Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Alcuin
And the
Schools
ALCUIN
(Siceat
EDITED BY
ALCUIN
AND
BY
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1903
COPYRIGHT, 1892, BY
PKEFACE
IT is the purpose of this book to present a
sketch of Alcuin in his relations to education,
with prefatory and supplementary matter suffito indicate his antecedents and also his
cient
him.
as have
name Charles
the Great in
place of Charlemagne.
ANDREW
PRINCETON COLLEGE,
September, 1892.
F.
WEST.
CONTENTS
PAGB
INTRODUCTORY
CHAP.
I.
....
...
28
III.
40
IV.
64
IE.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
ALCUIN'S CHARACTER
...
.....
89
117
124
165
....
APPENDIX
EDITIONS OF ALCUIN
183
TABLE OF DATES
193
BOOKS ON ALCUIN
197
INDEX
199
vii
ALCTJIN
AND
INTRODUCTORY
AT the mid-point between ancient and modern
history stands the commanding figure of Charles
The centuries of the Middle Ages
the Great.
which precede him record the decadence and
final
extinction of ancient institutions, while the nearlyequal number of centuries which follow up to the
The fortunes
periods which mark the successive phases of civiliBefore Charles there are two
zation in the West.
periods, the one extending through the first four
centuries of the Christian era and characterized by
Roman
schools of learn1
ALCUIN
marked
at its outset
by the
general establishment of education in the Middle Ages, an establishment lasting, however, but a
first
when a
founding the universities, but itself finally decaying and coming to an end at the Eenaissance, that
third and final revival of learning which was so
radical and powerful as to become the beginning
of our
modern age
in education.
INTRODUCTORY
CHAPTER
Their origin
Thus
is
to be sought in
Greek
(eAevtfe/aioi
eTrto-r^/xat)
as the
By
the Greeks had become highly developed and exhibited the ideals towards which the best Greek minds
meant
human knowledge
or even
meaning
is this,
which minister
tion.
were
the sciences
its
art,
Thus
liberal art.
is liberal,
is
extraneous advantage."
The
because
it
/arts were
Hpo <Mo<ro4ua?
u-aiSeia, StobflBUS,
Metaphysics,
I, 2.
Serm.
XLL
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liberal
arts.
unalterably fixed body of studies, seven in number. No list of seven arts nor any mention of seven
the
education.
By
(B.C.
liberates
homo, or gentleman.
are abundant
and
Ages.
For
this
we must
now
work,
lost, of his learned contemporary Varro
It is fortunate indeed that such a
(B.C. 116-27).
writer, in his Libri
Novem
Disciplinarum, gave a
grammar,
Opuscula,
list
III, 371.
of the
" nine
disciplines," holding that only six are clearly
made
ont.
Novem Disciplinarum
of Varro,
now
work, and concluded that he had identified each one of the "nine
" with reasonable
certainty and their order of presendisciplines
tation in Varro with a fair degree of probability. Boissier says
Ritschl afterwards doubted whether he had sustained his identification of all the nine with sufficient proof. I have been unable
to find the passage where Ritschl avows such a change of conviction.
Fortunately,
it is
nine
rate array of evidence in order to find out what Varro's
disciplines" were, since there is at hand a simple piece of proof
which covers the whole case. The account of the arts in Mar-
De Nuptiis Philologist et Mercuries is demonstrably a popularized account of the studies described in Varro's
Varro's work dealt with nine
Libri Novem Disciplinarum.
tianus Capella's
Martianus likewise
studies, one for each of his nine books.
has but nine studies, and these are precisely the nine worked
out by Ritschl as Varro's " nine disciplines."
ALCUIN
known
not in
mind any
and
archi-
Varro had
it
may
him as
to iMcilius
tics
but
it
this
medicine as a liberal
1
art,
1886.
2
XIV, Ep.
XV, Ep.
1,
17.
Ill, 9.
He
instruction.
instruction,
He
TrcuSeta,
may be
completed."
grammar,
rhetoric,
held
its
own
ceeding studies.
The Eoman
civilization,
and with
it
the educa-
Institutio Oratorio,,
I,
cap. 10,
1.
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10
immoralities of pagan religion which were a natural development of so much of the mythology
that tainted their literature, it will be seen that an
antagonistic attitude to certain phases of pagan culture was inevitable from the first on the part of the
Church, and this might easily pass into a proscription of the liberal arts.
"The
patriarchs of phi-
if
of the Kings
Qrett, p.
8.
11
all
dom, for they are the voice of the Lord, the only
wise God. Or dost thou long for tuneful strains,
thou hast the Psalms
things,
we need feel no
first
position of
fifth centuries it
view.
The
liberal
arts
was most
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12
nay, even
for
the
of
the
necessary,
understanding
Scriptures.
His views are best set forth in his treatise, On
Domini
veritatem,
it
be found."
to
their
own
right,
but at the
command
of God, the
17.
1&
and containing,
and truths
moral
useful
precepts
moreover, very
of
the
one
true
This
God.
the
worship
regarding
suited to the service of the truth,
is
now
living or of the
Moses
also, that
most
De Doctrina
Christiana,
II,
cap. 40.
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14
base or excellent.
Let us not be misled into supposing that Augustine thought the arts or philosophy were to be
studied purely for their own sake. Not so,
for
he reasons that
was
if
Solomon in
Jerusalem were far greater. Accordingly he writes
"As was the amount of gold and silver and raiment
taken by Israel out of Egypt when compared with
Israel
compared with the knowledge of the divine ScripFor whatever man has spoken elsewhere, if
it be harmful, it is here condemned
if it be use-
tures.
ful, it is
herein contained."
The
Scriptures are
human
learning
is useful.
Inconsistent indeed
De Doctrina
Christiana,
II,
cap. 42.
But
let it
16
be remembered
even more
427,
greatest authority.
He
Milan
narum
is,
finished books he
had
begun upon
grammar and music. It has been held by many with
Eitschl 2 that this means " on the other five disciplines," and that Augustine consequently recognizes
1
Retractationes,
Opuscula Philologica,
I,
cap.
6.
III, 354.
ALCUIN
16
arts.
Biit
"on
five
other disciplines."
It is clear, however,
His
list is
as follows
Gram-
mar and
the
tics,
rhetoric,
3
of having studied in his youth omnes
passage
" all the books
libros artium quas liberates vacant,
of the so-called liberal arts."
Taking all his
statements
in
one view
it
becomes
plain that
to recognize less than seven in any genIt is true that in another work (De
phy
*
De
Ordine,
II, 16.
17
The point
is
It
His position and influence may now be summarized with clearness. His settled view, attained after
long meditation, was one of favorable regard toward
the arts, principally because they ministered to
the better understanding of distinctively Christian
truths. Expressions of a different tenor are indeed
to be found here and there in his writings. At one
time he seems to go back to the idea that secular
studies are useless, though not to be proscribed, and
that
own
we
are
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18
His
was so commanding that from his time
onward the Church was decisively committed to
the toleration and even the encouragement of secuinfluence
lar studies.
And
Middle Ages.
though at first reluc-
Another
influence, potent,
is
its
rhetorical
Parker argues that the book was written before Byzantium was called Constantinople, that is, before the year 330
before.
It
19
Martianus himself
disciplines of Varro.
man. He set
a
to
have
been
self-taught
appears
before him the writing of his book as a task for
liberal
of his book that he has exhibited his literary goddess Saturn, "prattling away as she heaps things
representing the
cyclic disciplines babbling unlearnedly in an un1
The "cyclic disciplines" are the
polished tale."
liberal
the
arts,
encydius disciplina (eyKv*Atos
iratSeia) of classical antiquity, and they become
interlocutors in his allegory.
The subject of his
of
nine
treatise, consisting
books, is the marriage
of Mercury with Philology, the daughter of Wisdom. Mercury, as the inventor of letters, symbolizes the arts of
maiden repre-
After the consent of Jupiter has been given to this union of god and mortal,
senting school learning.
1
Loquax docta indoctis adgerans
Fandis tacenda farcinat, immiscuit
Musas deosque,
disciplinas cyclicas
Book
ix (closing lines).
ALCUIN
20
arts
in
Grammar thus
fifth,
geometry the
sixth,
especially as
it
contained contemptuous,
Oddly enough,
Martianus Capella never thinks of attaching any
importance to the fact that they were seven, though
he enlarges on the mystical character of the Heptas
or septenary number J in other connections. Yet his
limitation is none the less intentional, for medicine
and
architecture,
certainly,
ipp. 262
and
21
as bridesmaids.
and
it
divine,
will be quite
fitting
that they be
Accordingly they are refused entrance, and music, the seventh bridesmaid
and "only remaining" heaven-born art, is given
audience. 1
The meaning
is
plain.
ture are excluded because they are not purely liberal studies.
They do not elevate the mind to the
pany of the
celestials.
They
by
as.
liberal studies,
^'Superum
pater
qui
snperesset
"Nunc
Harmonicam
igitur praecellentissimam ferainarum
"
(= Musicara) quse Mercurialium sola superest audiamus
(p. 336,
Eysseuhardt's edition).
ALCUIN
22
the last
name
geometry, the logic of Aristotle, besides other writof Aristotle and of Porphyry, and several
commentaries of his own, principally on Aristotle
and Cicero. This slender equipment was a chief
part of what was saved to the early schools of the
Middle Ages from Greek antiquity. Boethius has
left no general account of the seven arts, nor is
ings
perhaps worth noticing, however, that he is apparently the first to employ the term quadrivium
is
23
as
to his time.
for the
At any
rate,
an elementary course
and discourse as opposed to
its
Gothic rulers,
He attempted to stimulate
Christian learning.
monks to unflagging study, particularly to the
the
copying of manuscripts, and was in this way influential in extending the practice into most of the
monastic orders of Latin Christendom. Besides rendering this important service to learning, he wrote
assiduously both on Christian and secular subjects.
