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Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Overview of the Nervous System ................................................................................................... 5
The Central Nervous System .......................................................................................................... 7
The Peripheral Nervous system .................................................................................................... 21
How the Nervous System Interacts ............................................................................................... 25
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 27
Table of Figures
This essay will give a brief overview of the structure of the nervous system. It will make
extensive use of illustrations taken from various anatomical guides, as referenced in the
bibliography. The physiological components of the nervous system are too wide-reaching and
vast to give an in-depth discussion and description here and as such the structure and function as
regards the cellular level will be left to one side. Equally not every single structure within the
nervous system will be referenced but the major component pieces will be put in place. The
• How the Nervous System Interacts: How the two Systems interact with some brief
examples.
The Nervous system is concerned with the transmission and processing of information
within the body. It conveys information back and forth from internal and external stimuli, in
response to and to provoke a response, using a communication network of cells and their
accompanying extensions. The Nervous system can be subdivided into discrete locations that
differ for their anatomical and physiological features. It is made up of the Central Nervous
System (CNS), which consists of the spinal cord and brain and the Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS), which is made up of those structures relating to the nervous system outside of the brain
and spinal cord. Figure 1 gives a high-level overview of the human nervous system. The general
features of the nervous system are bilateral symmetry, centralisation, cephalisation and
segmentation. Bilateral symmetry refers to the fact that approximately the right and left halves of
the nervous system are mirror images of each other. Cephalisation refers to the tendency for
more complex organisms to gain a larger size through evolution. In the case of the nervous
system this can be seen to be the case in comparison to any of the mammals. Centralisation refers
to the fact that there are central areas of the nervous system that control various functions in the
body and they are centrally controlled, namely by the brain. Segmentation refers to the fact there
are segmented regions within the body that individually control bodily functions. However this
does not exclude several centres or segmented control units regulating a single function together.
The CNS is the decision maker. It processes incoming signals and then dictates the appropriate
response.
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain
Nervous system Nervous System
Cerebral Cortex
Thalamus Inferior and Pons
Basal Ganglia Medulla
Hypothalamus Superior Colliculi Cerebellum
Limbic System
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of the spinal cord and the brain. (See
Figure 4 - A) Both are protected by bone and meninges. The brain is protected by the skull and
the spinal cord by the vertebral column. The meninges is a protective sheath surrounding both
the brain and spinal cord made up of three layers, an outer thick tough layer called dura matter, a
middle layer called the arachnoid membrane which is soft and spongy and then the pia mater
which is closely attached to the brain and spinal cord. Between the pia mater and arachnoid
membrane is a gap called the subarachnoid space which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Figure 2 - Meninges
The brain is essentially a mass of neurons, glia and other supporting cells, floating in a pool in
this fluid. It receives a large amount of supply of blood, which acts as a communication pathway
and it is chemically guard by the blood-brain barrier. The brain contains a series of hollow
The largest chambers are the lateral ventricles which are connected to the third ventricle (See
Figure 3). The third ventricle is located at the midline of the brain, dividing the brain into
symmetrical halves. A bridge of tissue called the massa intermedia crosses through the middle of
the third ventricle. The cerebral aqueduct connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.
hindbrain. The forebrain made up of the Telencephalon and Diencephalons, the midbrain made
up of the Mesencephalon and the hindbrain made up of the Myelencephalon containing the
The forebrain contains the Telencephalon and the Diencephalon. The forebrain is
located above the midbrain. The Telencephalon includes most of the two symmetrical cerebral
hemispheres that make up the cerebrum. Most areas that lie in one cerebral hemisphere have
corresponding areas in the other. The two hemispheres are connected by several large tracts, one
of which is the corpus callosum. These function to keep each hemisphere informed about what
the other is doing. These hemispheres are covered by cerebral cortex and contain the limbic
system and the basal ganglia. The cerebral cortex functions to control thought voluntary
movement, language, reasoning and perception. It is the outer covering of the cerebral
nervous system. The cerebral cortex consists of sulci, fissures and gyri which greatly enhance
the surface area of the cortex. The cerebral cortex consists mostly of glia and cell bodies,
dendrites and interconnecting axons of neurons. The cerebral cortex has what is called gray and
white matter. Gray matter is so called because of the number of cell bodies in that area which
give it a grey colour. Beneath the cerebral cortex are millions of axons that connect neurons of
the cerebral cortex with those located elsewhere in the brain. The large concentration of myelin
within this area gives this tissue an opaque white appearance and is termed white matter. The
cerebral cortex receives information from sensory organs via the primary visual cortex, the
primary auditory cortex and the primary somatosensory cortex. (See Figure 4 - E) With the
exception of olfaction and gestation sensory information from the body or environment is sent to
the primary sensory cortex of the contralateral hemisphere. Control of movement is within the
primary motor cortex, located just in front of the primary somatosensory cortex. Neurons here
are connected to muscles in different parts of the body. These connections are contralateral.
