thickness.
More accurate corrosion sizing also provides better data to feed an assessment
standard such as B31G, modified B31G, or RSTRENG effective area assessment, the
preferred method for determining the remaining strength of the pipe. Of the three,
RSTRENG effective area assessment is the most accurate, based on actual versus
predicted burst pressure tests.

Experience demonstrates the occurrence of echo loss due to adverse pipeline

conditions. New sensor technology in current UTWM devices helps enhance
detection and accuracy. API 11636 engineering tests and field data analysis show
improved sensitivity and reduced signal degradation, which is critical to a successful
deepwater subsea baseline survey. The same sensor technology is used for in-line
crack inspection with accurate sizing results that can be used for integrity
assessments methodologies such as API 5797.
16-in. tieback inspection
In the Mediterranean operation, tight scheduling for the subsea launch presented a
challenge for the 16-in. UTWM ILI inspections. Normally, there would have been
sufficient battery life for the inspection tool run. However, in this case a delayed
activation was needed because of the time needed for a subsea launch.
The ILI tool first had to be inserted into the pipeline launcher receiver (PLR) onboard
the vessel. A vessel crane moved the launcher with the ILI tool to the pipeline end
manifold (PLEM). A hydraulic lock secured the pipeline end termination (PLET) to the
pipeline, and an ROV was used to turn the subsea valves and launch the pig.
The time-consuming process increased the risk of delays that could drain battery
life and cause a failed run. As a result, a two-hour window was included for
unforeseen delays. This safety factor led to programing a 12-hour delayed
activation from the time the tool was inserted into the PLR onboard the vessel.
12/12/2013
http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-73/issue-12/flowlines-andpipelines/innovation-enhances-deepwater-pipeline-pre-commissioning-andinspection.html

SPIRAL PIPE FOR OFFSHORE APPLICATION

ENERGY SECTOR TO DRIVE

DEMAND FOR SPIRAL
WELDED PIPES AND
TUBES, ACCORDING TO

NEW REPORT BY GLOBAL

INDUSTRY ANALYSTS, INC.
Standard
GIA announces the release of a comprehensive global report on the Spiral
Welded Pipes and Tubes markets. Global market for Spiral Welded Pipes
and Tubes is projected to reach 24.6 million tons by 2018, driven by
economic recovery, level of activity in the energy sector, and intensifying
pipeline construction activity.
Spiral welded pipes market, though encountering overcapacity conditions
particularly in North America, is expected to witness steady growth in the upcoming
years driven by the implementation of new pipeline projects. Investments in oil and
gas exploration and production, which are influenced by prevailing crude oil & gas
prices, have a considerable impact on the demand for spiral welded pipes and
tubes. Resurgent world economy and consequent increase in the demand for
industrial natural gas is expected to drive up momentum of the spiral welded pipes
market.
Global demand for spiral welded pipes, which are primarily used in the
transportation of oil and gas and in water transportation projects, is closely linked to
the investments in the energy sector. The energy sector makes use of spiral welded
pipes with diameters of up to 60 and up to 80 feet in length. Another factor that is
expected to fuel demand for spiral pipes and tubes is new pipeline construction
activity due to the shift of population from traditional centers that would necessitate
development of infrastructure for delivering oil and natural gas to the new locations.
Demand for spiral welded pipes is also expected from the replacement market, as
most of the existing pipeline infrastructure, particularly in developed regions, has
reached their end of useful life. Structural applications of spiral welded pipes are
also gaining momentum, specifically with additional activity occurring in port,
offshore loading and infrastructure improvement sectors.

As stated by the new market research report on Spiral Welded Pipes and
Tubes, Asia-Pacific represents the largest market worldwide, driven primarily by
increased use in transporting natural gas. Besides Asia-Pacific, Latin America ranks
among the fastest growing regional markets with compounded annual growth rate
ranging between 7.5% and 9.0% over the review period. North American market, on
the other hand, is encountering testing times owing to weak demand and
overcapacity conditions. Oversupply is the major concern for spiral welded pipes
market particularly with regard to large diameter double submerged arc welded
or DSAW line pipes, which finds use in transmitting oil, natural gas liquids, and
natural gas to consumers from drilling locations.
Despite the prevailing conditions, potential opportunities are expected primarily
from the implementation of new pipeline projects in the upcoming years, resurgent
growth of the US economy, and increased demand from natural gas exploration
operations. Also, overcapacity conditions are expected to fade away in the coming
years, as several megaprojects are set to be taken up across the world, particularly
in regions such as Southeast Asia, Australia, Middle East, Africa, and West Asia.
Replacement of aging infrastructure offers huge potential for pipe manufacturers.
The need to replace old pipelines is particular high in the US and Russia, where
pipeline networks were mostly installed during the 60s and 70s. With the average
lifespan of oil and gas transportation pipes ranging between 25 and 30 years,
opportunities in the replacement market are huge, particularly for HSAW pipes. In
the US, replacement demand holds enormous potential as a result of the recent
enactment of the legislation that necessitates more inspections to be carried out,
which could increase the likelihood of pipeline replacements. The Act is likely to play
a critical role in enabling manufacturers of large diameter line pipes to survive the
tough economic and overcapacity conditions.
Major players profiled in the report include American SpiralWeld Pipe Company LLC,
ArcelorMittal SA, Borusan Mannesmann Boru Sanayi ve Ticaret A.S., Europipe GmbH,
EVRAZ North America, JFE Steel Corporation, Jindal SAW Ltd., Man Industries Ltd.,
National Pipe Company Ltd., Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corporation, PSL
Limited, Shengli Oil & Gas Pipe Holdings Limited, Stupp Corporation, Volzhsky Pipe
Plant, UMW Group, and Welspun Corp Ltd.