One of his books is entitled On the Arts and Disci-
ALCUIN
24
match.
"
It
ing
the text
:
Accordingly he opens his preface by sayis now time that we should hasten through
seven other
The
"
i
Nunc tempus est ut aliis septem titulis ssecularium litterarum praesentis libri (textum) percurrere debeamus.
Sciendum est plane quoniam frequenter quidquid continuum
atque perpetuum Scriptura Sancta vult intelligi, sub isto numero
Septies in die laudem dixi
comprehendit sicut dicit David
.
'
tibi
excidit
1150).
Et Salomon
Sapientia aedificavit sibi domum,
columnas septem' " (Migne, Patrologia Latina, LXX,
'
'
25
in due honor.
His
Capella, to
of the arts
whom
he
is
is
list
of the arts
His account
in
and
no
or
is short
forcible.
The
way original
chapter on grammar is an abridgment of Donatus,
the greatest of the Roman grammarians. His rhetoric is based to a considerable extent on Cicero.
His dialectics come in part from Varro but principally from Boethius. It is really Boethius made
These three, grammar, rheteasy for beginners.
oric and dialectics, he calls arts, and the next four
a compend suitable for Christian use.
little
of Euclid that
was
it
life of centuries.
ALCUIN
26
Thus
labors that
served as a thesaurus of
his
turies.
seven
as
"
:
Disciplines
liberalium
artium septem
first
The
earliest instance I
Etymologise,
I, 2.
27
and
Such
is
liberal arts,
Isidore
influential.
The
outline of its
and often
faultily
Kome
itself
CHAPTER
II
THE
Great coincides in time with the brightest intellectual eminence of the Anglo-Saxon Church,
where learning found a shelter until it returned
to
Britain by
ing with
many
it
From
brought
religion
Both
in the
pagan schools
of the dying Empire and in their Christian successors in southern Gaul the study of Greek
lingered,
quaintance with
directer
classical antiquity
than elsewhere.
and Fronto<
were known and studied, and the dangerous Martianus Capella was the favorite handbook of the
liberal arts.
The quick and speculative Irish mind
Aristotle, Cicero, Virgil, Plautus, Varro,
28
29
was
easily touched
when brought
monk Augustine
asteries,
Biscop (628-690),
abbat.
who
its
itself.
Benedict
its
Coelfrith.
He
ALCUIN
30
the Galilean, and the Canterbury learning the accumulated stores of books which Benedict had bought
;
and at Vienne or the disciplinary instrucdrawn from the monasteries on the Continent,
as well as from the Irish missionaries." x All that
he was capable of receiving from these several
at Borne
tion
" All
my
life,"
that source.
More than
this, his
circumspect regard
and safer
Isidore,
who was
his
1
Dictionary of Christian Biography, article on Bede by
Bishop Stubbs.
31
some portions of Isidore's writings, giving as his reasons therefor, "I will not have my
pupils read a falsehood or labor without profit after
to a scribe
my
family.
definitely
known, but
it is
until his
He
has
left
the Saints of
ALCUIN
32
To some he made
And
The
Anon
To view
And starry
last
and
The depths
of
Under the
33
The
liberal arts,
in Christian virtue
at
York: "It
of
my
ALCTJIN
34
make
home
With those that glorious Greece transferred to Rome,
The Hebrews draw from their celestial stream,
There
all
And Africa
is
their
Wise
35
Ranged
in line
The
list.
Comminian brings
it
to
an end.
The
list
large
then.
unmanageable Alcimus
of Froben's
emendation.
a
w.
1535-156L
ALCUIN
36
thousands,
list is
therefore significant.
Though the
The
lesser authors
who
37
it is
Latin versions.
may
On
Augustine.
He handed down
them with that desire of studying the liberal arts with which Egbert and Albert
had indoctrinated him. He was well aware of the
received and imbued
"
he recalled Egbert's
master Egbert," he
My
study
courses,
ALCUIN
38
is
worse, those
who
seek to
to the
view of his
He
is
the
Symeon
of
Three others stand next in prominence. They are Witzo, Fridugis, and Sigulf, who
were so attached to their master that they followed
him from York to Frankland. Witzo returned to
Britain in 796, but the other two never came back.
Another was Osulf, apparently the " prodigal son "
Alcuin's letters.
over
He
Cuculus.
Of
The
York was
39
Charles the Great was tarrying on his way homeAlcuin there attended the public
Italy.
Lullus the Jew and Peter of
between
disputation
ward from
On this
occasion
up
CHAPTER
III
ALCUIN arrived
782-796
ment
its
untutored Franks.
He was
him
41
their
The
called
and
and
Martel, the grandfather of Charles the Great, shattered forever the Moslem hope of a conquest of
whom was
the heathen
Huns and
the Franks.
His
In 771 Charles
were
ALCTJIN
42
the first
Pope Hadrian,
which ended in establishing the spiritual supremacy of the papacy, on
the one hand, alongside of and supported by the
to
first
and
Sigulf.
ness
among
Charles himself
his pupils.
is
foremost in eager-
Beside him
is Liutgard,
the queen, the last and best beloved of his wives,
and not unworthy to be his companion in study.
Alcuin called her affectionately his " daughter, "
"Jilia
his contemporary
and
43
tion
is
most
lifelike
liberal
mind."
Charles of
whom we
also a pupil,
The
Carmina,
III, 1,
Sirmond's edition,
p. 184.
ALCUIN
44
the members of this charmed circle fanciful pseudonyms and, as was his wont, justified the act by
in a letter to Gundrada,
he writes, "Intimacy of
friendship often warrants a change of name, even
as the Lord himself changed Simon into Peter, and
Scripture.
whom
he
Explaining
it
calls Eulalia,
a^
name
of Flaccus,
own name.
Charles
is
usually
Wala
leel.
is
Arsenius.
Eiculf
is
CI, 649.
Menalcas
and
Thyrsis,
the
two
46
swains
of
Virgil.
It was no easy task that was set before him for
the court school was not only composed of untu;
such a heterogeneous
circle.
We may be sure
know
it
at once.
eagerly seized on learning, both as a delight for himself and a means of giving stability to his government, and so, while he knew he must be docile, he
Alcuin knew
how
ALCUIN
46
to
Why
writes,
scan the lofty constellations of the sky, or be studying the fair forms of numbers, or turn aside to the
moon
that
47
the
dawn
new
him
to protect
he himself
is
traits.
When
it
is
remem-
ALCUIN
48
If,
then,
him
dom.
He
did not intend to rule a barbarian kingTherefore he aimed to civilize and estab-
founded in Franklandj for our Athens, being ennobled with the mastership of Christ the Lord,
49
would excel
all the
the
first
middle ages.
Romans, to Baugulf, abbat, and to his whole congregation and the faithful committed to his charge
:
"
Be
known
it
to be of utility that, in the bishoprics and moncommitted by Christ's favor to our charge,
asteries
letters,
ip.
86Migue; 110
each to teach
ability
Jafle.
and the
ALCUIN
50
divine assistance.
ten
'
And
if false
speaking
is
to be
shunned by
all
men,
who have
During
up prayers on
our behalf; and we have observed that the thoughts
contained in these letters, though in themselves
sacred services the brethren offered
most
aright.
We
so.
51
to neglect the study of letters, but to apply yourselves thereto with perseverance and with that
humility which is well pleasing to God; so that
Holy
Scriptures.
copy of this
Adieu."
fine version of
pp. 97-99.
ALCUIN
52
tone
is
and
although
and no
was neither the fault of the capitIt was the necessary result
of the insecurely protected social order. The bishops and abbats did respond in the lifetime of
Charles and for a generation later; and while the
society which he had ruled remained settled, so
effected, yet this
who
head of the Holy Roman Empire, to compel a general attention to education, and in particular to see
it
53
letters.
without a due study and teaching of secular subjects, the servants of the Church will be unable to
fulfil their proper functions and will be greatly
hampered in understanding the Scriptures. The
capitulary does not stop here, however, and insists
both on the training of the monks and priests in
learning, and moreover on the raising up of a body
of teachers to perpetuate the great work of educa" men who are both able and
tion,
willing to learn
and also desirous of instructing others."
It is a pity that so few records of the time remain
which cast light on the actual effect of the capituStill there is no reason to doubt that it was
lary.
generally obeyed, and there are not wanting evidences here and there of the institution of schools
and of further commands of the king to extend and
strengthen learning. In the very year in which
the capitulary was issued, Charles, according to one
"
of his annalists, brought with him from Rome into
Frankland masters in grammar and reckoning, and
Jaffe,
down more
Monumenta
Epistolx Carolines,
definite instructions,
and
ALCUIN
54
1
urgently enjoining their observance on the monks.
To this time, or perhaps earlier, belongs the so-
called
in
so far as they
jects,
\
liberal arts,
and we
may
set
Another capitulary,
789,
ing."
of men
He
who were
Orleans.
report of Leidrad to Charles, concerning the schools established in his diocese, is still
1
Pertz, Leges,
I,
Pertz, Leges,
I, 44.
66.
Baluze,
*
I,
209.
Pertz, Leges,
I,
107.
65
to
over,
instruct
stars
Carolumper Occidentem
"
voluntate obtulerint."
and
207.
ALCUIN
56
we
But though
Charles, finally
went so
far as to enjoin
"
that
was reserved
for
modern times.
In regard to the character of the schools themselves, it should be observed that they were not all
of one sort.
The palace school was unique. It
schools
57
by the bishop
way brought
cese.
into
The
whose exterior side they resembled, educating candidates for the priesthood and children of laymen
The scholars were partly maintained
generally.
by the endowments of the school and, in the case
of the laity, to some extent by the payment of
tuition.
