The Gospel of Wealth 1

Andrew Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie (1835 1919) immigrated to the United States from
Scotland with his family at the age of thirteen. He rose rapidly through a
series of jobs in a cotton mill and in his mid-twenties became a
superintendent for the Pennsylvania Railroad. He invested in iron and steel
manufacturing , and, when he retired in 1901, his Carnegie Steel Company
was producing one quarter of all the steel in the United States. A strong
believer in sharing his i m m e n s e wealth, Carnegie donated hundreds of
millions of dollars to libraries, scholarships, and public buildings like
Carnegie Hall. This essay argues for the usefulness, even the necessity ,of such
philanthropy; its most interesting features, however, are the assumptions it
contains about individualism, wealth, and the public good.
The problem of our age is the proper administration of wealth, that the
ties of brotherhood may still bind together the rich and the poor in
harmonious relationship. The conditions of human life have not only been
changed, but revolutionized, within the past few hundred years. In former
days, there was little difference between the dwelling, dress, food, and
environment of the chief and those of his retainers. The Indians are today
where civilized man then was. When visiting the Sioux, I was led to the
wigwam of the chief. It was like the others in external appearance, and even
within the difference was trifling between it and those of his poorest braves.
The contrast between the palace of the millionaire and the cottage of the
laborer with us today measures the change which has come with civilization.
This change, however, is not to be deplored, but welcomed as highly
beneficial. It is welcome, nay, essential, for the progress of the race that the
houses of some should be homes for all that is highest in literature and the
arts, and for all the refinements of civilization, rather than that none should
be so. Much better this great irregularity than universal squalor. Without
wealth there can be no Maecenas 2 . The good old times were not good old
times. Neither master nor servant was well situated then as today. A relapse
to old conditions would be disastrous to both not the least to him who
serves and would sweep away civilization with it. But whether the change
be for good or ill, it is upon us, beyond our power to alter, and, therefore, to be
accepted and made the best of. It is a waste of time to criticize the inevitable.
It is easy to see how the change has come. One illustration will serve
for almost every phase of the cause. In the manufacture of products we have
the whole story. It applies to all combinations of human industry, as
1

Published originally in the North American Review, CXLVIII (June 1889), 653-664, and
CXLIX (December 1889, 682-698. [Editors note]
2
Mcenas:
Roman statesman and patron of the arts (70?-8 B.C.); friend to the poets Horace and Virgil.

stimulated and enlarged by the inventions of this scientific age. Formerly,

articles were manufactured at the domestic hearth, or in small shops which
formed part of the household. The master and his apprentices worked side by
side, the latter living with the master , and therefore subject to the same
conditions. When these apprentices rose to be masters, there was little or no
change in their mode of life, and they, in turn, educated succeeding
apprentices in the same routine. There was, substantially, social equality, and
even political equality, for those engaged in industrial pursuits had then little
or no voice in the State.
The inevitable result of such a mode of manufacture was crude articles
at high prices. Today the world obtains commodities of excellent quality at
prices which even the preceding generation would have deemed incredible.
In the commercial world similar causes have produced similar results, and
the race is benefited thereby. The poor enjoy what the rich could not before
afford. What were the luxuries have become the necessaries of life. The
laborer has now more than the farmer had a few generations ago. The farmer
has more luxuries than the landlord had, and is more richly clad and better
housed. The landlord has books and pictures rarer and appointments more
artistic than the king could then obtain.
The price we pay for this salutary change is, no doubt, great. We
assemble thousands of operatives in the factories, and in the mine, of whom
the employer can know little or nothing, and to whom he is little better than
a myth. All intercourse between them is at an end. Rigid castes are formed,
and, as usual, mutual ignorance breeds mutual distrust. Each caste is without
sympathy with the other, and ready to credit anything disparaging in regard to
it. Under the law of competition, the employer of thousands is forced into
the strictest economies, among which the rates paid to labor figure
prominently, and often there is friction between the employer and the
employed, between capital and labor, between rich and poor. Human society
loses homogeneity.
The price which society pays for the law of competition, like the price it
pays for cheap comforts and luxuries, is also great; but the advantages of this
law are greater still than its cost for it is to this law that we owe our
wonderful material development, which brings improved conditions in its
train. But, whether the law be benign or not, we must say of it, as we say of
the change in the conditions of men to which we have referred: it is here; we
cannot evade it; no substitutes for it have been found; and while the law may
be sometimes hard for the individual, it is best for the race, because it insures
the survival of the fittest in every department. We accept and welcome,
therefore, as conditions to which we must accommodate ourselves, great
inequality of environment; the concentration of business, industrial and
commercial, in the hands of a few; and the law of competition between these,
as being not only beneficial, but essential to the future progress of the race.
Having accepted these, it follows that there must be great scope for the
exercise of special ability in the merchant and in the manufacturer who has to
conduct affairs upon a great scale. That this talent for organization and
2

management is rare among men is proved by the fact that it invariably

secures enormous rewards for its possessor, no matter where or under what
laws or conditions. The experienced in affairs always rate the MAN whose
services can be obtained as a partner as not only the first consideration, but
such as render the question of his capital3 scarcely worth considering: for able
men soon create capital; in the hands of those without the special talent
required, capital soon takes wings. Such men become interested in firms or
corporations using millions; and estimating only simple interest to be made
upon the capital invested, it is inevitable that their income must exceed their
expenditure and that they must, therefore, accumulate wealth. Nor is there
any middle ground which such men can occupy, because the great
manufacturing or commercial concern which does not earn at least interest
upon its capital soon becomes bankrupt. It must either go forward or fall
behind; to stand still is impossible. It is a condition essential to its successful
operation that it should be thus far profitable, and even that, in addition to
interest on capital, it should make profit. It is a law, as certain as any of the
others named, that men possessed of this peculiar talent for affairs, under the
free play of economic forces must, of necessity, soon be in receipt of more
revenue than can be judiciously expended upon themselves; and this law is
as beneficial for the race as the others.
Objections to the foundations upon which society is based are not in
order, because the condition of the race is better with these than it has been
with any other which has been tried. Of the effect of any new substitutes
proposed we cannot be sure. The Socialist or Anarchist who seeks to
overturn present conditions is to be regarded as attacking the foundation
upon which civilization itself rests, for civilization took its start from the day
when capable, industrious workman said to his incompetent and lazy fellows,
if thou dost not sow, thou shalt not reap,4 and thus ended primitive
Communism by separating the drones from the bees. One who studies this
subject will soon be brought face to face with the conclusion that upon the
sacredness of property civilization itself depends the right of the laborer to
his hundred dollars in the savings bank, and equally the legal right of the
millionaire to his millions. Every man must be allowed to sit under his
own vine and fig tree, with none to make afraid, 5 if human society is to
advance, or even to remain so far advanced as it is. To those who propose to
substitute Communism for this intense Individualism, the answer therefore
is: The race has tried that. All progress from that barbarous day to the present
time has resulted from its displacement. Not evil, but good, has come to the
race from the accumulation of wealth by those who have had the ability and
energy to produce it. But even if we admit for a moment that it might be
better for the race to discard its present foundation, Individualism that it is
3

c a p i t a l : wealth, especially money available for investment.

