Lighting system

Summary
The lighting system allows the driver to see when driving at night or in poor
visibility conditions, and to signal to other drivers.

Lighting systems improve visibility at night, and make a vehicle visible to other
road-users.
A lighting switch operates tail-lights, park lights, and headlights to allow the
driver to see ahead. A dip switch allows the driver to change the beams from
high to low, or vice-versa, as required.
Stop-lights operate when the brake pedal is depressed.
Turn-signals alert other drivers of a change in direction, and are mounted so they
can be seen from the front, rear and sides of the automobile.

An emergency flasher system operates both front and rear turn-signals at the
same time.
Other circuits operate courtesy, or convenience lights, reversing lights, and fault
indicators.

Lamps/light bulbs

Summary
Most lamps or light bulbs consist of a fine coil of tungsten wire, called a filament,
enclosed in a clear glass envelope from which all air has been removed. .

Modern vehicles use many different kinds and sizes of lamps, also known in
some places as light bulbs, or light globes.
Incandescent lamps
'Incandescent' lamps all consist of one or more filaments which heat up until
they glow. The filament material doesn't burn because most of the air in the bulb
has been replaced by inert gases that stop combustion occurring.
The power in watts is often marked on the lamp. The power in watts being
consumed by the lamp is found by multiplying the voltage to the lamp by the
current flowing through it.
Halogen lamps
Halogen lamps are filled with a halogen gas such as bromine or iodine. These
have a much longer life, and are generally brighter and produce more light per
unit of power consumed, but they are very hot in use. They are consequently
manufactured from highly heat resistant materials and the bulbs must be
handled carefully because they are sensitive and can be damaged even by
residue from fingerprints
Other lamp types

Conventional incandescent lamps are being replaced in many applications by

other more efficient types of lights, such as fluorescent lights, high-intensity
discharge (HID) lights, and light-emitting diodes (LED).

Lamp/light bulb information

Summary
All lamps or light bulbs have letters or numbers which indicate the power
consumed by the bulb in operation and the nominal operating voltage.

All lamps or light bulbs have letters and numbers stamped on them which
indicate the power consumed by bulb operation at the nominal operating
voltage.
For instance, in a 12V / 21W bulb the filament will consume 21 watts of power
when 12 volts is applied across the filament.

While the wattage is not necessarily an indication of light output, it can be

generally assumed that, for similar types of lamps, the higher the wattage the
greater the light output will be.

LED lighting

Summary
Light Emitting Diodes, or LEDs, are being increasingly used in automotive lighting
applications, because they operate instantly, are more reliable, and last longer.

Light Emitting Diodes, or LEDs, have been used for some time in various
automotive applications such as warning indicators and alphanumeric displays.
More recent developments in LED technology have seen the production of a
wider range of colors, and LEDs that are brighter than previous types.
It is now possible to get bright red, green, blue, yellow and clear or white light
LEDs. This has made it possible to use LEDs for many new applications, such as

more general lighting applications. For example LEDs can now be used for
stoplights, indicators and interior lighting on vehicles.
One of the advantages of LEDs is that they turn on instantly. This is particularly
useful in brake lights as they can reduce the braking response time by 2/10th of
a second. This translates to an extra 16 feet or 5 meters of stopping distance at
highway speeds. LEDs also have better visibility in poor weather and they can
last up to 100 times longer, reducing the cost of servicing.
LEDs can be specifically designed for LED lighting and also as LED replacement
bulbs for more traditional bulb holders.
For automotive applications a number of LEDs are grouped together to provide
the amount of light required for the application. Additionally LED light lenses are
specifically designed to get the most out of the available light.
An LED is like a normal diode and only passes current flow in one direction. This
means they are polarity conscious. When an LED is forward biased, current flows
through it and it emits light. So it is essential that when the LED is coupled to an
electricity supply, it must be done in the correct polarity in order for the lights to
work. A typical LED has a voltage drop of 1.2 volts across it when it is forward
biased and emitting light.
When used in automotive lighting, many LEDs are required to give off the
required amount of light. To do this they are usually connected in groups called
series strings. A number of series strings are then connected in parallel until the
necessary number of LEDs are connected to give off the required amount of
light.
LEDs work best when the voltage to them and the current flow through remains
constant at a preset level. There are two main ways to achieve this; the first is
via a resistor. The second and more preferred way is through the use of a voltage
regulation circuit.
Some LED lights are multi-voltage, this means they can work on both 12 and 24volt systems. These are normally used in aftermarket products, which are able to
be fitted to a wide range of vehicles.

Stop lights

Summary
Stop lights are red lights fitted to the rear of the vehicle which are activated
whenever the drive operates the foot brake to slow or stop the vehicle.

Stop lights are red lights fitted to the rear of the vehicle. They are usually
incorporated in the taillight cluster although many vehicles have a higher
additional stop light mounted on top of the boot lid or on the rear window called
a high-level stop lamp.
The stop lights are activated whenever the driver operates the foot brake to slow
or to stop the vehicle.
The circuit consists of:

the battery,

fusible links and fuses,

a stop light switch,

stop light bulbs,

wiring to connect the components,

and the ground circuit to return current from the filaments to the battery.