Apart from the rigorous discipline of
monastic life exacted of the oblati, there is, however, no essential distinction to be drawn between the
instruction furnished in the monasteries and cathe*
58
ALCUIN
At
is
the exclusive
so-
69
store of books,
Arrived at
ALCUIN
60
cruelties
and
to discourage
Two
left York for Aachen in 792.
had sprung up which threatened not only
Accordingly he
heresies
There
is
61
reason to believe
Had
the
king resorted to civil punishment instead of resorting to the more peaceful but equally potent
resource of ecclesiastical condemnation, the politidanger was that the Spanish heretics, who were
numerous and obstinate, would join themselves to
his old Saracen foes in Spain and thus embolden
them to harass his kingdom.
The other heretical foe was also political in its alliances. Irene, the ruler of the Eastern Empire, had
done much to re-establish the worship of images,
and succeeded in carrying through her designs by
cal
If he
acquiesced in the validity of the council's restoration of image-worship, he thereby submitted to the
the East and perhaps consent to condemn imageworship, which the papacy had countenanced.
There was but one king able to aid him, and that
ALCTJIN
62
of Nice.
tians
urging him to refute them, and Alcuin devoted himself assiduously to his task.
It is in every
way
especially by the horrible devastation of LindisHis longing for retirement grew stronger
farne.
year,
Monumenta Alcuiniana,
p. 220, note.
63
CHAPTER IV
ALCUIN THE ABBAT OF TOURS
A.D. 796-804
in various parts of the kingdom and tilled by thousands of serfs, yielded great revenues toward its
support, so that when Charles appointed Alcuin to
be its abbat, he conferred the highest monastic benefice
within his
gift,
he was a
monk
monk without
the
York
as to
make
siastically unobjectionable.
64
The monks
at
Tours
65
but of learning.
if
render by
was
to raise
ALCUIN
66
spirit.
"
he writes,
I,
your Flaccus,
"
disciplines,
and
still
made
men
so that I
may
instruct
many
and
There
by
Alcuin's letter.
dome
of a church,"
is
67
But
to obtain them.
"I, your servant," he con"
of scholastic erudition
rarer
books
the
lack
tinues,
which I had in my own country through the devoted
York
labors.
my
And
thereof
1
filled that which follows in the Book of Canticles,
whence I have taken this parable: 'My beloved
shall come into his garden and eat his pleasant
fruits,' and say to the youth: 'Eat, O friends!
Moreyea, drink and be drunken, O beloved
over the word of the prophet Isaiah exhorting to
the study of wisdom shall also be fulfilled: 'Ho
every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters, and
ye who have no money, come ye, buy and eat.
Yea, come, buy wine and milk without money and
'
Solomon's Song
and
v, 1.
ALCUIN
68
when
there.
Isidore
buy and eat, yea, come, buy wine and milk without
The thought of
money and without any price.'
exacting pay for teaching was not in Alcuin s
mind, and the fact that the teaching was gratuitous,
while the value of what was taught was inestimable, seemed to him one of the strongest incentives
It is interesting
to study on the part of his pupils.
to note, in this connection, some verses ascribed to
him, and set up at a fork in the street of Salzburg
where the way led in one direction to a tavern and
7
They
read,
"
halt on thy
traveler,
way and
69
is
blest with
a double advantage.
Then
traveler,
my
I cease not to
may
in Frankland, praying
prosper by the grace of God."
ALCUIN
70
The evening
scribes as they
71
to Charles to
mind
his
to
ALCUIN
72
his verses
which seem
who copy
them beware
It is a noble
work
fail of his
We
for the copying of books under the presiding direcThe young monks file into the
tion of Alcuin.
73
He
is
the
charm of his whole behavior, makes himself the writing-master of his monks, stooping to the drudgery of
went on
in sobriety
of a
new age
in the conserving
Alcuin's anxiety in
spondence,
letters
now
if
we may judge by
which
ALCUIN
74
movement
be yours.
And
But
if
shall be
Ep. 15
Jaffe'
Ep. 34 Jaffe
8 Migne.
6 Migne.
75
study,
light of learning,
places,
now
To
the
among my
sons one
Archbishop ^Elbert,
left
me
his heir."
pupil,
iEp.43Jaffe; 49 Migne.
*Ep. 72Jaffe; 56 Migne.
who
who
ALCUIN
76
erudition
may
still
at
is
was
to be
York
But
was vanity. Still one
can scarcely help thinking that some concession
must have been made by Alcuin to the restless and
sportive nature of boys in his own playful method
of teaching, which verged again and again on
Another and quite
jocoseness and pleasant banter.
worth
is
that the principle
different point
noticing
master
for
each subject and
of employing a separate
of dividing the pupils into appropriate classes was
though at the
practised both at York and Tours,
essential part of medieval school discipline.
palace
school
Ep. 72
Jaffe';
56 Migne.
77
one
to
tical dissensions,
general letter of exhortation to the monks of Ireland, in which he bears notable testimony to the
Irish learning, with which, of course, he was out
of sympathy so far as it encouraged speculative
tendencies or departed from the Roman tradition.
He
recalls
how
in earlier
times
many
learned
of the Church.
and therefore
it
many
false teachers
new and
most holy
fathers, exhort
"However,"
tain and
ALCUIN
7b
The
the kingdom.
its
general likewise continued to be a matter of constant concern, though Theodulf had virtually taken
his place as soon as he removed to Tours.
His congratulations to Theodulf as the new minister of education, or
adequate reproduction in English, unless accompanied with a separate note of explanation for
almost every
line.
However,
it is
a letter of such
79
"
of the letter are the educational
vineyards
The " wine cellars " are
interests of the kingdom.
The
kept
arts,
now"
until
which is spread
on seven pillars." l
We
that the
'
flowers
iEp.292
2 I
'
Solomon's Song
ii
4.
Solomon's Song
Psalm civ
15.
ii 5.
ALCUIN
80
" So
then, even
'
'
letters,
'
let
"vineyards" and "wine-presses" of learning proceeds, changing for a moment at the close
of the letter into apparent remonstrance.
"Say
?7
for even if
not, 'I cannot rise, and give thee,
to the
'
'
'
<
This
Luke xi 5.
John ii 6-7. Alcuin must
have his seven waterpots for
8 I
is
5
e
'
Jeremiah xlviii
Proverbs v 16.
Luke
xi 7
33.
'
'
John
ii
10.
u John ii 9.
for
'no
old wine
The old
for he saith:
Happy
to hear.
81
Farewell,
my
dearest brother."
We may
be
as
argument than
allegory?
" and
"
to heed
ears to hear
its
teachings
for the
"
"
offered,
was
Luke v 37.
Luke v 39.
Ep. 153
Jaffe';
Ep. 177
Jaffe'
148 Migne.
191 Migne.
ALCUIN
82
introducing strange notions, which were incompatible with the teachings of Alcuin.
These were
certain Irish scholars
who
inculcated,
among
other
alty.
It
"
Scotellus," or Irish
scholar.
more
83
mood
"These
As
for himself,
he
summer,"
distraction of the
Ep.
Ep.
Ep.
Ep.
412 Jaffe
98, p.
82 Migne.
82 Migne.
80 Migne.
83 Migne.
ALCUIN
84
God
able;
alone truly
say that
it
is,
inasmuch as he
truly
is
is
unchange-
changeable we cannot
in every respect, because it can
not, and hence not be what it
whatsoever
for of
become what it is
1
In still another
is."
is
letter
he
justifies to
Arno
"Even
is
transferred
in his last years towards the poet Virgil. 8 In his boyhood he loved to read Virgil more than he did the
6.
86
it
gilian!
Why
is
it
he overwhelmed
"
question,
that against
How now
my advice,
!
Vir-
and
"Has
away
all
were Virgil!
I be ever before
namely, a Homily
Monumenta Alcuiniana,
Ep. 197
Jaffe'
171 Migne.
Jaffe; 103 Migne.
1,
ALCUIN
86
Alcuin was
Eome was influential in bringing about the coronaWhen Charles returned from Eome to Aachen
tion.
as Emperor, Alcuin
i
Ep. 147,
made
p. 558,
Note
it
1,
117 Migne.
87
"
all
And
that
May
morning,
had been
sung.
He was
Martin, near the monastery, with every manifestation of reverence and affection.
It was a fitting
place for his repose.
Notwithstanding his cherished hope that it might be his lot to die and
May
19, 804.
88
ALCUIN
were chiefly his labors in Frankland, and in Frankland Tours was the scene of his last, and in some
ways his greatest service. It was also a spot where
other appropriate memories clustered.
There St.
Martin had come as a founder of monasticism among
the Gauls. There Charles Martel had delivered the
Frank from the Moslem. Thither Charles the Great
had journeyed to take counsel with Alcuin before
he went to Rome, to return as monarch of the Holy
Roman Empire. There his best beloved queen,
Liutgard, the devoted friend of Alcuin, had died
and was buried; and there, too, if the tradition
be true, Alcuin pointed out to Charles the young
prince Lewis as his successor.
And yet, when the news of his death was borne to
distant York, and the brethren there were chanting
prayers for his repose, they might easily believe
his longing desire that his soul might rest among
CHAPTER V
THE EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS OF ALCUIX
ALCUIN'S writings have been preserved to us in
tolerable completeness, and may be classified under
a fourfold division. First come his theological
may
rest.
It will thus be
On
the Virtues
found. The epistles are of high value for the general history of the times, and more particularly
for the abundant light which they shed upon the
activity of Alcuin in his relation to the restoration
ALCUIN
90
of school-learning.
in his
specifically
they contain most fully his general views on education as well as separate treatises on some of the
liberal arts.
it be remarked at the outset that Alcuin is
an
original writer, but usually a compiler and
rarely
and
even at times a literal transcriber of
adapter,
He adds nothing to the sum of
other men's work.
