Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
K. Shiva prashanth
(06331A0483)
N.Rajsekhar Ch. Pavan Kumar
(06331A0461) (06331A0451)
K.Krishna Rao
(06331A0436)
We also thank Dr. K.V.L. Raju, Principal, for extending his utmost
support and cooperation in providing all the supervisions for the successful
completion of the project.
We sincerely thank all the members of the staff in the Electronics and
Communication Engineering department for their sustained help in our pursuits.
N. Rajsekhar (06331A0461)
The word Akashvani was coined by Professor Dr.M.V.Gopalaswamy for his radio
station in Mysore during 1936.
The AIR network comprises the National Channel, Regional Stations, Local Radio
Stations, Vividh Bharati Centres, FM Stereo Service, External Services and North-
Eastern Services.
FM SERVICES:
AIR FM Rainbow is a group of FM radio channels across India. It is run by All India
Radio, a government owned enterprise. It features Hindi and regional language
songs and occasional English songs along with hourly news in English, regional
language and/or Hindi. In Bhopal, it operates on 102.1 megahertz in Hindi cum.
English language covering more than 12 districts of Madhya Pradesh and 21 Sub
Urbs in Bhopal City. In MP, it is also known as "Rainbow FM". In Delhi, it operates on
102.6 megahertz and AIR FM Rainbow Delhi is the only FM Channel to be aired in as
many as ten cities. In Mumbai, it operates on 107.1 megahertz. In Lucknow, it uses
the 100.7 MHz slot. In vizag, it operates on 102 megahertz. In hyderabad, it
operates on 101.9 megahertz and in Vijayawada it operates on 102.2 megahertz. It
operates in Bangalore as well with a frequency of 101.3. It was earlier called FM
Metro, the name was changed to FM Rainbow in 2002.
CONTENTS
4. FREQUENCY MODULATION
5. FM RADIO
6. ITS PERFORMANCE
7. FM TRANSMITTER
Basic System
Transmitter: The sub-system that takes the information signal and processes it
prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates the information onto a carrier
signal, amplifies the signal and broadcasts it over the channel
Channel: The medium which transports the modulated signal to the receiver. Air
acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio. May also be a wiring system like
cable TV or the Internet.
Receiver: The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from the channel and
processes it to retrieve the information signal. The receiver must be able to
discriminate the signal from other signals which may using the same channel
(called tuning), amplify the signal for processing and demodulate (remove the
carrier) to retrieve the information. It also then processes the information for
reception (for example, broadcast on a loudspeaker).
MODULATION:
A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs
the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod).
A device that can do both operations is a modem (short for "Modulator-Demodulator").
λ = c/f
λ/4 = 25000m
λ = c/f
λ = (3x10^8)/(100x10^6) = 3m
λ/4 = 75cm
2. To expand the bandwidth of the transmitted signal for better transmission quality
(to reduce noise and interference):
C = B.log2(1+SNR)
Channel capacity:
Maximum achievable information rate that can be transmitted over the channel.
As bandwidth increases, the required SNR (for fixed noise level, corresponding signal power)
decreases.
In many communication systems, a single, large frequency band is assigned to the system
and is shared among a group of users. Examples of this type of system include:
1. A microwave transmission line connecting two sites over a long distance. Each site has a
number of sources generating independent data streams that are transmitted
simultaneously over the microwave link.
2. AM or FM radio broadcast bands, which are divided among many channels or stations.
The stations are selected with the radio dial by tuning a variable-frequency filter.
3. A satellite system providing communication between a large number of ground stations
that are separated geographically but that need to communicate at the same time. The total
bandwidth assigned to the satellite system must be divided among the ground stations.
4. A cellular radio system that operates in full-duplex mode over a given frequency band.
The earlier cellular telephone systems, for example AMPS, used analog communication
methods. The bandwidth for these systems was divided into a large number of channels.
Each pair of channels was assigned to two communicating end-users for full-duplex
communications.
Figures 1-a and 1-b show how this division is accomplished for a case of three sources at one
end of a system that are communicating with three separate users at the other end. Note that
each transmitter modulates its source's information into a signal that lies in a different frequency
sub-band (Transmitter 1 generates a signal in the frequency sub-band between 92.0 MHz and
92.2 MHz, Transmitter 2 generates a signal in the sub-band between 92.2 MHz and 92.4 MHz,
and Transmitter 3 generates a signal in the sub-band between 92.4 MHz and 92.6 MHz). The
signals are then transmitted across a common channel.