Perceiving, learning, remembering, planning and action take place in the association areas of the
cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is split into four areas, the frontal lobe, everything in front of
the central sulcus, the parietal lobe, to the side of the cerebral hemisphere just behind the central
sulcus, caudal to the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, just forward from base of brain, ventral to
frontal and parietal lobes and the occipital lobe which lies at the back of the brain, caudal to the
The brain contains two of each lobe, one in each hemisphere. Each primary sensory area of the
cerebral cortex sends information to adjacent regions called the sensory association cortex.
Similarly there is a motor association cortex located just rostral to the primary motor cortex. The
rest of the frontal lobe, rostral to the motor association cortex is known as the prefrontal cortex.
Each hemisphere cooperate but do not perform identical functions, the unity of these
hemispheres is maintained by the corpus callosum. These lobes have distinct functional areas:
Frontal, which is responsible for motor activity, speech, thought processes, Parietal, which lies at
top of brain and processes information about touch, taste, pressure, pain, heat and cold,
Temporal, which is responsible for processing auditory signals and Occipital, which is located at
rear of the head and is responsible for receiving and processing visual information. Sensory
cortex has areas involved in the analysis of sensory information. Motor cortex has areas that
organise muscle activity. Association cortex has areas associated with complex cognitive
functions such as language and thought and attributes such as personality. The Limbic system
containing the cingulated gyrus, hippocampus and amygdale surround the core of the forebrain.
The fornix is a bundle of axons that connects the hippocampus with other regions of the brain
The Basal Ganglia are a collection of subcortical nuclei in the forebrain which lie
beneath the anterior portion of the lateral ventricles (See Figure 7). It contains the global
pallidus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic nucleus, putamen and the substantia nigra. It is involved
in the control of muscle movement. The Diencephalon is situated between the Telencephalon
The thalamus makes up the dorsal part of the Diencephalon, near the middle of the cerebral
hemispheres, immediately medial and caudal to the basal ganglia (See Figure 8 ). It has two
lobes connected by a bridge of gray matter called the massa intermedia. Most neural input to the
cerebral cortex is received from the thalamus. It is divided into several nuclei that relay sensory
information to specific sensory projection areas of the cerebral cortex. E.g. the lateral geniculate
nucleus, the medial geniculate nucleus and the ventrolateral nucleus. The Hypothalamus lies at
the base of the brain under the thalamus. (See Figure 8) It controls the autonomic nervous system
and endocrine system. It is situated on both sides of the ventral portion of the third ventricle. The
thalamus functions to integrate sensory information. It receives information and relays this
information to the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex also sends information to the thalamus
which then transmits this information to other areas of the brain and spinal cord. The
hypothalamus controls body temperature, emotions, hunger, thirst and the circadian rhythm.
vision, hearing, eye movement and body movement. It comprises of the Mesencephalon
consisting of structures such as the substantia nigra, the superior and inferior colliculli and the
red nucleus. The midbrain surrounds the cerebral aqueduct and consists of two major parts, the
tectum and the tegmentum. The tectum is located in the dorsal portion of the mesencephalon.
Its principle structures are the superior colliculli and the inferior colliculli. The brain stem
contains the diencephalons, midbrain and hindbrain. It functions to control visual and auditory
sensory information respectively. The Tegmentum consist s of the portion of the mesencephalon
beneath the tectum. It includes the rostral end of the reticular formation, periaqueductral gray
matter, red nucleus, substantia niagra and the ventral tegmental area.
surrounds the fourth ventricle and consists of the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The
The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, covered by cerebellar cortex and has a set of deep
cerebellar nuclei. (See Figure 10) The Cerebellum functions to control movement, balance and
posture. It is divided into two and has a cortex that surrounds these hemispheres. Each
hemisphere is connected to the dorsal portion of the pons by bundles of axons called superior,
middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles. The pons is a large bulge in the brain stem that lies
between the Mesencephalon and the medulla oblongata immediately ventral to the cerebellum
(See Figure 10). The Pons functions to control functions of internal organs. It consists mainly of
sensory and motor tracts travelling to and from the cortex. It also contains a section of the
reticular formation involved in producing cortical arousal during REM sleep. The
Myelencephalon contains the medulla oblongata. Its lower border is the rostral end of the spinal
myelencephalon containing the medulla. The medulla functions to control breathing and heart
rate. It is part of the hindbrain which connects with the spinal cord. Like the pons the medulla is
essentially an extension of the spinal cord into the skull. It contains nuclei associated with many
of the cranial nerves as well as autonomic functions like heart rate and respiration. Most sensory
and motor information pass through the hindbrain from the body to upper portions of the brain.