When the operator of the vehicle depresses the brake pedal, a switch mounted
on the pedal support is closed. This allows electrical current to flow from the

battery through the fuse, through the switch, to the brake light filaments and to
return to the battery by the ground system.
When the driver releases the pedal, it returns to the rest position and open
circuits the stoplight circuit. The flow of electrical current stops and the brake
lamps are extinguished.

Reverse lights

Summary
Reversing lights are white lights fitted to the rear of a vehicle. They provide
vision behind the vehicle and warn other drivers that the vehicle will move
backwards.

The reversing lights are white lights fitted to the rear of a vehicle. They provide
the driver with vision behind the vehicle at night, and also alert other drivers to
the fact that the vehicle is to be reversed.

The circuit consists of:

the battery

fuses and fusible links

the ignition switch,

the reversing light switch on the transmission,

reversing light filaments,

wiring to connect the components,

and the ground circuit to allow current to return to the battery through the
vehicle frame.

When the ignition switch is on and the vehicle is placed in reverse gear current
flows from the battery, through the ignition switch, to the closed reversing light
switch on the transmission.
Electrical current flows across the closed switch to the reversing lights, and then
returns to the battery by the earth return system.

Indicators

Summary
Indicators are amber lights located at the corners of the vehicle. They are pulsing
lights that warn other road users of an intended change in direction.

Indicators are amber lights located on the extreme corners of the vehicle. A
column mounted switch, operated by the driver, directs a pulsing current to the
indicator lights on one side of the vehicle or the other. These pulsing lights warn
other road users of the vehicles intended change of direction.
Once activated they continue until the switch is cancelled either by the operator
or by a cancelling mechanism in the switch. The cancelling mechanism operates
after a turn has been completed and the steering wheel is returned to the
straight ahead position.
The circuit consists of:

the battery

fusible links and fuses,

the ignition switch,

the flasher unit,

a three position switch used as the direction indicator switch,

the lights at the front and rear of the vehicle,

pilot lights mounted in the instrument cluster to indicate to the driver

which way the switch has been operated,

wiring to connect all of the components,

and the ground circuit to return the electrical current to the battery.

If the indicator switch is turned to indicate a right-hand turn, current from the
battery flows through the fusible link to the ignition switch, where it is directed
through a fuse to the flasher unit.

The flasher unit uses a timing circuit to pulse the current flowing out of the
flasher unit 60 to 120 times per minute. This pulsing current is directed through
the indicator switch to the right-hand indicator lights at the front and rear of the
vehicle, causing the lamps to flash on and off. A pilot light on the instrument
cluster also pulsates. The operation of the flasher unit also produces a clicking
sound to warn the driver that the indicators are in operation.
When the indicator switch is returned to the off or central position, no current
flows through the flasher unit so the timer circuit is switched off.
When the indicator switch is turned in the opposite direction, it directs the
pulsing current to the left-hand lights at the front and rear of the vehicle as well
as the left hand pilot light on the instrument cluster.
Most vehicles are equipped with hazard warning lights. This circuit is similar to
the indicator lights except that it simultaneously causes a pulsing in all exterior
indicator lights and both pilot lights on the instrument panel .
These can warn other road users that a hazardous condition exists, or that the
vehicle is standing or parked in a dangerous position on the side of the road.

Headlights

Summary
In headlight bulbs the main beam filament is positioned at the focal point of the
reflector, and the dip beam filament is placed above and slightly to one side.

Headlights or headlamps are built in to the front of a vehicle, to illuminate the

road ahead of the vehicle when driving at night, or in other conditions of reduced
visibility.
In headlights two filaments are necessary to provide for a main and a dip beam
function. These must be positioned correctly in relation to the highly polished
reflector. This is called focusing and is carried out during manufacture.
The main or high beam filament is positioned at the focal point of the reflector to
project the maximum amount of light forward and parallel to the reflector axis.
This light is then shaped by the lens which is made up of many small glass
prisms fused together. These prisms bend the light horizontally and vertically to
achieve the desired pattern for road illumination.
The dip or low beam is placed above and slightly to one side of the main
filament. Mounting the dip filament in this position produces a beam of light that
is projected downwards and towards the kerb side.
With this arrangement the main filament produces the best possible light output
while the dip filament gives a downward and dispersed beam which should not
dazzle oncoming drivers.
A semi-sealed beam headlight uses a replaceable bulb with a pre-focus collar.
The collar locates the bulb in the headlight and also controls the correct
positioning of the filaments.
A sealed beam headlight has a highly polished aluminized glass reflector which is
then fused to the optically designed lens. This forms a completely sealed unit
which has the filaments accurately positioned in relation to the reflector. When a
filament fails in a sealed beam light, the whole unit must be replaced.
Some headlight bulbs have a partial shield below the dip filament. This shield
stops light from the filament striking the lower part of the reflector. The shield
provides the primary shape of the dip beam. The final shaping of the beam is

carried out by small cylindrical shaped prisms in the headlight lens. This provides
a dipped beam that is asymmetrical.

High intensity discharge (HID) lights

Summary
High Intensity Discharge or HID lights provide better illumination than other
types of lights.