At the receiving end of the system, bandpass filters are used to pass the desired signal (the
signal lying in the appropriate frequency sub-band) to the appropriate user and to block all the
unwanted signals. To ensure that the transmitted signals do not stray outside their assigned sub-
bands, it is also common to place appropriate passband filters at the output stage of each
transmitter. It is also appropriate to design an FDM system so that the bandwidth allocated to
each sub-band is slightly larger than the bandwidth needed by each source. This extra bandwidth,
called a guardband, allows systems to use less expensive filters (i.e., filters with fewer poles and
therefore less steep rolloffs).
The main advantage is that unlike TDM, FDM is not sensitive to propagation delays. Channel
equalization techniques needed for FDM systems are therefore not as complex as those for TDM
systems.
Disadvantages of FDM include the need for bandpass filters, which are relatively expensive
and complicated to construct and design (remember that these filters are usually used in the
transmitters as well as the receivers). TDM, on the other hand, uses relatively simple and less
costly digital logic circuits.
Another disadvantage of FDM is that in many practical communication systems, the power
amplifier in the transmitter has nonlinear characteristics (linear amplifiers are more complex to
build), and nonlinear amplification leads to the creation of out-of-band spectral components that
may interfere with other FDM channels. Thus, it is necessary to use more complex linear
amplifiers in FDM systems.
The frequency band from 88 MHz to 108 MHz is reserved over the public airwaves for
commercial FM broadcasting. The 88–108 MHz frequency band is divided into 200 kHz sub-
bands. The 200 kHz bandwidth of each sub-band is sufficient for high-quality FM broadcast of
music. The stations are identified by the center frequency within their channel (e.g., 91.5 MHz,
103.7 MHz). This system can provide radio listeners with their choice of up to 100 different
radio stations
Frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its frequency
In analog applications, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the
instantaneous value of the input signal. In telecommunications, frequency modulation (FM)
conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its frequency (contrast this with amplitude
modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant).
In analog applications, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the
instantaneous value of the input signal. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency
among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying
The amplitude of the carrier remains unchanged at all times. In other words, the amplitude of
the modulated wave remains the same as the amplitude of the carrier wave. The frequency of the
carrier is made to fluctuate symmetrically above and below its unmodulated frequency. As an
example, a carrier frequency, of 1000kHz may be caused to swing between 925kHz and
1075kHz or any other amount chosen in accordance with the signal voltage.
Advantages of frequency modulation:
1. Resilience to noise:
The biggest disadvantage of FM is the high bandwidth required for transmitting the same signal
compared AM.
Also FM receivers and transmitters are more costly, thus limiting the applicability of FM.
FM Radio
FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM radio is about 88 to
108 MHz. The information signal is music and voice which falls in the audio spectrum. The full
audio spectrum ranges form 20 to 20,000 Hz, but FM radio limits the upper modulating
frequency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio which limits the upper frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some
of the signal may be lost above 15 kHz, most people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of
fidelity. FM radio maybe appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity."
If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the resulting bandwidth is
180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations ) 0.2 MHz apart to prevent overlapping
signals (coincidence? I think not!). If you were to fill up the FM band with stations, you could
get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations, about the same number as AM radio (107). This sounds
convincing, but is actually more complicated (agh!).
FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In practice, they generate
three signals prior to applying the modulation:
• the L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz.
• a 19 kHz pilot carrier.
• the L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed) that
ranges from 23 to 53 kHz .
So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of 53 kHz, requiring a
reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the total signal bandwidth about 200 kHz.
FM Performance
Bandwidth
BW = 2 (β + 1 ) fm
FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band is also
larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels about the same.
The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM case (recall,
the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both
the modulation index and the modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is
made stronger, the bandwidth also grows.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a fraction of the total. In FM signals,
because of the considerable side-bands produced, the efficiency is generally high. Recall that
conventional AM is limited to about 33 % efficiency to prevent distortion in the receiver when
the modulation index was greater than 1. FM has no analogous problem.