Let
learning, either
has been
lost.
adapt from earlier authors such parts of their writings as could be appreciated by the age in which
he lived. Accordingly, while he must be refused
all
mind
which appears in
He
or otherwise, that it is worth citing here.
storethe
writes P* I have reverently traversed
:
91
taste.
who
of St. Ambrose, that most holy doctor, and likewise from the Homilies of the distinguished father,
have here
set
forth.
my
care,
Of the Greek fathers, however, he knows nothing, except through Latin versions, and of these he
makes no considerable use beyond drawing on a
ties.
ALCUIN
92
On
He knew
of him.
Augustine.
tioned.
treatises of
Alcuin of
Pepin, and
him with
less certainty
On
the
Seven Arts,
of Alcuin.
First and most important of these is his Grammar, which falls into two parts, the one a dialogue
between Alcuin and his pupils on philosophy and
liberal studies in general, and the other a dia-
"Most
dialogue serves as a general introduction.
learned master," says one of the disciples, opening
the dialogue, "we have often heard you say that
Philosophy was the mistress of all the virtues,
and alone of all earthly riches never made its
We confess that you have
possessor miserable.
93
We know,
mind
is
may be able to make progress in philosophy, which, as ye have well said, never deserts its
possessor." The disciples assent to this and then
that ye
hesitation,
there
ALCUIN
94
Alcuin answers
"
:
It is easy indeed
men
is it to
"
What,
naturally
inquire,
you
95
is
nal because
soul,
which
everything
is
else of
a secular character.
But
its
The
It is
laborious.
is
it yieldeth the peaceable fruit of righteousness to them that were exercised in it." Progress in secular knowledge is to be
made by slow
to
"
spiritual
ALCUIN
96
Wisdom
Church, which
.
on the
liberal arts.
Augustine had
columns."
it
or
the liberal
Sapientia,
is
that
97
seven liberal
arts.
understanding it.
a mystical hint as to their excellence, and Alcuin
It needs not to
gets them out of Scripture itself.
be told
how
influential such
an interpretation would
of
utterances
Hence-
Tertullian,
They
are
grammar,
rhetoric,
dia-
As
studeat, et si
scat,
we read in a regulation of
gentilium philosophorum non
"In
libris
scientias,
non addi'
ALCUIN
98
superior to all the chief heretics in public controversy," and closes with the exhortation: "Let your
youthful steps,
v/
I
in Alcuin's eyes.
Much of the rhetoric in which
ideas exfoliate is childish enough, but it is
his
own
sake, as against
in the treatise
is
properly
Two
"They but
lately
is
"
.
defined as
The letters
99
syllables,
clauses,
themselves make syllables. The consonants cannot be uttered by themselves, nor can they of themselves
make
syllables."
But
by
antithesis,
much
taken up. It
bles falls into four parts, accent (accentus), breathings (spiritus), quantity (tempus), and the number of
constituent letters.
After these are discussed, the
pupils entreat that before proceeding further they
ALCUIN
100
may
Alcuin accordingly
tells
them that
"
Grammar
(litteralis
is
scientid),
the
the
of
vailed
Instead of being
both the art of writing and speaking, and also the
study of the great poets and orators, it has now
become only the former of these, a childish, technical and barren study.
This appears more plainly
as
we advance
clauses,
They
sayings,
words,
letters,
speeches, definitions,
analogies,
etymologies, glosses,
barbarisms, solecisms, faults, meta-
orthographies,
distinctions,
and
histories."
Words,
letters
and
"
101
inflections
word cupio
is
composite figure, and concupisco is in derivative figure, because it comes from concupio.
The whole treatment of the parts of speech is
similarly feeble in spirit and almost entirely restricted to etymology, so that Alcuin s Grammar
is really devoid of orthography, syntax and prosWhatever is excellent in any way in his
ody.
is in
whom
many
a definition, but wherever this happens the treaAn example or two may
tise is apt to be childish.
suflice.
from
The derivation of
legitera,
"because the
litter a
is
said to be
prepares a path
Feet in poetry are
walk on them," and
littera
chus,
is
it
ALCUIN
102
However, Alcuin's
on orthography, and is properly a
pendant to his Grammar. It is a short manual
next work
is
containing a
list
with comments on their proper spelling, pronunciation and meanings, and with remarks on their
correct use, drawn to some extent from a treatise
by Bede on the same subject. It is a sort of
Antibarbarus, a help towards securing accuracy
of form and propriety of use in the
employment of
We may
reasonably
in the
monastery
by
made, and for which the monastery at Tours be"Let him who would publish
came so famous.
the sayings of the ancients read me, for he who
follows me not will speak without regard to
1
is the translation of the couplet which
law,"
stands at the head of the Orthography and indiIt is Alcuin's attempt to purge
cates its purpose.
He puts
contemporary Latin of its barbarisms.
"Write
his comments oddly enough.
vinea," he
i
in
the first
says, "if you mean a vine, with
syllable
and
e in
the second.
But
if
you mean
and
103
Some
a bachelor,
cuin's didactic
it
blue-eyed barbarians,
were but little
civilize,
children
also be
tall,
aiming to
ALCUIN
104
start.
Even
difficulty.
the
Virtues has
Alcuin instructs
king.
the rhetorical art with
him
in the elements of
special
reference to its
applications in the conduct and settlement of disputes in civil affairs, and closes with a short de-
prudence,
scription of the four cardinal virtues,
fortitude and temperance.
It is, there-
justice,
fore,
its applications.
See
Charles.
How
Alcuin.
hast shut
me
in.
so?
am
If thou sayest I
how thou
105
am
a man,
it
It does.
Charles.
why
thus?
Alcuin.
craft
clusion.
I see
led
me
is
Augustine on the Categories of Aristotle. If possible, it is less original than the Rhetoric, but is
what
an attempt to
about
dialectics.
say something
However, as the
of
medieval
had
not
age
logic
yet begun in earnest,
at least
ALCUIN
106
would
much
as the times
bear,
years,
"Pepin.
What
Albinus.
The guardian
is
writing?
of history.
The whip
of the air.
life.
107
Let us understand this short and sudden definiAlcuin means that man hangs like an apple
on a tree without being able to know when he is to
tion.
fall.
Pepin.
Albinus.
What
is
water?
A supporter of life
What
Pepin.
Albinus.
a cleanser of
filth.
is fire?
Albinus.
The
Pepin.
Albinus.
What
febricity of our
frost?
members. 1
is
The persecutor of plants; the destruction of leaves; the bond of the earth; the source of
waters.
Pepin. What is snow?
Albinus. Dry water.
Pepin. What is the winter?
Albinus. The exile of summer.
The barn
i
of the year."
is
apparently a
chifl.
ALCUIN
108
The
doubtful.
the
Emperor Charles
of Youth.
copied.
But
this
109
ositions
letter
to
"
Charles and styled certain figures of arithmetical
subtlety sent for the sake of amusement." Charles
himself
refers
to
his
excursions
with Alcuin
Not
Alcuin
mula.
answer."
The
all
put
Occa-
Thus a king
is
represented as gathering an
army
110
ALCUIN
They
Proceeding thus
111
The
fifty doves.
thousand and
fifty.
this
to
depressing to think about. Of course they are conand meant to be witty. They are " ad acuendos
crete
juvenes."
They
one which some unknown quidam has constarting with one sow and a litter of
structed,
seven;
and
all this
multiplication.
"
round " city with a similar
completely, or into a
result, the answers being worked out in entire
ALCUIN
112
we have
The answer
is,
When
at each
field
"
Eccefabula !
impregnably insoluble proposition.
is no soluin
a
There
he cries
glee, "here's
go!
to
This
fable
is
tion.
only
provoke boys." He
way
if
only
The
age,
whose
113
If this is all
we
ancients,
that he
wisdom
of the
U A-JJO
/1
it.
introducing a learning
Happily, there is another side
is
Christ.
again.
When
one of
ALCUIN
114
them,
"My
dearest son,"
lips
and in your
heart.
Act
if
It is bet-
" To
It reads in part
my dearest sons in Christ
their father wisheth eternal welfare. I would write
:
if
my
letter
on
its
faithful pinions.
115
to
an eastern
or any
Oh,
how
To one
manner:
"A
of
greeting to his prodigal son. Why hast thou forgotten thy father who taught thee from infancy,
life,
liberal
disciplines,
fortified
fash-
com-
ALCUIN
116
pany of
to their eyes,
alas now art
!
Alas!
all,
Arise,
my
' '
CHAPTER VI
ALCUIN'S CHARACTER
which require to be appreciated are the AngloSaxon antecedents of Alcuin, his own personal
traits so far as separable from his surroundings,
the character of the teaching he received at York
and of the masters who gave it, the actual sum
of the learning of the time and the nature of his
acquaintance with it, and the effect of his own
117
ALCUIN
118
many
man's
intellect,"
attitude.
and in
fact quite a
modern
in his
p. 245.
en Occident
ALCULN'S CHARACTER
119
" l
original genius, and cast in a monastic mould.
From these diverse estimates, whether eulogistic
or depreciatory, of Alcuin's scholarly qualities,
it is
ment
to religion
is
His conserva-
tive distrust of anything outside the Roman tradition is interpreted both as a trait which " dwarfs
him almost to
tion bestowed on certain aspects of Alcuin's character to the obscuring of others, and thus leading to
is
Biography.
8
Charlemagne,
p. 247,
note
2.
ALCUIN
120
self, is
con-
icism upon
tude would have had on the development of a learning that had once been planted and needed growth,
injurious effect was not visible in Alcuin's
introduction of studies into Frankland.