High Intensity Discharge or HID lights can be recognized by their extremely

bright white or bluish light. They provide better illumination than other types of
lights.
HID lights improve visibility. Drivers using HID lights are able to see the road
ahead for approximately 300 feet or 100 meters, compared to about 200 feet or
60 meters for a halogen system.

In comparison with halogen lights, HID headlights can be up to 3 times brighter,

are more efficient in converting electrical energy into light energy, have a longer
service life, and the light color is whiter or closer to daylight.
They operate on a gas discharge bulb system and consist of a light, bulb, ballast
and special high voltage circuitry. HID headlights systems do not use a filament
in the bulb. They have the inert gas Xenon inside the bulb, with two electrodes
that have an air gap between them in a glass tube. A high voltage is applied
between the electrodes. This causes an arc to form, which vaporizes the gases
and solids so they emit a bright light. The voltage required to strike and maintain
the arc is very high - typically up to 20, 000 volts.

Driving lights

Summary
Driving lights are used to supplement vehicle headlight systems.

Driving lights are used to supplement vehicle headlight systems. The driving
lights are fitted to the front of the vehicle and provide higher intensity
illumination over longer distances than standard headlight systems. Vehicle
design rules and regulations specify the limitations in relation to the positioning
of driving lights. It is essential that the local regulations are adhered to when
fitting or adjusting driving lights.
There are many types of driving lights available. They come in different sizes,
different shapes and varying lamp/light bulb wattage. In some instances a single
driving light can be fitted to suit particular applications, but they are normally
fitted in pairs.
Most driving lights use quartz halogen bulbs in the 55 watts to 120 watts range.
The quality of the reflector is extremely important in driving lights to get
optimum performance.
Driving lights are wired so that they only operate when high beam is operating.
This safety feature ensures that driving lights turn off when the headlights are
dipped from high to low beam, thus ensuring oncoming traffic does not get
accidentally blinded by excessive light.
A relay and circuit breaker should always be used for driving lights for safety
reasons.

Fog lights

Summary
Fog lights are used with other vehicle lighting in poor weather such as thick fog,
driving rain or blowing snow.

Fog lights are used with other vehicle lighting in poor weather such as thick fog,
driving rain or blowing snow. Because fog is made up of water droplets
suspended in the air it can reflect headlights back into your eyes at night. In such
conditions, fog lights can help drivers see further ahead and illuminate the roads
edges at reasonable speeds and are used with park lights instead of headlights.
Most fog lights have yellow colored reflectors, although more recently white fog
lights are also used. These typically they use quartz halogen bulbs. Fog lights are
available in different shapes and sizes.
Fog lights are usually mounted lower then headlights and tend to be aimed to
strike the road a short distance in front of the vehicle. The light from the fog light
is then reflected up into the fog. This reduces the light reflected into the drivers
eyes, providing better visibility.
Fog lights will normally be wired with a relay and circuit breaker. The method of
connection of fog lights will depend on local regulations. They may be wired to
work only with park lights and to turn off when headlights are used. The body
control unit normally controls the function of the fog lights when fitted as original
equipment.

Cornering lights

Summary
Cornering lights are white colored lights usually fitted into the bumper bar and
are designed to provide side light when the vehicle is turning corners.

To improve visibility during night driving, some vehicle manufacturers provide

cornering lights.
Cornering lights are white colored lights usually fitted into the bumper bar and
are designed to provide side light when the vehicle is turning corners.
The additional lighting provided by cornering lights helps the driver to see the
curb and any obstacles that may not be illuminated by the headlights.
Cornering lights turn on only when the headlights and turn signal switches are
on, so they only come on when the vehicle is turning the corner, and turn off
automatically when the turn signal turns off.

Smart lighting

Summary
Different lighting technologies can be fitted individually or together to form
comprehensive adaptive lighting systems.

Different lighting technologies can be fitted individually or together to form

comprehensive adaptive lighting systems.
Automatic headlight leveling systems ensure that the headlights are always
correctly aligned regardless of the load the vehicle is carrying. When a vehicle is
loaded, the suspension settles causing the angle of the headlights to the road to
change. This can cause glare into oncoming traffic. Auto leveling headlights use
a sensor to monitor the angle of the vehicle to the road. This information is then
used to automatically adjust the headlights. They adjust up or down so the
headlights always stay correctly adjusted. In this system, the load sensors
provide information to a control module that operates servomotors fitted to the
headlights causing the headlights to tilt up and down.
Some types of headlights can improve forward lighting while cornering. This type
of headlight swivels through the horizontal plane so that the headlight turns into
the corner as the driver turns the steering wheel. This provides better
illumination of the road and verge as the vehicle turns through the corner. In this
system sensors from the steering wheel provide information to a control module
that operates servo motors fitted to the headlights, causing them to swivel.
Headlight systems have traditionally used reflector type lighting systems. In a
reflector headlight, the light from the bulb is reflected forward by a specially
shaped reflector. An alternative is a projection type headlight system. This type

of headlight often has a smaller front lens, however it produces a high intensity
forward beam. It uses a lens system to project the light forward rather than the
traditional reflector system.

Park & tail light circuits

Summary
Red tail lamps and white park lamps are low wattage lamps that allow the
vehicle to be seen by other road users. They are connected in parallel.