The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the efficiency is generally
improved by making the modulation index larger (as it should be). But if you make the
modulation index larger, so make the bandwidth larger (unlike AM) which has its disadvantages.
As is typical in engineering, a compromise between efficiency and performance is struck. The
modulation index is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5, depending on the application.
Noise
FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is spread
uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise, meaning wide spectrum). The
amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these frequencies. The change in amplitude can
actually modulate the signal and be picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are
very sensitive to random noise. An example might be ignition system noise in your car. Special
filters need to be installed to keep the interference out of your car radio.
FM systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to interfere, it would
have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency
and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result, there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM
receiver. FM is sometimes called "static free, " referring to its superior immunity to random
noise.
Summary
Broadcast bands
Throughout the world, the broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum.
Usually 87.5 - 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions:
• In the former Soviet republics, and some Eastern Bloc nations, an older band from 65-74 MHz is
also used. Assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as
the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries.
The frequency of an FM broadcast station (more strictly its assigned nominal centre frequency)
is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of the Americas and the Caribbean, only odd
multiples are used. In some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used.
In Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete standards in some
countries, including 0.001, 0.01, 0.03, 0.074, 0.5, and 0.3 MHz.
FM radio microphones
The FM broadcast band can also be used by some inexpensive wireless microphones, but
professional-grade wireless microphones generally use bands in the UHF region so they can run
on dedicated equipment without broadcast interference. Such inexpensive wireless microphones
are generally sold as toys for karaoke or similar purposes, allowing the user to use an FM radio
as an output rather than a dedicated amplifier and speaker.
Microbroadcasting
Low-power transmitters such as those mentioned above are also sometimes used for
neighborhood or campus radio stations, though campus radio stations are often run over carrier
current. This is generally considered a form of microbroadcasting. As a general rule,
enforcement towards low-power FM stations is stricter than AM stations due to issues such as
the capture effect, and as a result, FM microbroadcasters generally do not reach as far as their
AM competitors.
FM transmitters have been used to construct miniature wireless microphones for espionage and
surveillance purposes (covert listening devices or so-called "bugs"); the advantage to using the
FM broadcast band for such operations is that the receiving equipment would not be considered
particularly suspect. Common practice is to tune the bug's transmitter off the ends of the
broadcast band, into what in the United States would be TV channel 6 (<87.9 MHz) or aviation
navigation frequencies (>107.9); most FM radios with analog tuners have sufficient
overcoverage to pick up these beyond-outermost frequencies, although many digitally tuned
radios do not
Modulation characteristics
Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
Random noise has a 'triangular' spectral distribution in an FM system, with the effect that noise
occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies within the baseband. This can be offset, to a
limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a
corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces
the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are
known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, respectively.
It is important that stereo broadcasts should be compatible with mono receivers. For this reason,
the left (L) and right (R) channels are algebraically encoded into sum (L+R) and difference
(L−R) signals. A mono receiver will use just the L+R signal so the listener will hear both
channels in the single loudspeaker. A stereo receiver will add the L+R and L−R signals to
recover the Left channel, and subtract the L+R and L−R signals to recover the Right channel.
The (L+R) Main channel signal is transmitted as baseband audio in the range of 30 Hz to 15
kHz. The (L−R) Sub-channel signal is modulated onto a 38 kHz double-sideband suppressed
carrier (DSBSC) signal occupying the baseband range of 23 to 53 kHz.
A 19 kHz pilot tone, at exactly half the 38 kHz sub-carrier frequency and with a precisely
defined phase relationship to it, is also generated. This is transmitted at 8–10% of overall
modulation level and used by the receiver to regenerate the 38 kHz sub-carrier with the correct
phase.
The final multiplex signal from the stereo generator contains the Main Channel (L+R), the pilot
tone, and the sub-channel (L−R). This composite signal, along with any other sub-carriers
(SCA), modulates the FM transmitter.
Converting the multiplex signal back into left and right audio signals is performed by a stereo
decoder, which is built into stereo receivers.
Stereo FM signals are more susceptible to noise and multipath distortion than are mono FM
signals. This is due to imbalance of FM sideband ratios of the additional modulating signals
created by the pilot tone and the sub-carrier channel.