If thou...reap : loose reference to a common biblical image. Compare Galatians 6:7
...whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap.
5
to sit...make afraid:: a biblical reference to the safety and prosperity of King Solomons
reign at its height. (See 1 Kings 4: 25.)
4

a nobler ideal that man should labor, not for himself alone, but in and for a
brotherhood of his fellows, and share with them all in common...even admit
all this, and a sufficient answer is, This is not evolution, but revolution. It
necessitates the changing of human nature itself a work of eons, even if it
were good to change it, which we cannot know.
It is not practicable in our day or in our age. Even if desirable
theoretically, it belongs to another and long-succeeding sociological stratum.
Our duty is what is practicable now with the next step possible in our day
and generation. It is criminal to waste our energies in endeavoring to uproot,
when all we can profitably accomplish is to bend the universal tree of
humanity a little in the direction most favorable to the production of good
fruit under existing circumstances. We might as well urge the destruction of
the highest existing type of man because he failed to reach our ideal as to
favor the destruction of Individualism, Private Property, the Law of
Accumulation of Wealth, and the Law of Competition; for these are the
highest result of human experience, the soil in which society, so far, has
produced the best fruit. Unequally or unjustly, perhaps, as these laws
sometimes operate, and imperfect as they appear to the Idealist, they are,
nevertheless, like the highest type of man, the best and most valuable of all
that humanity has yet accomplished.
We start, then, with a condition of affairs under which the best
interests of the race are promoted, but which inevitably gives wealth to the
few. Thus far, accepting conditions as they exist, the situation can be surveyed
and pronounced good. The question then arises and if the foregoing be
correct, it is the only question which we have to deal What is the proper
mode of administering wealth after the laws upon which civilization is
founded have thrown it into the hands of the few? And it is of this great
question that I believe I offer the true solution. It will be understood that
fortunes are here spoken of, not moderate sums saved by many years of effort.
The returns from which are required for the comfortable maintenance of
families. This is not wealth, but only competence, which it should be the aim
of all to acquire, and which is for the best interests of society should be
acquired.
This, then, is held to be the duty of the man of wealth: to set an
example of modest, unostentatious living, shunning display or extravagance;
to provide moderately for the legitimate wants of those dependent upon him;
and after doing so, to consider all surplus revenues which come to him
simply as trust funds, which he is called upon to administer, and strictly
bound as a matter of duty to administer in the manner which, in his
judgment, is best calculated to produce the most beneficial results for the
community the man of wealth thus becoming the mere trustee and agent
for his poorer brethren, bringing to their service his superior wisdom,
experience, and ability to administer, doing for them better than they would
or could do for themselves.
. . . Those who would administer wisely must, indeed, be wise; for one
of the serious obstacles to the improvement of our race is indiscriminate
4

charity. It were better for mankind that the millions of the rich were thrown
into the sea than so spent as to encourage the slothful, the drunken, the
unworthy. Of every thousand dollars spent in so-called charity today, it is
probable that nine hundred and fifty dollars is unwisely spent so spent,
indeed, as to produce the very evils which it hopes to mitigate or cure. A
well-known writer of philosophic books admitted the other day that he had
given a quarter of a dollar to a man who approached him as he was coming to
visit the house of his friend. He knew nothing of the habits of this beggar,
knew not the use that would be made of this money; although he had every
reason to suspect that it would be spent improperly. This man professed to be
a disciple of Herbert Spencer;6 yet the quarter-dollar given that night will
probably work more injury than all the money will do good which its
thoughtless donor will ever be able to give in true charity. He only gratified
his own feelings, saved himself from annoyance and this was probably one
of the most selfish and very worst actions of his life, for in all respects he is
most worthy.
In bestowing charity, the main consideration should be to help those
who will help themselves; to provide part of the means by which those who
desire to improve may do so; to give those who desire to rise the aids by
which they may rise; to assist, but rarely or never to do all. Neither the
individual nor the race is improved by almsgiving. Those worthy of
assistance, except in rare cases, seldom require assistance . . .
The best means of benefiting the community is to place within its reach
the ladders upon which the aspiring can rise free libraries, parks, and
means of recreation, by which men are helped in body and mind; works of
art, certain to give pleasure and improve the public taste; and public
institutions of various kinds, which will improve the general condition of
the people; in this manner returning their surplus wealth to the mass of their
fellows in the forms best calculated to do them lasting good.
Thus is the problem of rich and poor to be solved. The laws of
accumulation will be left free, the laws of distribution free. Individualism
will continue, but the millionaire will be but a trustee for the poor, intrusted
for a season with a great part of the increased wealth of the community, but
administering it for the community far better than it could or would have
done for itself. The best minds will thus have reached a stage in the
development of the race in which it is clearly seen that there is no mode of
disposing of surplus wealth creditable to thoughtful and earnest men into
whose hands it flows, save by using it year by year for the general good. This
day already dawns. Men may die without incurring the pity of their fellows,
still sharers in great business enterprises from which their capital cannot be or
has not been withdrawn, and which is left chiefly at death for public uses; yet
the day is not far distant when the man who dies leaving behind him
6

Herbert Spencer: English philosopher and social theorist (1820-1903). Coined the term
Survival of the fittest.

millions of available wealth, which was free to him to administer during life,
will pass away unwept, unhonored, and unsung,7 no matter to what uses
he leaves the dross which he cannot take with him. Of such as these the
public verdict will then be: The man who dies thus rich dies disgraced.
Such, in my opinion is the true gospel concerning wealth, obedience to
which is destined some day to solve the problem of the rich and the poor, and
to bring Peace on earth, among men good will.

philanthropy (f-lnthre-p) noun

plural philanthropies
1. The effort or inclination to increase the well-being of humankind, as by charitable aid or donations.
2. Love of humankind in general.
3. Something, such as an activity or institution, intended to promote human welfare.
[Late Latin philanthropia, from Greek, from philanthropos, humane, benevolent : phil-, philo-, philo- +
anthropos, man, mankind.]

individualism (nde-vj-e-lzem) noun

1. a. Belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self-reliance and personal
independence. b. Acts or an act based on this belief.
2. A doctrine advocating freedom from government regulation in the pursuit of a person's economic or
social goals.
3. The doctrine that the interests of the individual should take precedence over the interests of the
state or social group.
2. a. The quality of being an individual; individuality. b. An individual characteristic; a quirk.

administration (d-mn -strshen) noun

Abbr. admin., adm.
1. Management, especially of business affairs.
2. The activity of a sovereign state in the exercise of its powers or duties.
3. Often Administration . Those who constitute the executive branch of a government.
4. Management of an institution, public or private.
5. The term of office of an executive officer or a body.
6. Law. Management and disposal of a trust or an estate.
7. The dispensing, applying, or tendering of something, such as an oath, a sacrament, or medicine.
administrative (-strtv, -stre-) adjective
administratively adverb

unwept, unhonored, and unsung: Carnegie is quoting Sir Walter Scott, The Lay of the Last
Minstrel (1805).