Indeed,
it was rather a
help than a hindrance to the cause
of education that only what was
generally accepted
this
-,
'
first.
Alcuin
ALCUIN'S CHARACTER
121
The airy
for his time.
speculations of the bright Irish scholars, "their
versatility in everything, with sure knowledge of
nothing,"
it,
and
school learning
life,
was
Seek
Mign,
Vol.
CV,
322.
ALCUIN
122
the finest soul of his age; nor has any age since
his time either outlived or lived up to his monition.
We
sion of learning from age to age, and of the disgrace that attached to those who would allow those
was
Aachen and
at Tours, not for hire, not for ostentation of his erudition, but without money and
without price, for the love of souls. Perceiving
Thus, in every
1
way
Grammatica, Migne,
CI, 850.
ALCUIN'S CHARACTER
123
They
ments.
Therefore,
let
most deserves
to be
remembered.
CHAPTER
VII
AT
in
to Alcuin
He
125
times
face,
who was
sent as an ambassador
from the
inasmuch as
it
far
removed from
126
ALCUIN
the fifth abbat appointed to rule over the
sent
127
"Rabanus along
with Hatto
sake of learning the liberal arts." Rabanus was
not unmindful of the kindness, and in some verses
to Ratgar records his gratitude and laments his deto
fective
has enabled
me
own mind
who
He
'prudent of this
ALCUIN
128
spondence.
In this
his
letter
Ep. 251
Litteraruna series
Jaffe';
187 Migne.
tuarum
laetificavit oculos
meos.
Ep. 290
Jaffe.
It is
name, but
it
is
"
" a raven"
(animali)." Rabanus means
nation " pet animal " is in keeping with a humorous habit Alcuin
of playing on the names of his pupils in his letters to them.
had
is
addressed to one
who
is
commended
for
and abounds
in exhortations regarding
are then subject to him. Still more
Samuel,"
fellow-disciple
one of his poems styles the special sodalis of his earlier days.
"
"
My beloved brother," he says in his twenty-second poem, it
the
other
thee
as
was once my joy to have
my companion among
ing the other considerations, that the letter was sent to Rabanus
(Monumenta Alcuiniana, p. 876, note). Froben inclines to the
same view (Migne, vol. C, 459, note on " Samuelis ").
129
In response to a previous
his "love of learning."
request that Alcuin should write an account of his
tate the
and
find
him
'unto
him
discernment of understanding."
His pupils are
exhorted " to learn in their youth, that they may
be able to teach
when they
are old."
Rabanus asked
for
books from
ALCUIN
130
The exaggerations
of verse
own
works.
He had many
became
famous.
Servatus
Lupus,
him
131
burial.
He was
much
in a larger mould.
He
ALCUIN
132
And so with
by the Creator;
superstitious mob in his time sought
to "bring help to the waning moon" by their
cries and shouts, with the beating of drums and
and
so,
when a
133
name was
monk
all his
He was
Church he served.
his
teacher Alcuin, and ominously suggest the monumental vastness of the scholastic writings yet to
come. Most of his writings, perhaps seven-eighths in
all, are theological, being devoted chiefly to a series
of elaborate commentaries, expositions, and " narra"
tions
on thirty-three books of the Old and New
ALCUIN
134
eral, allegorical,
and nearly
all
Herein
is
unfailing
"streams
out from
devoting
his long life to a whole-souled and untiring attempt to set forth their supreme excellency.
in addition to his theological writings, Kabanus composed several treatises which bear in
But
On
On
the Instruction of
Excerpt on the Grammatical Art of Priscian,
the
Universe (which may equally well be
works,
ing,
the Clergy,
An
entitled
On
De Clericorum
135
the Soul,
ject, is
His work On
written
monks
was
in response to urgent
of Fulda and others that
for,
1 De Clericorum Institutione in
Migne's Patrologia Latina,
CVII, 29^-419.
2 De Clericorum
Institutione, Praefatio.
ALCUIN
136
who
is,
of the
Holy Scripmodes of
uprightness of life and probity of morals, of elegance in the delivery of discourses, of wisdom in
the setting forth of doctrines and of the different
remedies suited to the variety of spiritual diseases."
is,
therefore, to be
knowledge in the different liberal disciplines. Besides this, he is to be a man of probity in life and
especially accomplished in rhetoric and dialectics.
"
should prepare in
For
it is
De Clericorum
Institutione,
I, 1.
137
The
by prolonged study."
was
for
he
was
tone
needed,
waging
imperative
relentless war against the promotion of ignorant
"There are some," he
clergy to posts of honor.
" who within the Church itself seek
promotion
says,
As the Scripture attests, it
solely from ambition.
he has
first
learned
it
they who covet the first salutations in the marketplace, the chief places at feasts, and the chief seats
is
the synagogues.
They are the ignorant
who
are
reproved by the prophet Isaiah,
shepherds
in
saying,
stand.'
follow
By
Christ the Truth saith, 'If the blind lead the blind,
they shall both fall into the ditch/"
By such
scriptural
exhortation and
illustration
Kabanus
ning and the completion of wisdom, because Scripture is the highest utterance of God himself, the
eternal Wisdom.
Whatever truth there may be
elsewhere, whether in the Church or out of it, has
its source, it is true, in the same eternal Wisdom
discatur.
I, 1.
But
as Scripture
meditatione
ALCUIN
138
"
:
What-
known
as
truth by bringing it to a test of truth, and whatever good there is anywhere is discovered to be
power to search them out. Therefore, all the useful knowledge that lies in the books of the heathen,
and the salutary truths of Scripture as well, are to
be used for one purpose and referred to one end,
that is, the perfect knowledge of truth and the
highest excellence of wisdom." This is Augustine
revived in his most generous mood, speaking by the
The cramping and shrinking
voice of Kabanus.
of Alcuin's spirit is no longer here, and in such a
passage as this Kabanus when compared with him
seems a giant. The book then goes on to explain
the spirit and method of studying the Scriptures,
closely following the treatise of Augustine
1
Christian Doctrine.
1
De Clericorum
On
139
Beginning at the sixteenth chapter, eleven successive chapters are devoted to secular learning, a separate one being assigned to each of the seven liberal
first distinguishes between the funtrue
things of ancient secular learning
damentally
which were attached to it.
false
inventions
the
and
arts.
Rabanus
Such were
all
magic
arts,
insists,
ing.
It
is
treatment of Alcuin.
Christian
1
Ill,
Ad
it
However,
he extols the
and
cites
cap. 17.
ALCUIN
J40
Juvencus,
useful
in them;
but
if
there be anything
The chapter on
on dialectics is important.
"Dialectics," according to his definition, "is the
rational discipline concerned with definitions and
note, but the next one
with Alcuin, who would never have countenanced so bold and sweeping an assertion of the
trast
sufficiency of dialectics as a
means of discerning
herself,
list
we
are.
We
it,
we
learn
what we
are
141
and whence
error.
follows and
sistent,
as
as
some have
way
1
logic later.
"
"
Wherefore, he says, the clergy
ought to know this most noble art and to have its
laws constantly before them in meditation, that
for the Church.
says,
" of
1
So aiisserte die Schule welche Hrabanus bekanntlich in
Fulda eingerichtet hatte
auch auf den Betrieb der Logik
.
ALCUIN
142
opinions.
may
the Church, but the truth of opinions is to be studied in the holy books of the Church." The forms
of logic may be learned outside, but the substance
of truth necessary for arriving at a sound conclu-
And
After thus treating grammar, rhetoric, and dialeche proceeds to describe the four remaining arts,
which he includes, following a common custom,
tics,
The
first
"
of the four
is
arithmetic,
Egyptians?
The seed
of this knowl-
143
much
as
abstracts the
it
it
by leading
to abstract meditation.
desires
Scripture,
there are the writings of Plato, "of great authority," though less than Scripture, which represent
to us the Creator building the universe according
to numerical harmonies
and proportions.
Another
ture.
"it
may
is
ALCUIN
144
of
wisely to God, the omnipotent Creator, it may perhaps be congruent with truth; for geometry, if we
may
The
line,
the
Lastly,
geometrical figures
discernment."
is
145
all
is
are ruled
by harmony, Pythagoras
them
testifying that
of music
No
heed
is
is
an impediment to
faith.
not makes
little difference,
"for
we ought
not to
avoid music, the art of the Muses, because of profane superstitions, so long as it is possible to extract
from
it
useful
help
for
understanding
Holy
letters, or to
ALCUIN
146
Wherever he finds
is
it,
How
mechanism by rational
such a conception as this, is the interminable astronomical correspondence of Alcuin, which makes
of astronomy a cumbrous machine for calculating
the church feasts
Not that Kabanus refuses the
!
therein.
But astronomy
is
far
more to him.
It
The seven
"Here," he
arts
says,
147
ceeded
after
liber-
The change
So in
prefixing of a Christian name to them.
Rabanus
commends
them
in
his
account
closing
general as "useful for all Christians." He goes
even farther, and adds that "anything the philosophers have written that is true and agreeable to
faith,
As a final
ing their superstitions and idolatry.
and supreme caution, he reminds those who have
been instructed in the liberal arts to approach the
higher study of the Scriptures ever remembering
the apostolic watchword, Scientia inflat, charitas
"
cedificat
ethup").
The rest of the work is devoted to miscellaneous
instruction on the art of speaking wisely and eloHis
quently, with special reference to preaching.
remarks in the thirtieth chapter on the need of
using language easily comprehended
when speaking
ALCUIN
148
to the people
letters of gold
"
1
present day."
They might equally well be inscribed on every teacher's desk. " Although a good
!
ambiguous word to be good Latin, still, while avoiding ambiguities and obscurities, let him speak after
the fashion of the people, and not as the educated but
as the uneducated speak. For of what value is that
excellence of expression which the intellect of the
hearer does not follow and which they do not understand to
may
whom we
understand?