For motor vehicles and trailers, two red tail lamps operate when the headlight
switch is in the park position and the headlight position. The two lights are
located close to the widest points of the vehicle so that the vehicle width can be
seen by other road users.
The bulbs are connected in parallel to each other so that the failure of one
filament will not cause total circuit failure. A number plate illumination lamp is

usually connected in parallel to the tail lights and operates whenever the tail
lights are on.
Tail lights are usually incorporated in a cluster assembly at the rear of the
vehicle. Government regulations control the height of the lamps and their
brightness.
The park lights, sometimes called clearance lamps, are located at the front of the
vehicle and are used at night time when the vehicle is parked on the side of the
road. They use low wattage bulbs and may have a lens or diffuser that makes the
emitted light wide spread. In some cases, the park lights are incorporated in the
headlight assembly.
The park lights operate when the light switch is moved to the first position. For
safety reasons the park and tail lights continue to operate when the light switch
is moved to the headlight position. The bulbs are connected in parallel with each
other.
The circuit for the park and tail lights includes:

the battery,

fusible links and fuses,

park light switch

the lights at each corner of the vehicle

the number plate light,

the wiring to connect the components together,

and the ground circuit to complete the circuit to the battery through the
vehicle frame.

When the park light switch is closed current flows from the battery, through the
fusible link to the park light switch, where it is fed through the fuse to the front
park lights and to the rear tail and number plate lights.
After passing through the filaments the current path is completed through the
frame of the vehicle to the negative battery terminal.

Headlight & dip circuits

Summary
Dip or low beam is used in built-up areas or when the driver of an approaching
vehicle could be dazzled by the main beam.

Bright, well adjusted head lights are necessary for safe vehicle operation at
night. The main beam provides a bright light suitable for driving on open country
roads.
The dip beam only is used in built up areas. In country areas, the dip beam is
used whenever oncoming traffic could be dazzled by the main beam.
The headlight circuit consists of:

the battery,

fusible link and fuses,

head light switch,

headlight relays,

dipper switch,

head lights,

high beam indicator light,

wiring of a suitable size to carry the electric current through the circuit

and the ground circuit.

When the headlights are switched on, current is supplied from the battery,
through the fusible link and fuse, across the closed switch contacts to the dipper
switch.
In the dip beam position, electrical current can flow from the dipper switch
contacts through the low beam relay winding to ground.
This creates a magnetic field that closes a set of contacts. Closing the contacts
allows electrical current to flow from the battery, through the fusible link, to the
relay contact. From the closed relay contacts the current flows to the light
filaments and then to ground.
The park and tail lights are also in operation when the headlights are switched
on.

Lighting system

Summary
The lighting system allows the driver to see when driving at night or in poor
visibility conditions, and to signal to other drivers.

Lighting systems improve visibility at night, and make a vehicle visible to other
road-users.
A lighting switch operates tail-lights, park lights, and headlights to allow the
driver to see ahead. A dip switch allows the driver to change the beams from
high to low, or vice-versa, as required.
Stop-lights operate when the brake pedal is depressed.
Turn-signals alert other drivers of a change in direction, and are mounted so they
can be seen from the front, rear and sides of the automobile.
An emergency flasher system operates both front and rear turn-signals at the
same time.
Other circuits operate courtesy, or convenience lights, reversing lights, and fault
indicators.

Circuit diagrams

Summary
Circuit diagrams contain information about wire size, wire color, earth locations
and shape and location of electrical connectors around the vehicle.
The layout of electrical circuits and their components are shown as diagrams
made up of symbols and connecting lines. Being able to read a circuit diagram is
important when trying to trace and correct a fault in an electrical system.
Not all circuit diagrams use the same symbols or the same numbering system so
refer to the manufacturer's service manual for specific details on how to read a
particular circuit diagram.
This is a typical example of how a circuit diagram for a vehicle lighting system
might be constructed.

1. This is the park and tail light circuit.

2. To this circuit we add the circuit for

the headlights and dipped lights.

3. Now we include the stop light

circuit.

4. Then we add the reversing light

circuit.

5. And the indicator or turn signal

circuits.

6. The completed circuit diagram

represents all the wiring for the
external lighting of a motor vehicle.
Other circuits such as ignition,
charging & starting circuits can be
constructed in a similar way and added
to provide a complete vehicle wiring
system.

Networking & multiplexing

Summary
A multiplex network reduces the number of wires in the wiring harness and
greater vehicle content flexibility.

Even the most basic vehicles include many electronically controlled systems. If
each electronic system had its own ECU, harness and sensors, the weight of the
added components would negate any efficiency it provided. A vehicles' multiple
electronic systems could require over 1 mile or 1.6 Kilometers of insulated
wiring, consisting of around 1000 individual wires and many terminals.
One solution to the problem is the use of a system that integrates sensors into a
common wiring harness by combining all the individual systems, where possible,
into a multiplexed serial communications network, so they can share the
information.
An added advantage of such a system is that if there is less wire and fewer
connections there is less chance of dirty connections causing faults.
This system is referred to as a Controlled Area Network BUS or CAN BUS and it
uses two thin wires to connect, or multiplex, all the control units and their
sensors to each other. The output devices are referred to as Nodes.
The advantage of a multiplex network is that it enables a decreased number of
dedicated wires for each function, and therefore a reduction in the number of
wires in the wiring harness, reduced system cost and weight, improved reliability,
serviceability, and installation.
In addition, common sensor data, such as vehicle speed, engine temperature,
etc. are available on the network, so data can be shared, thus reducing the
number of sensors.
Also, networking allows greater vehicle content flexibility because functions can
be added or modified through software changes.
Other control units can be added to the system by simply connecting them to the
network.
A diagnostic tool can be connected to the CANBUS to extract operational
information to assist in diagnosis and fault finding.