tie (t) verb

tied, tying (tng) ties verb, transitive
1. To fasten or secure with or as if with a cord, rope, or strap: tied the kite to a post; tie up a bundle.
2. To fasten by drawing together the parts or sides and knotting with strings or laces: tied her shoes.
3. a. To make by fastening ends or parts: tie a knot. b. To put a knot or bow in: tie a neck scarf.
4. To confine or restrict as if with cord: duties that tied him to the office.
5. To bring together in relationship; connect or unite: friends who were tied by common interests;
people who are tied by blood or marriage.
6. a. To equal (an opponent or an opponent's score) in a contest. b. To equal an opponent's score in
(a contest): tied the game with minutes remaining.
7. Music. To join (notes) by a tie.
verb, intransitive
1. To be fastened or attached: The apron ties at the back.
2. To achieve equal scores in a contest.
noun
1. A cord, string, or other means by which something is tied.
2. Something that connects or unites; a link: a blood tie; marital ties.
3. A necktie.
4. A beam or rod that joins parts and gives support.
5. One of the beams, usually made of wood, that are laid across a railroad bed to secure the rails.
6. a. An equality of scores, votes, or performance in a contest: The election ended in a tie. b. A
contest so resulting; a draw.
7. Music. A curved line above or below two notes of the same pitch, indicating that the tone is to be
sustained for their combined duration.

bind (bnd) verb

bound (bound) binding, binds verb, transitive
1. To tie or secure, as with a rope or cord.
2. To fasten or wrap by encircling, as with a belt or ribbon.
3. To bandage: bound up their wounds.
4. To hold or restrain with or as if with bonds.
5. To compel, obligate, or unite: bound by a deep sense of duty; bound by a common interest in
sports.
6. Law. To place under legal obligation by contract or oath.
7. To make certain or irrevocable: bind the deal with a down payment.
8. To apprentice or indenture: was bound out as a servant.
9. To cause to cohere or stick together in a mass: Bind the dry ingredients with milk and eggs.
10. To enclose and fasten (a book or other printed material) between covers.
11. To furnish with an edge or border for protection, reinforcement, or ornamentation.
12. To constipate.
13. To form a chemical bond with.
verb, intransitive
1. To tie up or fasten something.
2. To stick or become stuck: applied a lubricant to keep the moving parts from binding.
3. To be uncomfortably tight or restricting, as clothes.
4. To become compact or solid; cohere.
5. To be compelling or unifying: the ties that bind.
6. To form a chemical bond.

noun
1. a. The act of binding. b. The state of being bound. c. Something that binds. d. A place where
something binds: a bind halfway up the seam of the skirt.
2. Informal. A difficult, restrictive, or unresolvable situation: found themselves in a bind when their
car broke down.
3.
Music. A tie, slur, or brace.

harmonious (hr-mon-es) adjective

1. Exhibiting accord in feeling or action.
2. Having component elements pleasingly or appropriately combined: a harmonious blend of
architectural styles.
3. Characterized by harmony of sound; melodious.
harmoniously adverb
harmoniousness noun

former (frmer) adjective

1. a. Occurring earlier in time. b. Of, relating to, or taking place in the past.
2. Coming before in place or order; foregoing.
3. Being the first of two mentioned.
4. Having been in the past: a former ambassador.
[Middle English, comparative of forme, first, from Old English forma.]

retainer (r-tner) noun

1. One that retains, as a device, frame, or groove that restrains or guides.
2. Dentistry. An appliance used to hold teeth in position after orthodontic treatment.
3. a. An employee, typically a long-term employee. b. A servant or an attendant, especially one in the
household of a person of high rank.
wigwam (wgwm) noun
A Native American dwelling commonly having an arched or conical framework overlaid with bark, hides,
or mats.
[Eastern Abenaki wkew m.]

trifle (trfel) noun

1. Something of little importance or value.
2. A small amount; a jot.
3. A dessert typically consisting of plain or sponge cake soaked in sherry, rum, or brandy and topped
with layers of jam or jelly, custard, and whipped cream.
4. a. A moderately hard variety of pewter. b. trifles. Utensils made from this variety of pewter.
verb
trifled, trifling, trifles verb, intransitive
1. To deal with something as if it were of little significance or value.
2. To act, perform, or speak with little seriousness or purpose; jest.
3. To play or toy with something: She trifled with my affections. See synonyms at flirt.

verb, transitive
To waste (time or money, for example).
idiom.
a trifle
Very little; somewhat: a trifle stingy.
[Middle English trufle, trifle, from Old French trufle , mockery, diminutive of truffe, deception.]
tri fler (trfler) noun

brave (brv) adjective

braver , bravest
1. Possessing or displaying courage; valiant.
2. Making a fine display; impressive or showy: a coat of brave red lipstick on a mouth so wrinkled
that it didn't even have a clear outline (Anne Tyler).
3. Excellent; great: The Romans were like brothers/In the brave days of old (Macaulay).
noun
1. A Native American warrior.
2. A courageous person.
3. Archaic . A bully.

deplore (d-plr, -pl or) verb, transitive

deplored, deploring, deplores
1. To feel or express strong disapproval of; condemn: Somehow we had to master events, not simply
deplore them (Henry A. Kissinger).
2. To express sorrow or grief over.
3. To regret; bemoan.
[French dplorer, lament, regret, from Latin dplorre : d-, de- + plorre, to wail.]

beneficial (bne-fshel) adjective

1. Producing or promoting a favorable result; advantageous.
2. Law. Receiving or having the right to receive proceeds or other advantages.
[Middle English, from Old French beneficial , from Late Latin benefici lis, from Latin beneficium,
benefit. See benefice .]
benefi cially adverb
benefi cialness noun
nay (n) adverb
1. No: All but four Democrats voted nay.
2. And moreover: He was ill-favored, nay, hideous.
noun
1. A denial or refusal.
2. A negative vote or voter.
[Middle English, from Old Norse nei : ne, not + ei, ever.]

refinement (r-fnment) noun

1. The act of refining.
2. The result of refining; an improvement or elaboration.
3. The state or quality of being refined; cultivation, as in manners or taste. See synonyms at culture .
4. A keen or precise phrasing; a subtle distinction.

