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84
Figure 7.1 compares basic physical properties
Property
Al
Fe
of steel and aluminium. Side by side with different mechanical behaviour, the following
Atomic weight
[g/Mol]
26.9
55.84
Specific weight
[g/cm]
2.7
7.87
fcc
bcc
Lattice
E-module
[N/mm]
71*10
210*10
R pO,2
PO,2
[N/mm]
ca. 10
ca. 100
R mm
[N/mm]
ca. 50
ca. 200
[J/(g*C)]
0.88
0.53
[C]
660
1539
[W/(cm*K)]
2.3
0.75
[nWm]
28-29
97
Expansion coeff.
[1/C]
Melting point
Heat conductivity
24*10
-6
12*10
Al2O 3
[C]
2050
-6
FeO
Oxydes
ing:
Fe 3O 4
Fe 2O 3
1400
1600
(1455)
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Figure 7.2 compares some mechanical properties of steel with properties of some light
metals. The important advantages of light
Figure 7.1
shown in the right part of the figure. If a comparison should be based on an identical stiffness, then the aluminium supporting beam has a 1.44 times larger cross-section than the
steel beam, however only about 50% of its weight.
Figure 7.3 compares qualitatively the stress-strain diagram
of
Aluminium
and
cubic)-lattice
at
Aluminium
is
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not
85
4
cm
2
200C
400
1000
1200
600
800
1500
-2
Steel
-4
Stress
8
cm aluminium
6
100C
200
Al-alloy
2
300
400 500
600
-2
-4
-6
-8
-18
Elongation
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-16
-14
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Comparison of Stress-Elongation
Diagrams of Al and Steel
Figure 7.3
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
cm
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Figure 7.4
Figure 7.4 illustrates the effect of the considerably higher heat conductivity on the welding
process compared with steel. With aluminium, the temperature gradient around the welding
point is considerably smaller than with steel. Although the peak temperature during Al welding is about 900C below steel, the isothermal curves around the welding point have a clearly
larger extension. This is due to the considerably higher heat conductivity of aluminium compared with steel.
This special characteristic of Al requires a input heat volume during welding equivalent to
steel.
Figure 7.5 lists the most important alloy elements and their combinations for industrial use.
Due to their behaviour during heat treatment can Al-alloys be divided into the groups hardenable and non-hardenable (naturally hard) alloys.
86
Al Cu Mg
ing consumables.
Al Mg Si
Cu
Al Zn Mg Cu
678
hardenable alloys
Al
Zn
Al Si Cu
the seam.
Si
Al Mg
Al Mg Mn
Mn
678
non-hardenable alloys
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Figure 7.5
second group is explained by the figures 7.7 und 7.8. Example: If an alloy containing about
4.2% Cu, which is stable at room temperature, is heat treated at 500C, then, after a sufficiently long time, there will be only a single phase structure present. All alloy elements were
dissolved, Figure 7.8 between point P and Q.
When quenched to room
Al - alloys
Al99,5
AlCuMg1
AlMgSi0,5
AlSi5
AlMg3
AlMg2Mn0,8
AlMn1
Typical use
electrical engineering
mechanical engineering, food
industries
architecture, electrical
engineering, anodizing quality
architecture, anodizing quality
architecture, apparatus-, vehicle-,
shipbuilding engineering, furniture
industry
apparatus-, vehicle-, shipbuilding
engineering
apparatus-, vehicle-engineering,
food industry
W elding consumable
SG-Al 99,5Ti;
SG-Al 99,5
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
SG-AlMg5; SG-AlMg4,5Mn;
SG-AlSi5
SG-AlSi5
SG-AlMg3;
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
SG-AlMg5; SG-AlMg3;
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
of equilibrium. If such a
structure is subjected to an
SG-AlMn1;SG-Al99,5T
elevated
temperature,
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Figure 7.6
precipitation of a second
phase takes place in ac-
87
cordance with the binary system, the crystal tries to get back into thermodynamical equilibrium.
Depending on the level of
stable condition
repeated hardening
quenching
regeneration
warm ageing
ageing at slightly
increased temperature
coherent
precipitations,
cold aged
condition
temperature
rise
longer warm
ageing
partly coherent
and incoherent
precipitations,
softening
from
the
longer warm
ageing
stable incoherent
equilibrium phase
stable condition
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deviating
Ageing Mechanism
same
lattice
structure),
partly
coherent
particles
Figure 7.7
tained),
and
incoherent
particles (lattice structure completely different from the matrix), Figure 7.7. Coherent particles
formed at room temperature can be transformed into incoherent particles by increase of temperature (i.e. enabling diffusion).
The precipitations cause a restriction to the
700
liquid
600
copper containing
aluminium solid solution
500
Temperature
400
300
ure 7.7) a maximum of second phase has precipitated after elapse of a certain time.
Consequently a prolonged stop at this tem-
200
100
copper content of
AlCuMg
mass-%
Copper
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space).
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Figure 7.8
88
After a very long heat ageing a stable condition is reached again with relatively large precipitations of the second phase in the matrix.
In Figure 7.7 is this stable final condition iden-
500
P
quenching
Temperature
400
300
200
heat ageing
100
10
12
Time
14
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Figure 7.9
Figure
7.10
shows
the
380
diffusion
condi-
320
0.2% yield stress s0.2 in N/mm
1 in dependence of time.