The research report titled Spiral Welded Pipes and Tubes: A Global Strategic
Business Report announced by Global Industry Analysts Inc., provides a
comprehensive review of market trends, issues, drivers, company profiles, mergers,
acquisitions and other strategic industry activities. The report provides market
estimates and projections for all major geographic markets including the US,
Canada, Japan, Europe (France, Germany, Italy, UK, Spain, Russia and Rest of
Europe), Asia-Pacific (China and Rest of Asia-Pacific), Middle East, and Latin
America.
For more details about this comprehensive market research report, please visit
http://www.strategyr.com/Spiral_Welded_Pipes_and_Tubes_Market_Report.asp
About Global Industry Analysts, Inc.
Global Industry Analysts, Inc., (GIA) is a leading publisher of off-the-shelf market
research. Founded in 1987, the company currently employs over 800 people
worldwide. Annually, GIA publishes more than 1300 full-scale research reports and
analyzes 40,000+ market and technology trends while monitoring more than
126,000 Companies worldwide. Serving over 9500 clients in 27 countries, GIA is
recognized today, as one of the worlds largest and reputed market research firms.
Source :
http://www.prweb.com/releases/spiral_welded_pipes_tubes/DSAW_HSAW_pipes/prwe
b10402550.htm

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING:
Horizontal-departure-toTVD ratio decline continues
in US Gulf
Drilling trends in the 1990s, as presented in the April 2000 issue of Offshore,
indicated a majority of extended reach (ERD) wells had horizontal departures in the
range of 10,000-15,000 ft. The second and third highest number of wells were in the
5,000-10,000 ft and 15,000-20,000 ft ranges, respectively.

These Gulf of Mexico trends were pushed up by the 1997 Deep Water
Royalty Relief Act, which encouraged deepwater drilling by designating
geographic areas and allowing deepwater leaseholders to apply for
royalty suspensions in these areas. The total number of directional wells
drilled in 1998 was 1,116, out of a total of 1,718 wells drilled. Total well
counts for 1999 and 2000 are 1,944 for 1999 and 2,072 for 2000,
however total directional well numbers are not available yet.

Looking at horizontal departure (Dep) and true vertical depth (TVD) of

wells drilled through the mid-1990s, a general "shallowing" trend was
evident. The ratio of Dep and TVD increased over this same time
interval. This increase in the Dep/TVD ratio was due to a continuing
increase efficiency of directional steering systems in horizontal and
multi-lateral drilling applications. However, if a linear progression of
future activity into deeper waters is assumed, a downward trend should
develop off to the right of the graph. A few shallow water wells in the
future will continue to be drilled, extending horizontal wellbores and
pushing the Dep/TVD ratio greater than five. Some experts expect the
majority of ERD wells in the early 21st Century will be drilled with ratios
less than two.
The industry is pursuing a number of offshore extended reach projects
to be drilled. Conven-tional steerable drilling assemblies will be the
dominant drilling technique of choice. These conventional assemblies
are limiting the drilling process, instead of contributing to it. However,
rotary steerable technologies are emerging as a solution for this
problem, extending reach capability even further.

Maximum closure

Horizontal and extended reach wells drilled in the gulf are pushing
maximum closure distances to even greater lengths. The US Minerals
Management Service maintains a two-year grace period for operators
before releasing directional well information. These closure distances
versus wells are through 1998, plus early released data of a small
number of wells completed during 1999 and 2000. Operators drilling
wells from 1998-2000 with the greatest maximum closure distances are
listed in the table.
An interesting anomaly in maximum inclination can be seen in the 85100 degree range. The downward trend in the number of wells with
increasing maximum-well-inclination reversed itself and increased
slightly over this inclination range. Also, operators completing wells
from 1998-2000 with a maximum inclination angle of 85 degrees or
better are listed in the table.

02/01/2001

http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-61/issue-2/news/directionaldrilling-horizontal-departure-to-tvd-ratio-decline-continues-in-us-gulf.html