universal (yne-vrsel) adjective

Abbr. univ.
1. Of, relating to, extending to, or affecting the entire world or all within the world; worldwide: This
discovery of literature has as yet only partially penetrated the universal consciousness (Ellen
Key).
2. Including, relating to, or affecting all members of the class or group under consideration: the
universal skepticism of philosophers. See synonyms at general.
3. Applicable or common to all purposes, conditions, or situations: a universal remedy.
4. Of or relating to the universe or cosmos; cosmic.
5. Knowledgeable about or constituting all or many subjects; comprehensively broad.
6. Adapted or adjustable to many sizes or mechanical uses.
7. Logic. Encompassing all of the members of a class or group. Used of a proposition.
squalor (skwler) noun
A filthy and wretched condition or quality.
[Latin squlor, from squlre, to be filthy. See squalid.]
situate (sch-t) verb, transitive
situated, situating, situates
1. To place in a certain spot or position; locate.
2. To place under particular circumstances or in a given condition.
adjective (-t, -t)
Archaic .
Situated.
[Middle English, from Medieval Latin situ re, situ t-, to place, from Latin situs, location.]
relapse (r-lps) verb, intransitive
relapsed, relapsing , relapses
1. To fall or slide back into a former state.
2. To regress after partial recovery from illness.
3. To slip back into bad ways; backslide.
noun (rlps, r-lps)
A falling back into a former state, especially after apparent improvement.
[Middle English relapsen, to forswear, from Latin relb, relps-, to fall back gradually : re-, re- + lb, to
slide.]
relaps er noun

10

ill (l) adjective

worse (wrs) worst (wrst)
1. Not healthy; sick: I began to feel ill last week.
2. Not normal; unsound: an ill condition of body and mind.
3. Resulting in suffering; distressing: ill effects.
4. a. Having evil intentions; hostile or unfriendly: You certainly did me an ill turn. b. Ascribing an
objectionable quality: holds an ill view of that political group. c. Harmful; cruel.
5. Not favorable; unpropitious: ill predictions.
6. Not measuring up to recognized standards of excellence, as of behavior or conduct.
adverb
worse, worst
1. In a sickly or unsound manner; not well.
2. Scarcely or with difficulty.
noun
1. Evil; sin.
2. Disaster, distress, or harm.
3. Something that causes suffering; trouble: the social ills of urban life.
4. Something that reflects in an unfavorable way on one: Please don't speak ill of me when I'm gone.
[Middle English, from Old Norse llr, bad.]

alter (lter) verb

altered , altering, alters verb, transitive
1. To change or make different; modify: altered my will.
2. To adjust (a garment) for a better fit.
3. To castrate or spay (an animal, such as a cat or a dog).
verb, intransitive
To change or become different.
[Middle English alteren, from Old French alterer, from Medieval Latin alterre, from Latin alter, other.]
inevitable (n-v-te-bel) adjective
1. Impossible to avoid or prevent. See synonyms at certain .
2. Invariably occurring or appearing; predictable: the inevitable changes of the seasons.
inev itability noun
inevitably adverb

combination (kmbe-nshen) noun

Abbr. comb.
1. The act of combining or the state of being combined.
2. The result of combining.
3. An alliance of persons or parties for a common purpose; an association.
4. A sequence of numbers or letters used to open a combination lock.
5. Mathematics . One or more elements selected from a set without regard to the order of selection.

11

domestic (de-mstk) adjective

Abbr. dom.
1. Of or relating to the family or household: domestic chores.
2. Fond of home life and household affairs.
3. Tame or domesticated. Used of animals.
4. Of or relating to a country's internal affairs: domestic issues such as tax rates and highway
construction.
5. Produced in or indigenous to a particular country: domestic oil; domestic wine.
noun
Abbr. dom.
1. A household servant.
2. a. Cotton cloth. b. Often domestics . Household linens.
3. A product or substance discovered in, developed in, or exported from a particular country.
[Middle English, from Old French domestique, from Latin domesticus, from domus, house.]

hearth (hrth) noun

1. The floor of a fireplace, usually extending into a room and paved with brick, flagstone, or cement.
2. Family life; the home.
3. Metallurgy. a. The lowest part of a blast furnace or cupola, from which the molten metal flows. b.
The bottom of a reverberatory furnace, where ore is exposed to the flame.
4. The fireplace or brazier of a blacksmith's forge.
[Middle English herth, from Old English heorth.]

apprentice (e-prnts) noun

Abbr. app.
1. One bound by legal agreement to work for another for a specific amount of time in return for
instruction in a trade, an art, or a business.
2. One who is learning a trade or occupation, especially as a member of a labor union.
3. A beginner; a learner.
noun, attributive
Often used to modify another noun: an apprentice electrician; an apprentice sailor.
verb, transitive
apprenticed, apprenticing, apprentices
To place or take on as a beginner or learner.
[Middle English apprentis , from Old French aprentis , from Vulgar Latin *apprendit cius , from
*apprenditus, alteration of Latin apprehnsus , past participle of apprehendere, to seize. See
apprehend.]
apprenticeship noun

12

commodity (ke-md-t) noun

plural commodities
1. Something useful that can be turned to commercial or other advantage.
2. An article of trade or commerce, especially an agricultural or mining product, that can be
transported.
3. Advantage; benefit.
4. Obsolete . A quantity; lot.
[Middle English commodite, from Old French, convenience, from Latin commodits, from commodus,
convenient. See commodious.]

deem (dm) verb

deemed, deeming, deems verb, transitive
1. To have as an opinion; judge: deemed it was time for a change.
2.

1
To regard as; consider: deemed the results unsatisfactory. See Usage Note at as .

verb, intransitive
To have an opinion; think. See synonyms at consider .
[Middle English demen, from Old English dman.]

clad (kld) verb, transitive

clad, cladding, clads
1. To sheathe or cover (a metal) with a metal.
2. To cover with a protective or insulating layer of other material.
[Back-formation from cladding.]
appointment (e-pointment) noun
Abbr. appt.
1. a. The act of appointing or designating for an office or position. b. The office or position to which
one has been appointed.
2. An arrangement to do something or meet someone at a particular time and place. See synonyms at
engagement.
3. appointments. Furnishings, fittings, or equipment.
5. Law. The act of directing the disposition of property by virtue of a power granted for this purpose.

salutary (slye-tr) adjective

1. Effecting or designed to effect an improvement; remedial: salutary advice.
2. Favorable to health; wholesome: a salutary climate.
[Middle English, from Old French salutaire , from Latin saltris, from sals, salt-, health.]
sal utarily (-tre-l) adverb
salutariness noun

13

operative (per-e-tv, -e-rtv, pre-) adjective

1. Being in effect; having force; operating: Two major tendencies are operative in the American
political system (Heinz Eulau).
2. Functioning effectively; efficient.
3. Engaged in or concerned with physical or mechanical activity.
4. Of, relating to, or resulting from a surgical operation.
noun
1. A skilled worker, especially in industry.
2. a. A secret agent; a spy. b. A private detective.
operatively adverb

rigid (rjd) adjective

1. Not flexible or pliant; stiff.
2. Not moving; fixed.
3. Marked by a lack of flexibility; rigorous and exacting: We have watered down a rigid training . . .
until we now have an educational diet in many of our public high schools that nourishes neither the
classes nor the masses (Agnes Meyer).
4. Scrupulously maintained or performed: rigid discipline. See synonyms at stiff.
[Middle English rigide, from Latin rigidus, from rigre, to be stiff.]
rig idly adverb
rigidness noun

caste (kst ) noun

1. a. Any of four classes, comprising numerous subclasses, constituting Hindu society. b. Any of
numerous hereditary, endogamous social subclasses stratified according to Hindu ritual purity.
2. A social class separated from others by distinctions of hereditary rank, profession, or wealth.
3. a. A social system or the principle of grading society based on castes. b. The social position or
status conferred by a system based on castes: lose caste by doing work beneath one's station.
4. A specialized level in a colony of social insects, such as ants, in which the members, such as
workers or soldiers, carry out a specific function.
[Spanish casta, race and Portuguese casta, race, caste, both from feminine of casto, pure, from Latin
castus.]