260
120C
200
RT
140
80
10-1
age
hardening.
quenched
100
101
10
10
Ageing time in h
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The
Figure 7.10
lier. The curve of hot ageing shows clearly the begin of strength loss when held at a too long
stoppage time. This figure shows another specialty of the process of ageing. During ageing, a
89
second phase is precipitated from a single-phase structure. To initiate this process, the structure must contain nuclei of the second phase. However, a certain time is required to develop
such nuclei. Only after formation of nuclei can the increase in strength start. The period up to
this point is called incubation time.
500
110
N/mm
Tensile strength sB
135
400
150
180
300
190
205
230
260C
200
110
N/mm
400
0.2% yield stress s0.2
135
300
150
180
190
205C
200
230
260
Fracture elongation d2
190
180
205
150
135
20
10
30
110C
260
230
30
min
10
-2
10
-1
1
day
0
10
10
Ageing time
1
week
10
1
1
month year
103 h 104
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Figure 7.11
N/mm
elongation
Tensile strength Rm
300
is
counter-
AlMg5
AlMg3
200
100
Al99,5
0
0
30
70
Figure 7.12
Strain
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Figure 7.12 shows a method of how to increase the strength of non-hardenable alloys. As no
precipitations are present to reduce the movement of dislocations, such alloys can only be
strengthened by cold working.
Figure 7.12 illustrates two essential mechanisms of strength increase of such alloys. On
300
N/mm
250
Rm or Rp0,2
200
of the lattice.
150
0,7
100
0,5
50
HV30
0,4
Rp0,2/Rm
0,6
0,3
0,2
0
80
60 40 20 0 20 40
Distance from Seam Centre
60 mm 100
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Non-Hardenable Al Alloy
of a welding process.
Figure 7.13
400
Figure
7.14
illustrates
the
90 days RT
N/mm
Rm
350
21 days RT
Rp0,2
250
90 days RT
Stress
As a consequence of the
1 day RT
300
21 days RT
200
4 mm plates of: AlZnMg1F32
start values:
Rp0,2=263N/mm
Rm=363 N/mm
welding method: WIG, both sides,
simultaneously
welding consumable:
S-AlMg5
specimens with machined
weld bead
1 day RT
150
50
80
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40
20
20
60
0
40
Distance from seam centre
Hardenable Al Alloy
60
Figure 7.14
80
100
mm
140
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Figure 7.15 shows another
problematic nature of Alwelding. Due to the high
thermal expansion of aluminium, high tensions develop during solidification
of the weld pool in the
course of the welding cycle. If the welded alloy indicates a high melting inter ISF 2002
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val,
Hot Cracks in a Al Weld
cracks
may
easily
Figure 7.15
100
%
2
60
1
40
X
X
20
Mg
Cracking susceptibility
80
Si
X
X
susceptibility
100
300
Preheat temperature
400
500
0
Alloy content
1: AlMgMn 2: AlMg 2,5 3: AlMg 3,5
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de-
200
Figure 7.16
To avoid hot cracking, partly very different preheat temperatures are recommended for the
alloys. Zschtge proposed a calculation method which compares the heat conductivity conditions of the Al alloy with those of a carbon steel with 0.2% C. The formula is shown in Figure
600
C
500
400
300
200
100
660
lated
Al Zn Mg Cu 0,5 Al Zn Mg Cu 1,5
in C
in C
in J/cm*s*K
Al Si 5
Al Cu Mg 1
Al R Mg 2
Al Cu Mg 0,5
Al Mn Al Mg 2
Al Cu Mg 2
Al Mg 3
Al Mg 3 Si Al Mg Mn
TS
Tvorw.
lAl-Leg.
745
l Al-Leg.;
Al 99,98R Al99,9
Al99,8
Al 99,7 Al 99,5
Al 99
Al R Mg0,5
Al Mg Si 0,5 Al Mg Si 0,8 Al Mg Si 1
E Al Mg Si 1
Al Mg 1
TVorw. = TS -
92
calculation
result.
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Figure 7.17
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Figure 7.18
Solubility of hydrogen in
humid air
(nitrogen, oxygen, water)
poor
current transition
VS
humid air
H2
H2
festes
Schweigut
base material
feuchte Luftpores
Poren
solid weld metal
same temperature.
Grundwerkstoff
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Figure 7.19
93
This leads to a surplus of hydrogen in the melt due to the crystallisation during solidification.
This surplus precipitates in form of a gas bubble at the solidifying front. As the melting point
of Al is very low and Al has
a very high heat conductivity, the solidification speed
of Al is relatively high. As a
result, in the melt ousted
gas bubbles have often no
chance to rise all the way
to the surface. Instead,
they are passed by the solidifying front and remain in
the weld metal as pores,
Figure 7.18.
Figure 7.20
To suppress such pore formation it is therefore necessary to minimise the hydrogen content in the melt. Figure 7.19 shows possible
sources of hydrogen during MIG welding of
Al.
Figure 7.20 and 7.21 show the effect of pure
thermal expansion during Al welding. The
wedge
flame
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Figure 7.21