Checking lighting & peripheral systems

Summary
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to check peripheral lighting
systems. Be sure to work in a systematic manner or you could miss a faulty bulb
or another component.
Part 1. Preparation and safety
Objective

Check peripheral lighting systems.

Personal safety

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to
your local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks

Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs

Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream

Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.
Safety check

Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal
safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure
of what these are, ask your supervisor.

Points to note

Be sure to work in a systematic manner or you could miss a faulty bulb or

another component.

A vehicle may have warning lights that will activate only if that circuit is in
use. You may need to turn that circuit on to see the warning light. If you
are unsure of where these are, ask your supervisor.

Part 2: Step-by-step instruction

1. Check instrumentation
In a darkened area, turn on the ignition. The dash warning lights should be
displayed. Start the engine. If any warning light stays on when the engine
is started, it could indicate a problem in one of the cars safety or
mechanical systems. If you are unsure about what any of the warning
lights mean, consult the manufacturers manual.
2. Check the car horn
Make sure the car horn is working. If the horn is not working, locate it
under the hood with the help of the manufacturers manual. Check the
wiring to make sure there is a good contact. If necessary, use a DVOM to
isolate the fault.
3. Check rear lights
Have someone stand behind the vehicle to report any problems, then turn
the ignition on. Switch on the park lights and tail lights. Do the same for

left and right turn indicator lights. Depress the brake pedal to make sure
the brake lights work.
4. Check front lights
With somebody in front of the vehicle, make sure the high and low
headlight beams, the park lights, and the turn indicators are all working
properly.
5. Check interior lights
With the interior light switch in the correct position, open the drivers side
door to make sure the interior lights work. If any of these lights do not
operate, you may need to replace a bulb, or a fuse. Check the fuse first,
using a DVOM to check continuity. If the fuse is at fault you should report
this to your supervisor, as there could be a more serious fault in the
vehicles wiring system.

Checking & changing an exterior light bulb

Summary
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to check and change an
exterior light bulb. Before replacing the bulb, check the bulb holder for corrosion.
Clean any corrosion with abrasive tape.
Part 1. Preparation and safety
Objective

Check and change an exterior light bulb.

Personal safety
Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to
your local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks

Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs

Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream

Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.
Safety check

Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal
safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure
of what these are, ask your supervisor.

Points to note

Make sure that the fuses are in good condition before attempting to
change a bulb in a circuit that has more than one bulb, such as the turn
signal circuit. If none of the bulbs are working, there may be a bigger
problem to resolve.

Many light bulbs have more than one filament inside them. These bulbs
normally have offset pins to ensure proper locking in the socket. Be sure to
look carefully at the bulb you are replacing to make sure you do not try to
force the bulb in the wrong way.

Some bulbs have a colored glass envelope that enables them to be used
with a clear lens. If you replace a bulb of this type, make sure that you
replace it with one of the same color.

Part 2: Step-by-step instruction

1. Access the bulb
Determine the method used to secure the lamp unit or lens cover and
remove the cover to expose the bulb. If no screws are found on the lens
cover, it may be necessary to remove the entire assembly to access the
bulb.
2. Remove the bulb
If the bulb is pin-mounted, gently grip the bulb and push it inwards. Turn
the bulb in a counter-clockwise direction and remove it from the bulb
holder.
3. Check bulb holder for corrosion
Inspect the bulb holder to make sure there is no corrosion. If there is, clean
it with abrasive tape.
4. Insert the new bulb
Insert the new bulb into the bulb holder, depress it fully, turn it clockwise
and release it. Make sure the bulb is secure, and test its operation by
switching it on and off.
5. Replace cover and test
Replace the cover, and test it again.

Checking & changing a headlight bulb

Summary
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to check and change a
headlight bulb. Always make sure that you replace a bulb with one of exactly the
same type. Otherwise, change both lights at once, so they always show the same
intensity in lumens.
Part 1. Preparation and safety

Objective

Check and change a headlight bulb.

Personal safety
Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to
your local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks

Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs

Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream

Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.
Safety check

Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal
safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure
of what these are, ask your supervisor.

Points to note

There are many types of headlight bulbs available. Always make sure that
you replace a bulb with one of exactly the same type. Otherwise, change
both lights at once, so they always show the same intensity in lumens.

Sealed beam units require that the whole unit be replaced when one
filament has failed. If the reflector in the lamp unit shows signs of internal
blistering, that also indicates that you must change the unit.

If both lights operate but are not bright when switched on, start the engine
to see if this solves the problem. The battery may be in a poor state of
charge. Another explanation is that the system may have a bad ground
connection. This would have to be checked with a DVOM.