So then, if he
can find other excellent words which will be understood, let him choose such; but if he cannot, either
because there are no such words or because they
do not occur to him at the time, let him use words
that are less excellent, provided only the thing
His
itself be taught and learned excellently."
"We
must
insist
" not
cap. 30.
8
Ut intelligamur instandum
est.
Ill,
cap. 30.
in,
it
is
149
it his care to help him who silently lisNow, an audience that is anxious to learn
apt to show by its own behavior whether
make
tens.
is
it
really
understand
understands
or
we should keep
not.
Until
it
does
1 Sicut enim
gratus est qui agnoscenda enubilat, sic onerosus,
qui cognita inculcat. Ill, cap. 30.
2
Migne, Patrologia Latina, CVII, 103.
ALCUIN
150
The other
treatise is entitled
On Reckoning
mathematically,
cardi-
" denuntiative."
onings,
by
letters
and on the
and
different reck-
fingers.
Notation
is
is
The method
finger (impudicus)
so
151
number
Then there
by
hand.
thousand.
Thus,
if
hand
the index finger and thumb of the left hand; hundreds on the thumb and index finger of the right
hand; thousands on the other three fingers of the
right hand.
ALCTJIN
152
pupil,
slightly inward
you say
ten,
left
hand.
A thousand
hand.
Any number
hand
against the
hundred-thousands are indicated
flat
The
manner with the right hand. Consequently, by a series of gestures any number short
The two hands
of a million may be indicated.
left thigh.
in a similar
clasped together in front, with the fingers intertwined, is the gesture for a million, which is the
by Kabanus
is
monks
at
Fulda
Counting on the
fingers, the
153
mode
of
their
himself,
in those
Koman
containing twelve
the
pound
ounces
(uncioe), each
ounce containing twenty-four scruples (scripuli),
and each scruple in turn containing six siliquce.
(libra),
ALCUIN
154
ters are
odd enough.
to be written
down by
presumably from
dictation.
155
guages.
by Eabanus
barbarized fashion,
fate.
preach to speak so that the people could understand, and not to insist on learned propriety of
In this glossary he goes a step farexpression.
ther, and compiles a short list of words in frequent
use in Latin with their vulgar Tudesque equiv-
alents.
Many
of
of
modern German.
is
lebera.
Kabanus
is
On
Origin of Languages.
Some
of
it is
the
taken from
Jerome.
letter indicated in
"o longa."
Greek,
Then comes a
ALCUIN
156
supposed Scythian alphabet, which is briefly described and attributed to Jerome. Eabanus does not
seem
to
that
Eoman
in
On
the Soul, 1
which has
On
the Universe.
It
to the
157
to construct his
Now, although
enough matter for twenty-two.
a
sacred
was
not
he was still
number,
twenty-two
fortunate enough to chance on the fact that Jerome
had divided the whole of the Old Testament into
twenty -two books, thus furnishing him with a venerable, if not a sacred precedent.
It is a dreary
it is difficult
to appreciate
An
exhibition of
its
contents
is
ALCUIN
158
general misinformation
how
The
twenty -two books fall into two parts, the first five
dealing with sacred and the other seventeen with
secular knowledge.
In spite of the apparent confusion, there is a thread of logical continuity which
holds the work together. Thus the order of subjects in the first five books is as follows: God,
Accordingly,
first
comes
following,
then the patriarchs with other notable Old Testament men and women, and then the prophets,
New
followed by
and
we have
"The Diversity
sity"
relates
to
written, the various parts of a discourse, the division into chapters and verses, and the material
159
the
day
and
the
appropriate
With
and penance.
attached
sacrifices, sacra-
prayer and
duties
books
five
ally, mystically
and
of the
cedar."
is
of
relationship
ALCUIN
160
his spots.
'
It is also
"when
'the pard
And
stands for
it
Such are
crickets,
frogs,
are
ants,
de-
mice,
of idolatry.
Among the ants enumerated is a
kind said to be in Ethiopia, in shape like a dog.
This dog-ant "digs up golden sands with its
feet and keeps guard over them, lest any one steal
the sand." Frogs are briefly described, and then
"
demons " and " heretics
spiritually stigmatized as
which cease not their vain and garrulous croaking."
Separate chapters follow on serpents, worms, fishes
birds.
161
"
mi-
flies.
The
fly
book, entitled
"On
is
ALCUIN
162
aquatic throughout.
Waters are
classified in part
straits, lakes and pools, torand whirlpools, with chapters on rain and
the two kinds of raindrops (stilla, the falling drop,
and gutta, the fallen drop) the book closing with
rents
earth,
regions
topographical, historical and other descriptive mention
of the various tribes and countries of the earth.
to
define
and describe
places," "ship-building places," and lastly "slippery places." Last of all comes his account of
shores,
site of
under world.
is
on "public buildings/'
163
The
civil
is
The
pitch.
Such
and lime.
are
"
common
stones
such as
iron
scribing in succession the various grains, legumitrees, aromatic herbs and the
common vegetables.
The twentieth
describes wars,
ALCUIN
164
The
carpentering, weaving and spinning, and explains fully the costumes of various
nations and the kinds of garments worn by men
house-building,
falls
behind
diluted.
He
Yet
it
has, moreover,
is
not
added
to Isidore's
was useful
author which
for he not
is proof of his sagacity
time
with
furnished
the
men
of
his
methods
only
and subjects on the formal side of education, but
met
their
common
collection
CHAPTER
VIII
WHAT
tional tradition of
of the
Western Europe.
movement was
The strength
the
is
ALCUIN
166
to Erigena,
way
death,
if
not longer.
Before doing
this,
some mention
of Erigena
is
in
The
new and
In
strong impetus after he was gone.
814 Charles the Great died, and his son Lewis the
Pious succeeded him. Soon after Lewis died the
youthful king, Charles the Bald, made John Scotus
Erigena master of the palace school about 845.
167
John brought with him the proscribed Martianus Capella, and extended the influence of this writer by composing a commentary.
in tradition.
When
with undisguised approval to the pages of Martianus Capella." 1 The contest had set in between
speculation and tradition, and could no longer be
confined within the bounds Alcuin would have
approved, and the new influence issuing from the
teaching of Erigena, though at first resisted, afterwards gradually mingled with the old instruction
who
many
of
in the
ALCUIN
168
to Frankland.
him
in 842 as
abbat of
where he taught with distinction, gathering about him numerous disciples and a considerable library, becoming himself the one purely
literary man of his time and cultivating the classical writers to an extent unheard of for centuries.
While at Fulda he often repaired to Seligenstadt
Ferrieres,
many books.
and
He
169
him
Though
of
testifies, in
served as the
of
ALCUIN
170
New
Among
other
monks
of old Corbie
who
deserve
He
having passed
Werembert
ies at
(died 884) pursued his youthful studFulda under Kabanus Maurus, and then went
Weissenburg.
Werembert was
171
One
of his
Otfried
of
proficient, accord-
Harmot
He was a writer of various treatand also enriched the abbey library greatly.
Three monks of St. Gall, closely connected by
to succeed him.
ises
reason of their
for each
scholars,
ALCUIN
172
life,
externi.
In one of
Eabanus
173
His proficiency
When
Fulco died,
Kemy
On
the Categories
then attributed
ALCUIN
174
easily understood, he wrote an elaborate comOut of this school, "the first cradle
mentary.
"
of the University of Paris, * came Odo, abbat of
Remy.
It is doubt-
Remy marks
Though
Capella.
Odo of
side of
grammar.
He
to Paris,
where
he
is
the other
on
attention,
and
all
On
returning to Tours
uncertain authority, to have had
liberal
said,
175
arts.
When
year he
with
him
Burgundy, taking
his
whole library.
"one hundred books," probably
After the death of the abbat in 927, Odo was elected
monastic
life.
in his
thirtieth
entered a monastery in
to succeed him,
community.
He
at the abbey of St. Julian of Tours, where he himself spent some time.
His reputation spread
ALCUIN
176
limit of
in education, for at this point his direct influence gradually disappears, and yet, amid the devastations and wars of the age that followed, there
are indications of the continuance of schools traceable to the influences of the preceding age. The
pupils of Odo of Cluny were numerous, and the
At
this
taught by masters
who
177
new succession
prophetic experiment of Remy.
of teachers arose.
One of them was Drogo, who
had as a pupil John the Deaf. John the Deaf, in
turn, instructed Roscellinus of Chartres,
and about
Roscellinus clusters that brilliant galaxy of disciples, Peter of Cluny, Odo of Cambray, William of
1
Champeaux, and Abelard.
We
are
now
at the
new age
universities of
nor
is
lectual
there any evidence that, without the intelawakening that came to Europe under the
name
Monnier, Alcuin
et
ALCUIN
178
it
student life and of the teaching tradition. Without the existence of such centres, established as
historic records.
however,
is
179
tradition, which,
APPENDIX
EDITIONS OF ALCUIN
I.
THE
first
works was
critical matter.
is reprinted in volumes
and
of
C
CI
Migne's Patrologia Latina, published
in 1863.
most complete collection of Alcuin's works, including all the chief treatises known to have been
written by him.
It is doubtful if
some
of
ALCUIN
184
Duemmler.
in
Migne
I.
is
The arrangement
as follows
of Alcuin's writings
as containing his
regard to whatever matters they
His best literary style is also in them, the
final opinions in
treat.
them
are long
set form,
of his
favorite epistolary flourishes or deflorationes, while others are in the lightest vein. The subject-matter is by turns theological,
containing
many
moral, ecclesiastical, political, didactic, and personal and well reflects his varied activities. His
chief correspondents were Charles the Great and
have over thirty of his letters to each
Arno.