breed (brd) verb

bred (brd) breeding, breeds verb, transitive
1. To produce (offspring); give birth to or hatch.
2. To bring about; engender.
3. a. To cause to reproduce, especially by controlled mating and selection: breed cattle. b. To
develop new or improved strains in (organisms), chiefly through controlled mating and selection of
offspring for desirable traits. c. To mate with.
4. To rear or train; bring up.
5. To produce (fissionable material) in a breeder reactor.
6. To be the place of origin of.
verb, intransitive
1. To produce offspring.
2.
To originate and thrive: Fads breed in empty heads and full purses.

14

credit (krdt) noun

Abbr. cr.
1. Belief or confidence in the truth of something. See synonyms at belief.
2. A reputation for sound character or quality; standing.
3. A source of honor or distinction: She is a credit to her family.
4. Approval for an act, ability, or quality; praise: Why should he get all the credit?
5. Influence based on the good opinion or confidence of others.
6. Often credits . An acknowledgment of work done, as in the production of a motion picture or
publication: At the end of the film we stayed to watch the credits.
7. a. Official certification or recognition that a student has successfully completed a course of study:
He received full credit for his studies at a previous school. b. A unit of study so certified: This
course carries three credits.
8. Reputation for solvency and integrity entitling a person to be trusted in buying or borrowing: You
should have no trouble getting the loan if your credit is good.
9. a. An arrangement for deferred payment of a loan or purchase: a store that offers credit; bought
my stereo on credit. b. The terms governing such an arrangement: low prices and easy credit. c.
The time allowed for deferred payment: an automatic 30-day credit on all orders.
10. Accounting. a. The deduction of a payment made by a debtor from an amount due. b. The righthand side of an account on which such amounts are entered. c. An entry or the sum of the entries
on this side. d. The positive balance or amount remaining in a person's account. e. A credit line.
verb, transitive
credited , crediting , credits
1. To believe in; trust: She refused steadfastly to credit the reports of his death (Agatha Christie).
2. a. To regard as having performed an action or being endowed with a quality: had to credit them
with good intentions. b. To ascribe to a person; attribute: credit the invention to him. See
synonyms at attribute.
3. Accounting. a. To enter as a credit: credited $500 to her account. b. To make a credit entry in:
credit an account.
4. To give or award an educational credit to.
5. Archaic . To bring honor or distinction to.
[French, from Old French, from Old Italian credito , from Latin crditum, loan, from neuter past participle
of crdere, to entrust.]

disparage (d-sprj) verb, transitive

disparaged, disparaging, disparages
1. To speak of in a slighting way; belittle. See synonyms at decry .
2. To reduce in esteem or rank.

[Middle English disparagen, to degrade, from Old French desparager : des-, dis- + parage, high
2
birth (from per, peer). See peer .]
disparagement noun

homogeneous (home-jn-es, -jnyes) adjective

1. Of the same or similar nature or kind: a tight-knit, homogeneous society (James Fallows).
2. Uniform in structure or composition throughout.
3. Mathematics . Consisting of terms of the same degree or elements of the same dimension.
[From Medieval Latin homogeneus, from Greek homogens : homo-, homo- + genos, kind. See
heterogeneous .]
homogeneously adverb

15

train (trn) noun

1. Abbr. tn. A series of connected railroad cars pulled or pushed by one or more locomotives.
2. A long line of moving people, animals, or vehicles.
3. The personnel, vehicles, and equipment following and providing supplies and services to a combat
unit.
4. A part of a gown that trails behind the wearer.
5. A staff of people following in attendance; a retinue.
6. a. An orderly succession of related events or thoughts; a sequence. See synonyms at series . b. A
series of consequences wrought by an event; aftermath.
7. A set of linked mechanical parts: a train of gears.
8. A string of gunpowder that acts as a fuse for exploding a charge.

benign (b-nn) adjective

1. Of a kind and gentle disposition.
2.
3.
4.

1
Showing gentleness and mildness. See synonyms at kind .
Tending to exert a beneficial influence; favorable: the benign influence of pure air. See synonyms
at favorable .
Medicine. Of no danger to health; not recurrent or progressive; not malignant: a benign tumor.
[Middle English benigne, from Old French, from Latin benignus.]

evade (-vd) verb

evaded, evading, evades verb, transitive
1. To escape or avoid by cleverness or deceit: evade arrest.
2. a. To avoid fulfilling, answering, or performing: evade responsibility. See synonyms at escape . b.
To fail to make payment of (taxes).
3. To avoid giving a direct answer to.
4. To baffle or elude: The accident evades explanation.
verb, intransitive
1. To practice evasion.
2. To use cleverness or deceit in avoiding or escaping.
[French vader, from Latin vdere : -, ex-, ex- + vdere, to go.]
evadable or evadible adjective
evader noun

accommodate (e-kme-dt) verb

accommodated, accommodating, accommodates verb, transitive
1. To do a favor or service for; oblige. See synonyms at oblige.
2. To provide for; supply with.
3. To hold comfortably without crowding. See synonyms at contain .
4. To make suitable; adapt. See synonyms at adapt.
5. To allow for; consider: an economic proposal that accommodates the special needs and interests
of the elderly.
6. To settle; reconcile.

16

inequality (n -kwl-t) noun

plural inequalities
1. a. The condition of being unequal. b. An instance of being unequal.
2. a. Lack of equality, as of opportunity, treatment, or status. b. Social or economic disparity: the
growing inequality between rich and poor.
3. Lack of smoothness or regularity; unevenness.
4. Variability; changeability.
3. Mathematics . An algebraic expression showing that a quantity is greater than or less than another
quantity.

affair (e-fr) noun

1. Something done or to be done; business.
2. affairs. Transactions and other matters of professional or public business: affairs of state.
3. a. An occurrence, an event, or a matter: The senator's death was a tragic affair. b. A social
function.
4. An object or a contrivance: Their first car was a ramshackle affair.
5. A matter of personal concern.
6. affairs. Personal business: get one's affairs in order.
7. A matter causing public scandal and controversy: the Dreyfus affair.
8. A romantic and sexual relationship, sometimes one of brief duration, between two people who are
not married to each other.
[Middle English affaire , from Old French afaire, from a faire , to do : a, to (from Latin ad). See ad- + faire,
to do (from facere ).]