Touching a new halogen bulb with your fingers can leave some greasy
residue from your fingers on the outer surface. This can cause the bulb to
burn out very quickly. If you inadvertently touch the bulb, clean it with an
alcohol-based substance. Do not use gasoline or paraffin to clean the bulb.

Part 2: Step-by-step instruction

1. Check headlight operation
Assessing headlight operation is always best carried out in a low light

environment. Switch the vehicle headlights on to low beam, then switch to

high beam. Check that the main beam indicator on the instrument panel is
operating. Note the change in the intensity of the lights. If one of the lights
does not operate that headlight will need replacement.
2. Identify headlight type
Determine the type of lamp fitted to the vehicle, and obtain a
replacement. Many vehicles today are equipped with halogen type
headlights. These are twice as powerful as older sealed-beam units and
need to be handled carefully. Always follow the manufacturers handling
instructions.
3. Access the lamp socket
Unplug the electrical connector at the back of the lamp unit. On most
vehicles it is not necessary to remove the lamp unit from the vehicle.
Unscrew the bulb-retaining ring.
4. Remove and replace the old bulb
Remove the old bulb and replace it with the new one. Handle the new bulb
only by its base or, if supplied, by the card cover. It is very important that
you never touch the surface of the bulb with your fingers, as this will
cause it to burn out very quickly.
5. Replace the headlight unit and test
Replace the unit and the retaining ring or bulb assembly, and then re-plug
the connector. Switch on the lights again to confirm that they are both
operating correctly.

Aiming headlights

Summary
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to use a headlamp adjuster
unit to aim headlights. Although the principle of aiming headlights is the same in

the majority of cases, the legal rules can differ from region to region. Be sure to
check the requirements for your location.
Part 1. Preparation and safety
Objective

Use a headlamp adjuster unit to aim headlights.

Personal safety
Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective
clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to
your local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include:

Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks

Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs

Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream

Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.
Safety check

Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal
safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure
of what these are, ask your supervisor.

Points to note

Although the principle of aiming headlights is the same in the majority of

cases, the legal rules can differ from region to region. Be sure to check the
requirements for your location. If you are unsure of what these are, ask
your supervisor.

Some manufacturers may suggest that the headlights be aimed on high

beam, others on low or dipped beam, depending on the number of lights
and type of application. They may also suggest that a load be placed in
the vehicle. Refer to the manufacturer's manual for specific information
regarding headlight aiming.

Part 2: Step-by-step instruction

1. Check tire pressures
Make sure the car is on an even and level surface and that the tires are
inflated properly. Over loading the rear of the vehicle can alter the
alignment, so make sure the check is done according to the manufacturers
loading recommendations.
2. Position vehicle
Move the vehicle into the correct position in relation to the headlamp
aligner unit following the equipment manufacturer instructions.
3. Check low beam settings
Turn the headlights on to a low beam setting. The center of the
illuminating beams should be in the lower right quadrants of the chart or
wall markings.
4. Check high beam settings
The high beam should be centered, falling on the intersections of the
horizontal and vertical marks.
5. Adjust headlight alignment
If necessary, locate the adjustment screws on the headlight and turn them
so the lights point to the correct places.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.

Security systems

13.
14.
15.

16. Summary
17.

Theft deterrent systems can be divided into four different categories: component identification; vehicle locking; engine and transmission
immobilization; and audible alarms.

18.
19.

In an effort to reduce theft, some vehicle manufacturers fit very sophisticated theft deterrent systems to their vehicles.

20.

Theft deterrent systems can be divided into four different categories. Component identification; vehicle locking; engine and transmission
immobilization; and audible alarms.

21.

Visible identification of major components can be a deterrent for theft. Some manufacturers have etched the Vehicle Identification or VIN
Number onto labels that are attached to various components on the vehicle such as fenders, doors, the hood and trunk as well as major
mechanical components such as the engine and transmission.

22.

Etching the Vehicle Identification Number onto all windows with a small sand blaster is unobtrusive and makes the vehicle less attractive to
steal. If the vehicle is resold or used for parts the monetary value is reduced.

23.

Microdots are small plastic particles that can have either the VIN or a unique number printed on to them. They are almost invisible to the naked
eye, but can be seen by using an ultra-violet light and a magnifying glass. They are mixed with an adhesive and sprayed onto the underside of
the vehicle, into the wheel wells and engine bay. A small transfer affixed to the vehicle displays that this system has been used, making the
vehicle less attractive to a thief.

24.

Door lock systems can be manual entry, where a key has to be inserted into the door lock and turned; or keyless, where a button on the key or
key fob is pressed; or the door unlocks automatically as a driver carrying the correct security device approaches the vehicle.

25.

On older vehicles, turning the key in the door lock would unlock only that door. The remaining doors needed to be unlocked manually, via the
lock snib or lever. Releasing the key would return it to the same position it was in when inserted so it could be removed.

26.

When central locking was introduced, the lock mechanism on the drivers door had a micro switch that, when turned, would activate electric
solenoids on the remaining doors and trunk and unlock them. The same applies when the doors were locked.

27.

Further enhancement allowed manufacturers to introduce a security system that automatically locked the doors once the vehicle had reached a
preset speed. This feature is mandatory in some countries.