In addition, for a given RF level at the receiver, the signal-to-noise ratio for the stereo signal will
be worse than for the mono receiver. The point at which the receiver input RF level reaches
maximum monaural signal-to-noise ratio will be 23 dB lower than the receiver input RF level for
maximum stereo signal-to-noise ratio. For this reason many FM stereo receivers include a
stereo/mono switch to allow listening in mono when reception conditions are less than ideal, and
most car radios are arranged to reduce the separation as the signal-to-noise ratio worsens,
eventually going to mono while still indicating a stereo signal is being received.
Normally, each channel is 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) wide, and can pass audio and subcarrier
frequencies up to 100 kHz. Deviation is typically limited to 150 kHz total (±75 kHz) in order to
prevent interference to adjacent channels on the band. Stations in the U.S. may go up to 10%
over this limit if they use non-stereo subcarriers, increasing total modulation by 0.5% for each
1% used by the subcarriers
FM TRANSMITTER
Introduction:
There is too much over-crowding in the AM broadcast bands and shrinkage in the night-time
service area due to fading, interference, etc. FM broadcasting offers several advantages over
AM such as uniform day and night coverage, good quality listening and suppression of noise,
interference, etc. All India Radio has gone in for FM broadcasting using modern FM
transmitters incorporating state-of-art technology.
2x 3 kW Transmitter
2x 5 kW Transmitter
Modern FM Transmitter:
Simplified block diagram of a Modern FM Transmitter is given in Fig.1. The left and right
channel of audio signal are fed to stereo coder for stereo encoding. This stereo encoded signal or
mono signal (either left or right channel audio) is fed to VHF oscillator and modulator. The FM
modulated output is amplified by a wide band power amplifier and then fed to Antenna for
transmission.
Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used as VHF oscillator and modulator. To stabilize its
frequency a portion of FM modulated signal is fed to a programmable divider, which divides the
frequency by a factor ‘N’ to get 10 kHz frequency at the input of a phase and frequency
comparator (phase detector). The factor ‘N’ is automatically selected when we set the station
carrier frequency. The other input of phase detector is a reference signal of 10 kHz generated by
a crystal oscillator of 10 MHz and divided by a divider (1/1000). The output of phase detector is
an error voltage, which is fed to VCO for correction of its frequency through rectifier and low
pass filter.
2 x 3 kW FM Transmitter:
Power stages are protected against mismatch (VSWR > 1.5) or excessive heat
sink temperature by automatic reduction of power with the help of control circuit. Electronic
voltage regulator has not been provided for the DC supplies of power amplifiers but a more
efficient system of stabilization in the AC side has been provided. This is known as AC-switch
over. Transmitter operates in the passive exciter standby mode with help of switch-on-control
unit. When the pre-selected exciter fails, standby exciter is automatically selected. Reverse
switch over, however, is not possible.
2 x 5 kW FM Transmitter
This unit processes the incoming audio signals both for mono and stereo transmissions. In case
of stereo transmission, the incoming L and R channel signals are processed in the stereo coder
circuit to yield a stereo base band signal with 19 kHz pilot tone for modulating the carrier signal.
It also has a multiplexer wherein the coded RDS and SCA signals are multiplexed with the
normal stereo signal on the modulating base band. The encoders for RDS and SCA applications
are external to the transmitter and have to be provided separately as and when needed.
The transmitter frequency is generated and carrier is modulated in the Synthesiser module within
the Exciter. The carrier frequency is stabilized with reference to the 10 MHz frequency from a
crystal oscillator using PLL and programmable dividers. The operating frequency of the
transmitter can be selected internally by means of BCD switches or externally by remote control.
The output of these switches generates the desired number by which the programmable divider
should divide the VCO frequency (which lies between 87.5 to 108 MHz) to get a 10 kHz signal
to be compared with the reference frequency. The stablised carrier frequency is modulated with
the modulating base band consisting of the audio (mono and stereo), RDS and SCA signals. The
Varactor diodes are used in the synthesizer to generate as well as modulate the carrier frequency.
The switch-on-control unit can be termed as the “brain” and controls the working of the
transmitter ‘A’. It performs the following main functions:
1. It controls the switching ON and OFF sequence of RF power amplifiers, rack blower and
RF carrier enable in the exciter.
2. Indicates the switching and the operating status of the system through LEDs.
3. Provides automatic switch over operation of the exciter in the passive exciter standby
mode in which either of the two exciters can be selected to operate as the main unit.