invariable (n-vr-e-bel) adjective

Not changing or subject to change; constant.
invariability or invar iableness noun
invar iably adverb

bankrupt (bngkrpt, -rept) noun

Abbr. bkpt.
1. Law. A debtor that, upon voluntary petition or one invoked by the debtor's creditors, is judged
legally insolvent. The debtor's remaining property is then administered for the creditors or is
distributed among them.
2. A person who is totally lacking in a specified resource or quality: an intellectual bankrupt.
adjective
1. a. Having been legally declared financially insolvent. b. Financially ruined; impoverished.
2. a. Depleted of valuable qualities or characteristics: a morally and ethically bankrupt politician. b.
Totally depleted; destitute: was bankrupt of new ideas. c. Being in a ruined state: a bankrupt
foreign policy.
verb, transitive
bankrupted, bankrupting, bankrupts
1. To cause to become financially bankrupt.
2. To ruin: an administration that bankrupted its credibility by seeking to manipulate the news.
2
[French banqueroute, from Italian bancarotta : banca, moneychanger's table. See bank + rotta ,
past participle of rompere, to break (from Latin rumpere).]
bankruptcy (-rept-s , -rep-s) noun

17

revenue (rve-n, -ny) noun

Abbr. rev.
1. The income of a government from all sources appropriated for the payment of the public expenses.
2. Yield from property or investment; income.
3. All the income produced by a particular source.
4. A governmental department set up to collect public funds.
[Middle English, from Old French, from feminine past participle of revenir, to return, from Latin revenre :
re-, re- + venre, to come.]

judicious (j-dshes) adjective

Having or exhibiting sound judgment; prudent.
[From French judicieux , from Latin idicium, judgment, from idex, idic-, judge. See judge.]
judiciously adverb
judiciousness noun

expend (k-sp nd) verb, transitive

expended, expending, expends
1. To lay out; spend: expending tax revenues on government operations. See synonyms at spend.
2. To use up; consume: Every effort seemed to expend her spirit's force (George Meredith).
[Middle English expenden, from Latin expendere, to pay out : ex-, ex- + pendere, to weigh.]

socialist (soshe-lst ) noun

Abbr. soc.
1. An advocate of socialism.
2. Often Socialist . A member of a political party or group that advocates socialism.
adjective
1. Of, promoting, or practicing socialism.
2.
Socialist. Of, belonging to, or constituting a socialist party or political group.

socialism (soshe-lzem) noun

1. a. A social system in which the means of producing and distributing goods are owned collectively
and political power is exercised by the whole community. b. The theory or practice of those who
support such a social system.
2.
The building of the material base for communism under the dictatorship of the proletariat in
Marxist-Leninist theory
anarchist (ner-kst ) noun
An advocate or a participant in anarchism
anarchism (ner-kzem) noun
1. The theory or doctrine that all forms of government are oppressive and undesirable and should be
abolished.
2. Active resistance and terrorism against the state, as used by some anarchists.
3. Rejection of all forms of coercive control and authority: He was inclined to anarchism; he hated
system and organization and uniformity (Bertrand Russell).

18

sow (so) verb

sowed, sown (son) or sowed sowing, sows verb, transitive
1. To scatter (seed) over the ground for growing.
2. To impregnate (a growing medium) with seed.
3. To propagate; disseminate: sow rumors and dissension.
4. To strew or cover with something; spread thickly.
verb, intransitive
To scatter seed for growing.
[Middle English sowen, from Old English swan.]
sower noun

reap (rp) verb

reaped, reaping, reaps verb, transitive
1. To cut (grain or pulse) for harvest with a scythe, sickle, or reaper.
2. To harvest (a crop).
3. To harvest a crop from: reaping a field.
4. To obtain as a result of effort: She reaped large profits from her unique invention.
verb, intransitive
1. To cut or harvest grain or pulse.
2. To obtain a return or reward.
[Middle English repen, from Old English rpan.]
communism (kmye-nzem) noun
1. A theoretical economic system characterized by the collective ownership of property and by the
organization of labor for the common advantage of all members.
2. Communism. a. A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and
a single, often authoritarian party holds power, claiming to make progress toward a higher social
order in which all goods are equally shared by the people. b. The Marxist-Leninist version of
Communist doctrine that advocates the overthrow of capitalism by the revolution of the proletariat.
2
[French communisme, from commun, common, from Old French, from Latin commnis. See commune .]

drone (dron) noun

1. A male bee, especially a honeybee, that is characteristically stingless, performs no work, and
produces no honey. Its only function is to mate with the queen bee.
2. An idle person who lives off others; a loafer.
3. A pilotless aircraft operated by remote control.

19

individualism (nde-vj-e-lzem) noun

1. a. Belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self-reliance and personal
independence. b. Acts or an act based on this belief.
2. A doctrine advocating freedom from government regulation in the pursuit of a person's economic or
social goals.
3. The doctrine that the interests of the individual should take precedence over the interests of the
state or social group.
3.
a. The quality of being an individual; individuality. b. An individual characteristic; a quirk.
displace (ds-pls) verb, transitive
displaced, displacing, displaces
1. To move or shift from the usual place or position, especially to force to leave a homeland: millions
of refugees who were displaced by the war.
2. To take the place of; supplant.
3. To discharge from an office or position.
displace able adjective
displacer noun
evolution (ve-lshen, ve-) noun
1. A gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex or better
form. See synonyms at development.
2. a. The process of developing. b. Gradual development.
3. Biology. a. The theory that groups of organisms change with passage of time, mainly as a result of
natural selection, so that descendants differ morphologically and physiologically from their
ancestors. b. The historical development of a related group of organisms; phylogeny.
4. A movement that is part of a set of ordered movements.
5. Mathematics . The extraction of a root of a quantity.
[Latin voltio, voltion-, from voltus , past participle of volvere , to unroll. See evolve .]
evolutional or evolutionary (-she-nr) adjective
evolutionarily adverb

revolution (rve-lshen) noun

Abbr. rev.
1. a. Orbital motion about a point, especially as distinguished from axial rotation: the planetary
revolution about the sun. b. A turning or rotational motion about an axis. c. A single complete
cycle of such orbital or axial motion.
2. The overthrow of one government and its replacement with another. See synonyms at rebellion.
3. A sudden or momentous change in a situation: the revolution in computer technology.
4. Geology. A time of major crustal deformation, when folds and faults are formed.
[Middle English revolucioun , from Old French revolution , from Late Latin revoltio, revoltion-, from Latin
revoltus , past participle of revolvere , to turn over. See revolve .]

necessitate (ne-ss-tt) verb, transitive

necessitated, necessitating, necessitates
1. To make necessary or unavoidable.
2. To require or compel.
[Medieval Latin necessitre, necessitt-, from Latin necessits, necessity. See necessity.]
necessita tion noun
necessita tive adjective

20

eon also aeon (n, en) noun

1. An indefinitely long period of time; an age.
2.
The longest division of geologic time, containing two or more eras.

practicable (prkt-ke-bel) adjective

1. Capable of being effected, done, or put into practice; feasible. See synonyms at possible .
4. Usable for a specified purpose: a practicable way of entry.
[Medieval Latin practicbilis, capable of being used, from practicre, to practice, from prctica,
practice, from Late Latin prctic, practical as against contemplative life, from Greek praktik,
feminine of praktikos, practical.]