The midbrain, pons and medulla are collectively known as the brain stem.
The spinal cord is a long conical structure. (See Figure 11) The major function of the
spinal chord is to receive and process sensory information from the skin, joints and muscles of
the limbs and trunk and to control the activity of these muscles. It distributes motor fibres to the
effector organs of the body and collects somatosensory information and passes it on to the brain.
cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral and cocygeal portions. The spinal cord passes through
The spinal cord is rapped by meninges and small bundles of fibres emerge from each side of the
spinal cord in two straight lines along its dorsolateral and ventrolateral surfaces. Groups of these
bundles fuse together and become thirty-one paired sets of dorsal and ventral roots. These join
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together as they pass through the intervertebral foramens and become spinal nerves. The spinal
cord consists of white matter on the outside, gray matter on the inside (See Figure 12).
The brain and spinal cord communicate with the rest of the body via the cranial nerves
and spinal nerves. These nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS is
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is concerned with regulation of smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle and glands. (See Figure 13) Essentially it is responsible for maintaining the
activity of systems that control normal body functions such as the cardiovascular system and the
digestive system (See Figure 14). The ANS is involved in life-sustaining internal processes. It is
concerned with behaviour that is beyond voluntary control. It makes sure that internal activity is
matched to the demands of external behaviour and the external environment. The ANS
modulates behaviour rather than controls it. The Autonomic system is further subdivided into
and ganglia.
of energy from reserves that are stored in the body. Sympathetic motor neurons are located in the
gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Fibres of these neurons exit via
the ventral roots. After joining the spinal nerves the fibres branch off and pass into the
sympathetic ganglia, these are interconnected leading to sympathetic ganglion chain. Axons that
leave the spinal cord through the ventral root belong to the preganglionic neurons. Most form
synapses with neurons located in one of the ganglia. These are postganglionic neurons.
The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system supports activities that
are involved with increases in the body’s supply of stored energy. It comprises all neural
material located outside the brain and spinal cord, which are all neurons that are not part of the
CNS. The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have opposing actions. The sympathetic
system promotes the fight or flight response whereas the parasympathetic system maintains the
resting state of the internal organs. The Postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic system release
The somatic nervous system is made up of sensory neurons that innervate the skin,
skeletal muscles and joints and the axons the project onto effector cells (See Figure 13). It
mediates our interactions with the external world. The motor neurons in the somatic nervous
system control two types of behaviour. Voluntary behaviour is any motion you make
intentionally. Inputs from higher centres of the brain produce voluntary behaviour. Reflex
behaviour occurs without conscious direction. Inputs directly from the sensory neurons produce
reflex behaviour.
The nervous system has been described in terms of separate systems. They however are
closely interlinked and work as one complete system. The PNS functions as an input-output
system acting as an intermediary between the CNS and the environment outside the body and
connects the CNS to the organs and glands inside the body. It transmits information, in the form
of nerve impulses, from the environment to the CNS and then conveys information from the
CNS to the muscle, organs and glands. Afferent, incoming information is processed in the CNS
and efferent, outgoing signals are sent out from the CNS to inhibit or excite a relevant sensory or
muscle function. The spinal cord contains sensory and motor pathways that connect the brain and
the PNS. The dorsal root ganglion cells are pseudounipolar cells that convey sensory information
to the spinal chord about: Skin touch and pressure. Temperature, Noxious stimuli, tissue damage,
joint position and movement, tension within the muscle (proprioception). Each motor neuron
contacts a small number of muscle fibres within an individual muscle. The motor neuron and the
fibres it contacts form what is collectively known as a motor unit (See Figure 15).
The nervous system, taken as a whole, has several important features. It makes
use of a simple, in terms of theory, in-integrate-out system. Essentially the brain functions by it’s
connection to what appears to be pretty much everything within the body. These multiple
connections are summed and affect an outcome. This outcome works through excitation and
inhibition. Sensory and motor divisions exist throughout the entire nervous system and these
functions can be both localised and distributed. The systems are organised to run both in a
hierarchical and parallel fashion with the CNS functioning on multiple levels, some functions
working to varying degrees at several parts of the nervous system. This parallel processing is
aided by the concept of symmetry. The brain is both symmetrical and asymmetrical with many of
the brain’s circuits crossed, vision being a clear example of such a crossing.
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Figure 15 - Brain, Spinal Cord and Link to Peripheral Nervous System
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