We
It is inferior to that of
where a finite verb is in place, and often employs the pluwhere he ought to use the perfect. Compare Monumenta
Alcuiniana, pp. 36 and 38.
ciple
perfect
EDITIONS OF ALCTJIN
186
in
eighth century.
II.
This
St.
Gregory's Moralia.
2.
Enchiridion,
Psalms, 569-639.
horted to read
it.
At the end
of
it is
added the
ALCUIN
186
is
based on Bede's
lemon, and
to the
Hebrews, 1007-1083.
A Brief Commentary
on Some Sayings of
St.
Paul, 1083-1086.
This short note
it.
Commentary on
the Apocalypse,
1086-1156.
lost, as
the
EDITIONS OF ALCUIN
breaks
187
off
writings of Augustine, Jerome, Victorinus, Tychonius, Primasius, and Ambrose Autpert, one of
Alcuin's contemporaries.
III.
1.
DOGMATIC WORKS,
On
peror.
is
On
collection of testimonies
the Procession
439-655.
3.
4.
On
the
ALCUIN
188
A
6.
On
This
the
is also
is
dedi-
monks
3.
4.
1.
EDITIONS OF ALCU1N
many
189
are pleasant.
2.
Poem on
the
York,
812-847.
ings
It appears to
York
is,
VII. DIDACTIC
WORKS, 847-1001.
(For an analysis of these didactic writings see the fifth chapter of this volume.)
1.
Grammar, 847-901.
2.
Orthography, 901-919.
Dialogue on Rhetoric and the Virtues, 919-949.
Dialectics, 949-975.
3.
4.
6.
On
VIII.
the Calculation
of Easter, 979-1001.
WORKS DOUBTFULLY
ASCRIBED TO Aj>
cuix, 1001-1169.
Two
1.
2.
of Youth, 1143-1161.
ALCUIN
190
II.
parata.
vi -f 912.
This
is
et
Jaffeo Prce-
Duemmler.
pp.
Berlin, 1873.
Rerum
who
died in 1870.
ler carried
To
joined
2.
3.
4. Epistles.
The
The
text
is
scientific
the text.
intrinsic importance,
fill
EDITIONS OF ALCUTN
191
Their number
now
dated by useful notes, and particularly by the references to Bede's Ecclesiastical History printed on
the margin.
TABLE OF DATES
His writings
mark
100-46 Cicero.
arts of the
groundwork
116-27 Varro.
of
His Libri
Roman culture.
Novem Disciplinarum,
the
A.D. 35-96
Institutio
Quintilian.
education.
354-430 Augustine.
Oratorio,,
partly
on
Wrote
Libri
Disciplinarum
Other writ-
ings with educational bearings are De Doctrina Christiana, De Ordine, and Retractiones.
Varro
is
De
Nuptiis Philo-
logice et Mercurice.
481-525 Boethius.
taries.
468-569 Cassidorus.
De
alium Litterarum
<
-636 Isidore.
encyclopedia.
193
first
TABLE OF DATES
194
III
About 650
all
the learning
IV
About 735 Alcuin born
in
at York.
Alcuin, in
780 Alcuin
bishop of York.
who
invites
him
court.
home from a
visit to Italy,
TABLE OF DATES
195
and
his
This
same
and as
late as 802.
and image-wor-
ship.
who acknowledges
Urgel,
and
800
On
himself overcome
Christmas day hi
Emperor
of the
Pope.
802 Rabanus Maurus studies under Alcuin at Tours.
804
On May
The
is
buried at Tours.
Theodulf
is
virtual
minister of
education to
Charles the Great, Arno archbishop of Salzburg, Riculf of Mayence, Rigbod of Treves,
Leidrad of Lyons and Eanbald II of York.
Fridugis succeeds Alcuin as abbat of St. Mar-
Sigulf of Ferrieres,
Amiens, St.
and Rabanus
Fulda.
is
TABLE OF DATES
196
814
New
Adelhard
Corbie hi Sax-
842 Servatus Lupus, educated under Aldrich at Ferrieres and Rabanus at Fulda, succeeds Aldrich
as abbat of Ferrieres.
Rabanus
retires
By
bert, Grimaldus,
Werem-
He was
educated at
of the school at
and Hucbald.
BOOKS ON ALCUIN
The following
list
on Alcuin.
cles of interest
Ceillier
Corbet
Paris, 1862.
Hagiographie du Diocese
and Amiens,
d' Amiens,
Vol.
I.
Paris
1868.
* Duemmler
graphie.
Dupuy
Alcuin
et I'jtfcole
Tours,
1876.
Laf oret
by Jane Mary
German
London, 1837.
Meier: Ausgewdhlte Schriften von Columban, Alcuin,
u.s.w., in Vol. in of the Bibliothek der katholischen Padagogik. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1890.
* Monnier Alcuin et
Charlemagne. Paris, 1864.
Slee.
197
BOOKS ON ALCUIN
198
Monnier
Alcuin
et
son influence
* Mullinger
litteraire, religieuse, et
Paris, 1853.
the Great.
London,
1877.
:
^.Icuinstudien, in the Journal of the Vienna AcadScience, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 461-550.
Vienna, 1875.
* Stubbs Alcuin, in the
Dictionary of Christian Biog-
Sickel
emy of
raphy.
Thery
Alcuin (IS
Ami-
ens, 1878.
* Werner
INDEX
On the Seven Arts, 108.
De Cursu et Saltu Luna:,
Alcuin,
"
Aachen,
108, 189.
Abelard, 177.
Abbo,
Propositions in Arithme-
44
Method of
173.
Academy
of Plato, 48.
teaching, 45.
Character, 117-123.
44
Ado,
44
44
170.
44
Connections with
Alcuinus, 35.
Aldhelra, 34.
44, 106, 127.
"
"
"
44
Albinus, 35.
Albinus (Alcuin),
Alcimus, 35, 140.
Raba-
nus, 125-129.
^Edilbert, 77.
Amand,
172, 173.
Ambrose, 34,
Amiens, 124.
Anglo-Saxon Church,
Aniane, 125.
40-63.
36, 90.
28, 29.
Anscharius, 170.
"
"
44
44
92, 183-191.
"
44
Grammar,
18.
Aquila, 44.
Arator, 35, 140.
92-102, 189.
Orthography, 102,
103, 189.
Architecture,
7, 21.
Disputation of Boys,
Arno,
106,
189.
44.
Apuleius,
116, 189.
"
"
Antony,
Disputation
106-108, 189.
Arsenius,
of
Pepin,
44.
199
INDEX
200
Astronomy,
Book
Canticles,
of, 67.
8 sqq.
5, 6,
Canterbury,
Athanasius, 34.
Athens, 48.
"
154.
Capitulary of 802,
Audulf, 44.
Augustine,
Caroline Books,
Atom,"
54.
125.
62.
172, 173.
Pseudo-Augustine
On
the
Cate-
Canter-
bury, 29.
Auxerre, 165, 172.
Ava, 44.
Avars, 41.
Cathedral schools,
Chakidius, 144.
Charlemagne
56, 57.
(see
Chartres, 177.
Bede,
Chronicles,
Book
Chrysostom,
150, 157.
Cicero,
Beechwood,
125.
of, 79.
Clement,
35, 140.
Coelfrith, 29.
Bezeleel, 44.
Boissier,
7.
Columba, 44.
Comminian, 35.
Compulsory education, 56.
Computus, 58, 154.
Copying of books, 70-73.
Corbie,
New,
Cuculus,
"
38.
Buchonia, 125.
Calwinus, 38.
Candid us, 44.
and Table of
Dates.
the
Basil, 34.
Charles
Great) Preface.
Charles Martel, 41, 86.
Damoetas,
44.
Dares, 47.
David, 44,
79, 80.
INDEX
Delia, 44.
St.
De
De
16.
Ordine,
Nuptiis Philologies
et
Mercu-
Dialectics,
sqq.
Disciplinarum Libri,
7, 8,
17.
Drogo,
Frodoard, 173.
Fronto, 28.
63, 64, 125, 128, 130, 165,
E
Eanbald, The Elder, 39.
Eanbald, The Younger,
Fulgentius, 34.
124.
Egyptian
"
teachings, 82.
7, 8
sqq.
Gerbert, 176.
Eigil, 130.
Gerhoch, 129.
St. Germain, 172, 173.
Gisela, daughter of Charles,
43, 44.
discipline, 19.
Encyclius
Geography, 33.
Geometry, 5, 6,
"
Fulda, 49,
177.
Egbert,
Fulco, 173.
15.
'
201
Glossary, 154.
Gorz, 175.
schools, 57.
Episcopal
Eric of Auxerre, 172, 173, 176.
Gotteschalk, 133.
Ermenric,
169, 171.
Grammar,
5, 6, 7, 8
sqq.
Greek
Ethelred, 60.
32, 67.
90.
Grimaldus, 171.
Gundrada, 43, 44.
Euclid, 25.
Eulalia, 44, 47.
Eutychius, 35.
Externi, 171.
Hadrian, Pope,
F
" Father of the
Vineyards,"
78.
Hamburg,
170.
171.
Harmot,
14
42, 61.
172.
Haymo,
"
Figures of Grammar, 100.
Heptas,
20.
INDEX
202
Hilary, 34.
Hildebold, 173.
Hildeman,
Arts).
Liber Homo, 6.
Library at Fulda, 129, 130.
Library at Tours, 67, 68, 129.
170.
Hilduin, 170.
Hincmar,
167.
Hirechau, 169.
Homer, 44.
Homilary of Charles,
Hucbald, 172,
Huns,
54.
173, 176.
6, 7.
Lindisfarne, 62.
41.
Liudger,
38.
Image- worship,
Lombards,
61, 62.