4. It provides a reference voltage source for the output regulators in the RF amplifiers.
5. It is used for adjusting the output power of the transmitter.
6. It evaluates the fault signals provided by individual units and generates an overall sum
fault signal which is indicated by an LED on the front panel. The fault is also stored in
the defective unit and displayed on its front panel.
Adapter Unit is a passive unit which controls transmitter B for its parallel operation with
transmitter A in active standby mode. The control signals from the Switch-on control unit are
extended to transmitter B via this Adapter unit. If this unit is not in position the transmitter B
can not be energized.
This amplifier is the basic power module in the transmitter. It has a broad band design so that no
tuning is required for operation over the entire FM Broadcast band. RF power transistors of its
output stages are of plug in type which are easy to replace and no adjustments are required after
replacement. Each power amplifier gives an output of 1.5 kW. Depending on the required
configuration of the transmitter, output of several such amplifiers is combined to get the desired
output power of the transmitter. For instance, for a 3 kW set-up two power amplifiers are used
whereas for a 2 x 3 kW set-up, 4 such amplifiers are needed. The simplified block diagram of 1.5
kW Power Amplifier is given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Block Diagram of 1.5 kW Amplifier VU 315
Ref. Drg.No.:-STI(T)444(DC196)
This amplifier requires an input power of 2.5 to 3 W and consists of a driver stage (output 30 W)
followed by a pre-amplifier stage (120 W). The amplification from 120 W to 1500 W in the
final stage is achieved with the help of eight 200 W stages. Each 200 W stage consists of two
output transistors (TP 9383, SD1460 or FM 150) operating in parallel. These RF transistors
operate in wide band Class C mode and are fitted to the PCB by means of large gold plated
spring contacts to obviate the need for soldering. The output of all these stages is combined via
coupling networks to give the final output of 1.5 kW. A monitor in each amplifier controls the
power of the driver stage depending on the reference voltage produced by the switch-on-control
unit. Since this reference voltage is the same for all the VHF amplifiers being used, all of them
will have the same output power.
Each amplifier has a meter for indicating the forward and reflected voltages and transistor
currents. Also a fault is signaled if the heat sink temperature or the VSWR exceed the prescribed
limits. In both cases, the amplifier power is automatically reduced to protect the transistors.
The FM transmitter requires 3-phase power connection though all the circuits, except the power
amplifiers, need only single phase supply for their operation. An AVR of 50 kVA capacity has
been provided for this purpose.
These figures do not include the power consumption of blowers which is 200 W for each blower.
For each transmitter, there is a separate power distribution panel (mounted on the lower portion
on the front of the rack). Both the distribution panels A&B are identical except for the difference
that the LEDs, fuses and relays pertaining to switching circuit of blowers and absorber are
mounted on the ‘A’ panel.
When an amplifier module or a push-pull output stage in an amplifier module fails due to failure
of any one transistor, the output gets reduced according to the following formula. :
P =Po {(m-n)/m}2
Where
Po = nominal power
P = reduced power available at the antenna
M = total number of amplifier modules or of push
Pull output stages in circuit
N = number of faulty amplifiers or push pull output stages.
The power consumed in the absorber resistors is calculated according to the formula :
Pabsorber = Po – Pn
Where Pn is the faulty partial power, which in case of failure of an entire amplifier module equals
1250 W.
If power reduction occurs due to failure of one or more VHF amplifiers, the transmitter should
be switched off immediately and the working transmitter should be selected on the antenna using
the U-links on the Combining unit.
a) Supporting tower
b) Main antenna
c) Feeder Cable
Tower
A tower of good height is required for mounting the FM antenna since the coverage of the
transmitter is proportional to the height of the tower. For a 100 m height, the coverage is about
60 km. Wherever new towers were to be provided, generally they are of 100 m height since
beyond this height; there is steep rise in their prices because of excessive wind load on the top of
the tower. At some places existing towers of Doordarshan have also been utilized for mounting
the FM antenna. Provision has also been made on the AIR towers for top mounting of TV
antenna below FM antenna (Aperture for Band III).