28.

Dead locking adds a further level of security, so that if the key were turned a quarter turn and removed a second micro switch activates small
electric motors in each door lock mechanism, mechanically locking them.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.

35.

Remote control keys

36.
37.
38.

39. Summary
40.

Remote control keys and key fobs transmit a coded signal that is received by the vehicles theft deterrent module.

41.
42.

Remote control keys and key fobs transmit a coded signal that is received by the vehicles theft deterrent module. If the code meets preset
criteria, the module closes a switch that enables either the drivers door or all doors to be locked and unlocked as required.

43.

Pressing the button a second time when locking some vehicle activates the dead lock actuators and deadlocks the vehicle.

44.

For the remote key and computer to exchange information, wireless communication is needed. High frequency electromagnetic fields known as
Radio Frequency or RF is used. This system relies upon the same basic technology as cell phones, TV and radio.

45.

The remote fob can have one button to lock and unlock; 2 buttons, one to lock and the other to unlock; 3 buttons, where the third button
activates the trunk or tailgate; or 4 buttons, where the fourth activates a panic alarm, locking the doors, sounding the horn and flashing the
headlights and hazard lights.

46.

Some vehicles actively transmit a radio code looking for a specific key. As the driver approaches the vehicle, the vehicle locates the key and the
theft deterrent module unlocks the vehicle. When the driver leaves the vehicle and the key is out of range the theft deterrent module locks the
vehicle.

47.

When keyless entry is used, personalization of systems is possible. They can be programmed to recognize different keys, with each driver
having their own specific key. This allows for different settings to be made that are individual to each driver.

48.

When a specific key is identified, the theft deterrent module communicates with the body control unit. Specific settings are remembered from
that key, so the seat, steering wheel and mirror position automatically adjusts to the driver as well as climate control settings for cabin
temperature and system modes. Entertainment system settings such as radio station presets, volume and audio settings; and transmission shift
point preferences can all change to the drivers individual preferences.

49.

It also allows for a valet key to be used, limiting engine power and vehicle speed, and preventing any other vehicle settings from being changed.

50.

Immobilization is where the theft deterrent system prevents the vehicles engine starting, or the transmission operating. Audible alarms may
sound when either the locking or immobilization systems are tampered with.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.

57.

Theft deterrent systems

58.
59.
60.

61. Summary
62.

Theft deterrent systems aim to prevent the vehicle being entered, started or driven by reacting to input from devices such as door locks and
vibration sensors, and by controlling such things as the starter motor or engine to immobilize the vehicle.

63.
64.

Theft deterrent systems aim to prevent the vehicle being entered, started or driven. The actuators used to achieve this are the electric door locks
and windows, the starter motor relay, engine management systems, transmission shift solenoids, and an audible alarm.

65.

The computer that controls the system monitors input signals from various devices. Switches are located at each door, the hood and trunk
openings, and the fuel filler door.

66.

Vibration sensors detect any unusual vehicle movement such as lifting, jacking or towing.

67.

Ultrasonic sensors detect any movement inside the cabin.

68.

Voltage monitoring sensors check against operation of the starter motor, ignition system or fuel pump.

69.

The immobilization system is enabled by pressing the lock button on the remote key, locking the doors manually with the door key, or when a
period of time has elapsed, typically 15 seconds, after the engine has stopped. The immobilization system is disabled by pressing the unlock
button on the remote fob.

70.

The key fob and theft deterrent computers have to be capable of transmitting and receiving coded information. Operational characteristics vary
greatly between manufacturers, and because it is a theft deterrent system, details are a close kept secret.

71.

Most systems use a coded system known as rolling codes. The coded data transmitted and received between the key fob and theft deterrent
computer randomly changes. This creates a situation where the code used to lock and immobilize a vehicle is different to the one used to unlock
and mobilize a vehicle. Manufacturers who use this system have seen a dramatic reduction in theft, noticeably from joy riders. The code is
transmitted as a digital number, typically containing 16 digits, giving the possibility of billions of different code numbers. When the lock button is
pressed, the control unit and key preset the agreed code, which will be used to unlock the vehicle and deactivate the theft deterrent.

72.

Pressing any button on the remote fob transmits an RF signal, even if the vehicle cannot read it, and changes the rolling code unit from that
exchanged between the control module and the fob. The system allows an error factor of 25 steps either side of the agreed code for deactivation
before the fob transmits a False Code, where the control module will disregard the key.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.

79.

Integrated communications

80.
81.
82.

83. Summary
84.

Modern vehicles integrate audio, video and communication systems into a network.

85.
86.

Modern vehicles integrate audio, video and communication systems into a network. This allows for a high quality, compact and ergonomic
system, which combines entertainment features with simple operation.

87.

Controls are centralized with hardware, such as CD stackers, and DVD players located remotely.

88.

Communication between components uses a combination of hard wiring and data buses.

89.

With data buses being used, audio messages can be broadcast over the audio system that relate to other vehicle systems. For example, a voice
message can say the park brake is on or left rear tire is under inflated

90.

The system allows for features such as the interruption or replacement of audio entertainment when there is an incoming phone call, or simply
muting the audio to allow a hands-free phone conversation.