stratum (strtem, strtem) noun

plural strata (-te) or stratums
1. A horizontal layer of material, especially one of several parallel layers arranged one on top of
another.
2. Geology. A bed or layer of sedimentary rock having approximately the same composition
throughout.
3. A level of society composed of people with similar social, cultural, or economic status.
4. One of a number of layers, levels, or divisions in an organized system: a complex poem with many
strata of meaning.
[Latin strtum, a covering, from neuter past participle of sternere , to spread. See stratus.]

endeavor (n-dver) noun

1. A conscientious or concerted effort toward an end; an earnest attempt.
2. Purposeful or industrious activity; enterprise. See synonyms at effort.
verb
endeavored, endeavoring, endeavors verb, transitive
To attempt (fulfillment of a responsibility or an obligation, for example) by employment or expenditure of
effort: endeavored to improve the quality of life in the inner city.
verb, intransitive
To work with a set or specified goal or purpose.
[Middle English endevour, from endeveren, to make an effort, from (putten) in dever, (to put oneself) in
1
duty, make it one's duty : in, in. See in + dever, duty (from Old French deveir, devoir, duty). See
devoir.]
endeavorer noun

21

ideal (-del, -dl) noun

1. A conception of something in its absolute perfection.
2. One that is regarded as a standard or model of perfection or excellence.
3. An ultimate object of endeavor; a goal.
4. An honorable or worthy principle or aim.
adjective
1. a. Of, relating to, or embodying an ideal. b. Conforming to an ultimate form or standard of
perfection or excellence.
2. Considered the best of its kind.
3. Completely or highly satisfactory: The location of the new house is ideal.
4. a. Existing only in the mind; imaginary. b. Lacking practicality or the possibility of realization.
5. Of, relating to, or consisting of ideas or mental images.
6. Philosophy . a. Existing as an archetype or pattern, especially as a Platonic idea or perception. b.
Of or relating to idealism.
[From Middle English, pertaining to the divine archetypes of things, from Late Latin idelis, from
Latin idea, idea. See idea.]
Synonyms: ideal, model, example, exemplar, standard , pattern . These nouns refer to someone or
something worthy of imitation or duplication. An ideal is a sometimes unattainable standard of
perfection: Religion is the vision of . . . something which is the ultimate ideal, and the hopeless quest
(Alfred North Whitehead). A model is something to be imitated and often something deserving of
imitation: Our fellow countryman is a model of a man (Charles Dickens). An example is a model that is
likely to be imitated; the term often refers to something that serves rather as a deterrent or warning
than as something to be emulated: Our Government is the potent, the omnipresent teacher. For good
or for ill, it teaches the whole people by its example (Louis D. Brandeis). An exemplar is a person or
thing that serves as an ideal example by reason of being either very worthy or truly representative of a
type, admirable or otherwise: He is indeed the perfect exemplar of all nobleness (Jane Porter). A
standard is an established criterion or recognized level of excellence regarded as being proper, fitting,
or right: It wouldn't be quite fair to test him by our standards (William Dean Howells). A pattern serves
as a model, plan, or guide in the creation of something: I will be the pattern of all patience
(Shakespeare).

inevitable (n-v-te-bel) adjective

1. Impossible to avoid or prevent. See synonyms at certain .
2. Invariably occurring or appearing; predictable: the inevitable changes of the seasons.
inev itability noun
inevitably adverb

survey (ser-v, srv) verb

surveyed, surveying, surveys verb, transitive
1. To examine or look at in a comprehensive way.
2. To inspect carefully; scrutinize: Two women were surveying the other people on the platform
1
(Thomas Wolfe). See synonyms at see .
3. To determine the boundaries, area, or elevations of (land or structures on the earth's surface) by
means of measuring angles and distances, using the techniques of geometry and trigonometry.
4. Chiefly British. To inspect and determine the structural condition of (a building).
5. To conduct a statistical survey on.
6. To range one's gaze leisurely over.

22

verb, intransitive
To make a survey.
noun
plural surveys (srv)
1. A detailed inspection or investigation.
2. A general or comprehensive view.
3. a. The process of surveying. b. A report on or map of what has been surveyed.
[Middle English surveien , from Old French surveeir , from Medieval Latin supervid re : Latin super-,
super- + Latin vidre, to look.]
surveyor noun

forego (fr-go, for-) verb, transitive

forewent (-wnt) foregone (-gn, -g n) foregoing, foregoes (-goz)
To precede, as in time or place.
[Middle English foregon, from Old English foregn : fore-, fore- + gn, go.]
foregoer noun
competence (kmp-tens) noun
1. a. The state or quality of being adequately or well qualified; ability. See synonyms at ability . b. A
specific range of skill, knowledge, or ability.
2. Law. The quality or condition of being legally qualified to perform an act.
3. Sufficient means for a comfortable existence.
4. Microbiology. The ability of bacteria to be genetically transformable.
5. Medicine. The ability to respond immunologically to bacteria, viruses, or other antigenic agents.
unostentatious (n-stn-tshes, -ten-) adjective
Not ostentatious; unpretentious. See synonyms at plain.
unostentatiously adverb
unostentatiousness noun

shun (shn) verb, transitive

shunned, shunning, shuns
To avoid deliberately; keep away from. See synonyms at escape .
[Middle English shunnen, from Old English scunian , to abhor.]
shunner noun

display (d-spl) verb

displayed, displaying, displays verb, transitive
1. a. To present or hold up to view. b. Computer Science . To provide (information or graphics) on a
screen.
2. To give evidence of; manifest.
3. To exhibit ostentatiously; show off.
4. To be endowed with an identifiable form or character: a shrub that displays hardiness.
5. To express, as by gestures or bodily posture: a smirk that displayed contempt.
6. To spread out; unfurl: The peacock displayed its fan.