Antenna
Further, depending on the type of tower available for mounting the requirement is for two types
of antenna. The first type is to be mounted on a small cross-section AIR Tower. For which a
pole type FM antenna has been selected. For mounting on the existing TV towers, a panel type
antenna has been used. The cross section of the TV tower at the AIR aperture is 2.4 x 2.4 m. the
pole type antenna is quite economical as compared to panel type antenna, but it can not be used
on large area towers. For our requirement, the antennae supplied by M/s. SIRA have been found
suitable.
The pole type antenna is mounted on one of the four faces of the tower. This system will give a
field pattern within a range of 3 dB. The antenna is mounted in such a direction in which it is
required to enhance the signal. The important parameters for this antenna are :
• Spacing between dipoles is 2.6 m and all the dipoles are mounted one above the
other on the same face.
• Lengths of feed cables of dipoles will be different and has been calculated to give a
beam tilt of 2o below horizontal.
• The feed point of the antenna is looking towards ground so as to avoid deterioration
of the insulating flange. This flange consists of high density PVC. The life of this is
expected to be about 7 to 10 years.
• The distance of the feeding strip is 240 mm from edge and this should not be
disturbed. All the six dipoles are mounted on a 100 mm dia Pole. This pole is
supported by the main tower.
• The antenna is fed through a power divider which divides total power into 6 outlets
for feeding the 6 dipoles. The power divider is mounted on a different face of the
tower.
• The main feeder cables, power divider branch feeder cables, and dipoles are of
hollow construction to enable pressurization of the system.
• Suitable terminations are supplied for terminating the output of power divider in case
of failure of any dipole.
Panel Type Antenna
The panel type antenna is to be used on TV tower. Doordarshan have provided an aperture
for FM antenna on their towers. The size of this section is 2.4 x 2.4 mtrs. and its height is
different at different places. The antenna system envisaged for FM broadcasting consists of a
total of 16 panels. For omni-directional pattern 4 panels are mounted on each side of the
tower. Ladders for mounting these panels have already been provided on the four sides of
the tower.
• Reflector panel
• Two numbers of bent horizontal dipoles and
• Two numbers of vertical dipoles
The capacity of each dipole is 2.5 kW. Therefore, each panel is able to transmit 10 kW
power. The reflector panels are constructed of GI bars whereas the dipoles are made out of
steel tubes. Since each panel consists of 4 dipoles, there are a total of 64 dipoles for all the
16 panels. Therefore the power divider has 64 outlets to feed each of the dipoles. The power
divider will be mounted inside the tower. This antenna gives an omni-directional pattern
when the panels are mounted on all the four faces.
Feeder Cable
For connecting the output power of the transmitter to the dipoles through the power divider, a
3” dia feeder cable has been used.
This cable is of hollow type construction and has to be handled very carefully. From the
building to the base of the tower, the cable is laid on horizontal cable tray. Along with the
tower this is fixed on the cable rack provided for this purpose. The cable is clamped at every
1.5 m and the minimum radius of bending of this cable is about 1 m. The cable has been
provided with two numbers of EIA flange connectors of 3 1/8” size on both ends. Both the
connectors are of gas-stop type. The cable connector on the antenna end i.e. on top of the
tower is made gas-through before hoisting. This is achieved by drilling a hole through the
Teflon insulator inside the connector. A dummy hole (drilled only half way) is already
provided by the manufacturer for this purpose.
The weight of the cable is about 2.7 kg per meter and the power handling capacity is about
27 kW. Since enough safety margin has been provided in the power handling capacity, no
standby cable has been provided. This cable can be used later for two transmitters by
diplexing. The attenuation loss of the cable is about 0.44 dB per 100 meter length. The
cable and the antenna system should be fed with dry air by means of a dehydrator provided
with the transmitter.
Conclusion
The objective of radio broadcasting is to entertain, inform and educate people. The
developments in radio technology are aimed at providing reliable, interference free and high
quality voice and music to the listener at home or those moving in as wide area as possible.
Rapid technological developments in the areas of digital signal processing and transmission,
global cable networks and satellite technology have made their way into radio broadcasting.
These factors have resulted in the convergence of computing, telecommunication and
broadcasting. Voice and music can now be combined with data and text for broadcasting. The
listener can also be provided with interactivity using the return channel. Way has been paved
for high quality broadcasts directly to the listeners from space. Internet too is fast emerging
as a means of delivering programs. Radio broadcasting has indeed become multimedia
broadcasting and the world truly a global village.