Imperial schools,
1, 9.
42.
Lorraine, 173.
Lorsch, 127.
Ireland, 27.
Irene, 61.
Irish learning, 77, 82, 121, 165.
Lunar
35, 36.
Lucan,
epact, 154.
Lupus Servatus
(see Servatus
Lu-
pus).
Lyons,
124.
164.
Jerome,
Macharius, 44.
Magenfrid, 44.
Maginhard, 169.
156.
Marcomanni,
172.
Martianus Capella,
177.
7, 17,
18-22, 25,
Jonathan, 80.
Joseph, 38.
Josephus, 142.
St. Julian of Tours, 175.
St.
Martin of Tours,
174.
St.
Maur,
Maurus
Julius, 44.
Mayence,
Jurisprudence, 32.
Juvencus, 34, 140.
127.
(see
Rabanus Maurus).
Medicine, 7, 8, 21.
Medieval periods,
1, 2.
Menalcas, 45.
Mercia, 59.
Lactantius, 10, 35, 157.
Languedoc,
125.
Merovingians,
41, 70.
Monastic schools,
"
Monte Cassino,
Levite," 34.
Lewis the Pious,
167.
43,
88,
MUnster,
Music, 5,
56, 57.
126.
38.
6, 7, 8
sqq.
19.
INDEX
Phocas, 35.
Pindar, 44.
Nathanael, 44.
Nice, Council of, 61, 62.
"
Point," 154.
35.
Porphyry, 22.
Prcepar amenta, 149.
Primary education, 58.
of Beauvais, 170.
of Cainbray, 177.
Probus, 35.
"
Prodigal Son,"
Prosper, 35.
Onias, 38.
86, 124.
Orosius, 34.
Ostentum,
76.
Poetry, 46.
Orleans, 80,
Plautus, 28.
Play at school,
Odo
Odo
Odo
203
Prum,
154.
Osulf, 38.
Otfried of Weissenburg, 130, 171.
38, 115.
172.
77.
Pseudodoctores,
Pythagoras, 145.
Quadrivium,
Quintilian, 8, 9, 10.
Parish schools,
Parma,
Rabanus Maurus,
"
'
39.
Educational
writings,
134
sqq.
38.
Raganhard,
Ratbert, 171.
Pavia, 39.
Ratramnus,
43, 106.
170.
Regino, 172.
Retractationes, 15.
5, 16, 17.
Rheims,
Rhetoric,
5, 6, 7,
8 sqq.
INDEX
204
Riculf , 43, 54, 124.
Rigbod,
Sturm,
85, 124.
126.
Symeon,
38.
Terence,
169.
Ritschl, 7, 15.
Robert of Metz, 172.
Roscellinus, 177.
Rotrud,
43, 90.
Rudolph,
"
Theodulf,
Theology,
46.
Thyrsis, 45.
31,
189, 190.
Samuel,
Sapientia,
79.
Tours,
of, 85.
130.
19.
Satura Doctor,
Saxons,
144.
Book
Satura,
Timceus of Plato,
Tobias,
Trithemius, 149.
25.
41.
School at York,
Tutilo, 171.
156.
Scotellus, 82.
Scriptorium,
Seligenstadt, 168.
Seneca,
8, 9, 10.
Servius, 35.
Varro,
144, 145.
Vetulus, 44.
Victorinus, 34.
Vienne, 170.
4-27, 32, 37,
"Vineyards,"
78, 79.
79, 96.
" Seven
Waterpots,"
80.
Solomon,
44, 47.
Sorek,
80.
Wala,
43.
Walafrid Strabo,
171, 176.
Waldramn,
38.
INDEX
Warin,
170.
Yarrow, 29.
York, 31-38,
Wearmouth, 29.
Werembert, 170, 171, 176.
Wido, 115.
William of Champeauz, 177.
"
Wine-cellars,"
Witzo,
205
79, 80.
2,
Typography by
J. S.
Gushing
Presswork by Berwick
&
&
Cbe
Educators
Great
Just in the right time to meet the needs of a large number of teachers who
are casting about to find something fundamental and satisfying on the theory of
ion." HON. W. T. HARRIS, U. S. Commissioner oj Education.
education.
HORACE MANN
THOMAS
MATTHEW ARNOLD
and
lish Education.
$1.00
Late Inspector of
net.
By THOMAS
ARISTOTLE and
By Professor ANI2mo.
University of Princeton.
Christian Schools.
the
$1.00 net.
ABELARD
$1.25 net.
FROEBEL and
HERBART
12 mo.
$1.00
By THOMAS
Jesuits.
By H. COURT-
in the University of
net.
$1.00
net.
ROUSSEAU
The history of great educators is, from an important point of view, the
These volumes are not only biographies, but concise
history of education.
yet comprehensive accounts of the leading movement in educational
and
furnish
a genetic account of educational history. Ancient eduthought,
cation, the rise of the Christian schools, the foundation and growth of universities, and the great modern movements suggested by the names, are
adequately described and criticised.
Copies, subject to the privilege of return^ will be sent for examination to any
Teacher upon receipt of the Net Price.
The price paid for the sample copy will be returned, or a fret copy inclosed,
upon receipt of an order for TEN or more copies for Introduction.
Correspondence is invited, and will be cheerfully answered. Catalog** sen*
AVE.,
NEW YORK.
...
' '
'
'
' '
ARISTOTLE.
The whole
"I
very glad to see this excellent contribution to the history of education. Professor Davidson's work is admirable. His topic is one of the most
in
the entire history of culture." W. T. HARRIS, U. S. Commissioner
profitable
am
of Education.
"
the
'
Aristotle
field of
'
is delightful
reading.
know nothing
may
ALCUIN.
West aims
Professor
with care and in detail. The personality of Alcuin enters largely into the
movement.
story, because of his dominating influence in the
Die von Ihnen mir freundlichst zugeschickte Schrif t des Herrn Professor
iiber Alcuin habe ich mit lebhaftem Interesse gelesen und bin uberrascht
davon in Nord America eine so eingehende Beschaftigung mit unserer Vorzeit
und eine so ausgebreitete Kenntniss der Literature iiber diesen Gegenstand zu
Es sind mir wohl Einzelheiten begeenet an denen ich etwas auszufinden.
setzen fand, die ganze Auffassung und Darstellung aber kann ich nur als sehr
wohl gelungen und zutreffend bezeichnen." PROFESSOR WATTENBACH, Berlin.
'
Alcuin
seems to me to combine careful
I take pleasure in saying that
and condensation with interest of descholarly investigation with popularity,
' '
Professor G. T. LADD, of Yale.
tail, in a truly admirable way.
' '
West
'
'
'
Abelard, whose system of teaching and disputation was one of the earliest
is the typical figure of the movement ; and
signs of the rising universities,
M. Compayre has given a sketch of his character and work, from an
'
'
"-
LOYOLA.
This work
critical
" This volume on St. Ignatius of Loyola and the Educational System of the
Jesuits, by the Rev. Thomas Hughes, will probably be welcomed by others besides those specially interested in the theories and methods of education.
Written by a member of the Jesuit Society, it comes to us with authority, and
presents a complete and well - arranged survey of the work of educational
London Saturday
development carried out by Ignatius and his followers."
'
'
Review.
FROEBEL.
stands for the movement known both in Europe
and in this country as the New Education, more completely than any
other single name.
The kindergarten movement, and the whole development of modern methods of teaching, have been largely stimulated
by, if not entirely based upon, his philosophical exposition of education.
It is not believed that
any other account of Froebel and his work is so
complete and exhaustive, as the author has for many years been a student
of Froebel's principles and methods not only in books, but also in actual
Mr. Bowen is a frequent examiner of kinpractice in the kindergarten.
Friedrich Froebel
kindergarten teachers.
No one, in England
who
are trained to
"be
4 '
...
HERBART.
In this book, President De Garmo has given, for the first time in the
English language, a systematic analysis of the Herbartian theory of education, which is now so much studied and discussed in Great Britain
and the United States, as well as in Germany.
Not only does the
volume contain an exposition of the theory as expounded by Herbart
himself, but it traces in detail the development of that theory and the
additions to it made by such distinguished names as Ziller, Story, FVick,
Rein, and the American School of Herbartians.
Especially valuable will
be found Dr. De Garmo's careful and systematic exposition of the prob-
'
master.
' '
Journal of Education.
THE ARNOLDS.
No book heretofore published concerning one or both of the Arnolds
has accomplished the task performed in the present instance by Sir
Joshua Fitch. A long-time colleague of Matthew Arnold in the British
Educational Department, the author leaving biography aside has, with
unusual skill, written a succinct and fascinating account of the important
services rendered to the educational interests of Great Britain by the
Master of Rugby and his famous son. The varied and successful efforts
of the latter in behalf of a better secondary education during his long
official career of thirty-five years as Inspector of Training Schools, no
less than the notable effect produced at Rugby by the inspiring example
of Thomas Arnold's high-minded character and enthusiastic scholarship,
Whatever in the teaching of both seems likely
are admirably presented.
to prove of permanent value has been judiciously selected by the author
from the mass of their writings, and incorporated in the present volume.
The American educational public, which cannot fail to acknowledge a
lasting debt of gratitude to the Arnolds, father and son, will certainly welcome this sympathetic exposition of their influence and opinions.
" The book is opportune, for the Arnoldian tradition, though widely diffused
in America, is not well based on accurate knowledge and is pretty much in
the air. Dr. Fitch seems the fittest person by reason of his spiritual sympathy
with the father and his personal association with the son, to sketch in this brief
way the two most typical modern English educators. And he has done his work
almost ideally well within his limitations of purpose. . . . The two men
' '
Educational Review, New York.
live in these pages as they were.
8 P*w
?:
10
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