23

verb, intransitive
Computer Science . To provide information or graphics on a screen: a personal computer that displays
and prints.
noun
1. a. The act of displaying. b. A public exhibition. c. Objects or merchandise set out for viewing by
the public.
2. A demonstration or manifestation: a display of temper.
3. a. Biology. A specialized pattern of behavior used to communicate visually, such as the
presentation of colors or plumage by male birds as part of courtship or intimidation. b. An instance of
such behavior.
4. Ostentatious exhibition.
5. An advertisement or headline designed to catch the eye.
6. a. Computer Science . A device that gives information in a visual form, as on a screen. b. A visual
representation of information.
noun, attributive
Often used to modify another noun: a display cabinet; picked display type for the new advertising
campaign.
[Middle English displayen , from Anglo-Norman despleier, from Medieval Latin displic re, to unfold, from
Latin, to scatter : dis-, apart. See dis- + plicre, to fold.]
Synonyms: display , array, panoply, parade, pomp. The central meaning shared by these nouns is an
impressive or ostentatious exhibition: a tasteless display of wealth; an array of diamond rings in a
showcase; a panoply of alpine peaks; a parade of knowledge and virtue; the pomp of a coronation
ceremony. See also synonyms at show.
extravagance (k-strve-gens) noun
1. The quality of being extravagant.
2. Immoderate expense or display.
3. Something extravagant. See synonyms at luxury .
moderate (mder-t) adjective
Abbr. mod.
1. Being within reasonable limits; not excessive or extreme: a moderate price.
2. Not violent or subject to extremes; mild or calm; temperate: a moderate climate.
3. a. Of medium or average quantity or extent. b. Of limited or average quality; mediocre.
4. Opposed to radical or extreme views or measures, especially in politics or religion.
noun
One who holds or champions moderate views or opinions, especially in politics or religion.
verb
moderated, moderating, moderates (mde-rt) verb, transitive
1. To lessen the violence, severity, or extremeness of.
2. To preside over: She was chosen to moderate the convention.
verb, intransitive
1. To become less violent, severe, or extreme; abate.
2. To act as a moderator.

24

[Middle English moderat, from Latin modertus , past participle of moderr, to moderate.]
moderately adverb
moderateness noun
modera tion noun
Synonyms: moderate, qualify , temper. The central meaning shared by these verbs is to make less
extreme or intense: moderated the severity of the rebuke; qualified her criticism; admiration tempered
with fear.
Antonyms: intensify.
legitimate (le-jte-mt) adjective
1. Being in compliance with the law; lawful: a legitimate business.
2. Being in accordance with established or accepted patterns and standards: legitimate advertising
practices.
3. Based on logical reasoning; reasonable: a legitimate solution to the problem.
4. Authentic; genuine: a legitimate complaint.
5. Born of legally married parents: legitimate issue.
6. Of, relating to, or ruling by hereditary right: a legitimate monarch.
7. Of or relating to drama of high professional quality that excludes burlesque, vaudeville, and some
forms of musical comedy: the legitimate theater.
verb, transitive
legitimated, legitimating, legitimates (-mt)
To make legitimate, as:. a. To give legal force or status to; make lawful. b. To establish (a child born
out of wedlock) as legitimate by legal means. c. To sanction formally or officially; authorize. d. To
demonstrate or declare to be justified.
[Middle English legitimat, born in wedlock, from Medieval Latin lgitimtus , past participle of lgitimre,
to make lawful, from Latin lgitimus, legitimate, from lx, lg-, law.]
legitimately adverb
legitimateness noun
legitima tion noun
legit imat or (-mter) noun

surplus (srples, -pls) adjective

Abbr. s., sur.
Being more than or in excess of what is needed or required: surplus grain. See synonyms at
superfluous.
noun
1. An amount or a quantity in excess of what is needed.
2. Accounting. a. Total assets minus the sum of all liabilities. b. Excess of a corporation's net assets
over the face value of its capital stock. c. Excess of receipts over expenditures.
[Middle English, an excess, surplus, from Old French, an excess, from Medieval Latin superpls : Latin
super-, super- + Latin pls, more.]

trustee (tr-st) noun

1. Abbr. tr. Law. One, such as a bank, that holds legal title to property in order to administer it for a
beneficiary.

25

2.
3.

A member of a board elected or appointed to direct the funds and policy of an institution.
1
A country responsible for supervising a trust territory. See Usage Note at -ee .

verb, transitive & intransitive

trusteed, trusteeing, trustees
To place (property) in the care of a trustee or to function or serve as a trustee.
brethren (brthren) noun
A plural of brother.
indiscriminate (nd-skrme-nt) adjective
1. a. Not making or based on careful distinctions; unselective: an indiscriminate shopper;
indiscriminate taste in music. b. Widespread; wholesale: indiscriminate violence; the indiscriminate
use of pesticides.
2. Random; haphazard: an indiscriminate assortment of used books for sale.
3. Confused; chaotic: the indiscriminate policies of the previous administration.
4. Unrestrained or wanton; profligate: indiscriminate spending.
indiscriminately adverb
indiscriminateness noun

slothful (slth fel, sloth-, slth-) adjective

Disinclined to work or exertion; lazy. See synonyms at lazy .
slothfully adverb
slothfulness noun
profess (pre-fs, pr o-) verb
professed, professing, professes verb, transitive
1. To affirm openly; declare or claim: I profess both to learn and to teach anatomy, not from books
but from dissections (William Harvey).
2. To make a pretense of; pretend: He professed to despise everything that had happened since
1850 (Louis Auchincloss).

3. To claim skill in or knowledge of: profess medicine.

4. To affirm belief in: profess Catholicism.
5. To receive into a religious order or congregation.
verb, intransitive
1. To make an open affirmation.
2. To take the vows of a religious order or congregation.
[Middle English professen, to take vows, from Old French profes, that has
taken a religious vow (from Medieval Latin professus, avowed) and from
Medieval Latin professre, to administer a vow, both from Latin
professus, past participle of profitr, to affirm openly : pro-, forth. See
pro-1 + fatr, to acknowledge.]

professedly (-fsd-l) adverb

gratify (grte-f) verb, transitive

gratified, gratifying, gratifies
1. To please or satisfy: His achievement gratified his father. See synonyms at please.
2. To give what is desired to; indulge: gratified her curiosity.

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3.

Archaic . To reward.

[Middle English gratifien , to favor, from Latin grtificr : grtus , pleasing + -ficr, -fy.]

alms (mz) plural noun

Money or goods given as charity to the poor.
[Middle English almes, from Old English lmesse, from Late Latin elemosyna, from Greek elemosun,
from elemon, pitiful, from eleos, pity.]

aspire (e-spr) verb, intransitive

aspired, aspiring , aspires
1. To have a great ambition or ultimate goal; desire strongly: aspired to stardom.
2. To strive toward an end: aspiring to great knowledge.
3. To soar.
[Middle English aspiren, from Old French aspirer, from Latin asprre, to desire. See aspirate .]

creditable (krd-te-bel) adjective

1. Deserving of often limited praise or commendation: The student made a creditable effort on the
essay.
2. Worthy of belief: a creditable story.
3. Deserving of commercial credit; creditworthy: a creditable customer.
4. That can be assigned.
creditability or creditableness noun
creditably adverb
incur (n-kr) verb, transitive
incurred, incurring , incurs
1. To acquire or come into (something usually undesirable); sustain: incurred substantial losses
during the stock market crash.
2. To become liable or subject to as a result of one's actions; bring upon oneself: incur the anger of a
friend.
2
[Middle English incurren, from Old French encorir, from Latin incurrere, to run upon : in-, on. See in- +
currere, to run.]

dross (drs, drs) noun

1. A waste product or an impurity, especially an oxide, formed on the surface of molten metal.
2. Worthless, commonplace, or trivial matter: He was wide-awake and his mind worked clearly,
purged of all dross (Vladimir Nabokov).

[Middle English dros, from Old English dros, dregs.]

drossy adjective

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