91.

Audio control functions are usually located on the central control pod or on the components head unit. Vehicles can integrate the common audio
controls on the steering wheel to allow for safer driving.

92.

The music played on a system usually comes from one of several sources. Magnetically on a cassette tape, optically on a CD or DVD, by radio
frequency from radio stations or satellites, or from other portable devices.

93.

The information is decoded or processed by the control unit and outputted to drive speakers located throughout the vehicle.

94.

Another function provided by the body control unit is that of speed dependant volume. The control unit has an input from the vehicle speed
sensor, which allows it to gradually increase audio system volume proportionally with road speed. As speed, and therefore engine and road
noise increases, the audio volume will increase. As speed decreases the audio volume will decrease.

95.

Viewing screens for onboard TV, DVD and games can be located in the dash, however, if the screen is viewable by the driver it must disable
when the vehicle is in motion. Other mounting points are from the roof or integrated into the rear of seat headrests.

96.

Control units can be hard wired, or wireless using an infrared remote control.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.

103.

Body controlled lighting systems

104.
105.
106.

107.

Summary

108. In modern vehicles ambient light sensors are used to automatically turn the headlights on in low light situations. Other body control lighting
features can include: automatic 'dipping' headlights; delayed 'off' headlights; and headlight warning alarms

109.

110. When driving at dusk the ambient light can fade slowly. In some vehicles an ambient light sensor determines when light levels are low. This is
read by the body control unit, which turns the headlights on.
111. Automatic dipping headlights use a sensor located at the front of the vehicle to detect light from oncoming vehicles. If the headlights are on,
low beam is selected automatically. This prevents oncoming traffic being dazzled by the vehicles high beam.
112. Delayed off allows the headlights to be left on after the engine has stopped and the doors locked. The headlights will automatically extinguish
after a period of time, allowing the driver to safely see their way from the vehicle.
113. On some vehicles the body control unit will turn the headlights off if the headlights are left on after the ignition switch is turned off and the drivers
door is opened.
114. On other vehicles headlight warning alarms sound if the headlights are left on after the engine has been turned off and a door is opened. This
reduces the risk of the headlights draining the battery.
115. The body control unit illuminates a warning light when an exterior lighting bulb or globe such as a stop, tail or flasher light has failed. To do this,
the body control unit compares current flowing through these circuits to values stored in the computers memory. If the current flowing is outside
set parameters the warning light is illuminated
116. The body control unit can be programmed to keep the interior light illuminated after the doors have been closed for a set period of time, to allow
the occupants to locate seat belts or insert the ignition key. It will also illuminate the light when the ignition is turned off to allow the occupants to
locate door handles and luggage items.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.

123.

Proximity sensors

124.
125.
126.

127.

Summary

128. Proximity sensors are mounted in the front or rear bumpers. The control unit determines the distance between the sensor and an obstacle
by measuring the time taken for sound waves to leave and return to the sensor.

129.
130. To allow for safer parking, proximity sensors can be mounted in the front or rear bumpers.

131. These color-matched sensors emit ultrasonic sound waves that the human ear cannot detect.
132. These piezo sensors are used to transmit and receive coded sound waves. The control unit determines the distance between the sensor and an
obstacle by measuring the time taken for the sound wave to leave and return to the sensor. Normally 4 sensors are used to allow for full
coverage across the width of the vehicle.
133. Proximity to obstacles can be indicated by separate audible and visual alarms, or by integrating warning sounds with the vehicles audio system.
134. If a trailer is attached to a coupling, the rear sensors are disabled automatically when the harness plug is inserted. Front sensors can be
disabled manually in stop start or stop and go traffic.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.

141.

Reflective displays

142.
143.
144.

145.

Summary

146. Reflective displays use a mirror embedded in the dash so the instruments appear further away than they actually are. This way the driver's
focal point changes less when looking from the road to the instruments and back.

147.
148. Conventional instrument panels require the driver to change the line of sight and their visual focal length to read information on the instrument
cluster. This means the driver is looking away from the road for a significant distance when traveling at speed.
149. Reflective displays are mounted within the dash panel. They use a mirror embedded in the dash, forward of the driver, to reflect an image of the
instrument cluster. The actual instruments are hidden in the dash and it is a reflected view of them that the driver sees.
150. This has the effect of the instruments appearing to be located further away than they actually are. The benefit of this system is that the drivers
focal point changes less when looking from the road to the instruments and back.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.

156.

157.

Global positioning satellites (GPS)

158.
159.
160.

161.

Summary

162. A system known as a Global Positioning System, or GPS, can be used to determine the exact location of a vehicle on the earth's surface.

163.
164. Thousands of satellites, serving a variety of purposes, are continually in orbit high above the earth. The use of satellite technology in vehicle
systems provides an ever-increasing array of options for vehicle manufacturers. It is an area of automotive technology that increases the
flexibility and power of many onboard systems.
165. Satellite technology is used in: Navigation, vehicle tracking, vehicle theft recovery, communication, and internet access.
166. A system known as Global Positioning System, or GPS, can be used to determine the exact location of a vehicle on the earths surface. The
GPS forms a critical part of vehicle tracking systems, however many other components are required to keep track of the vehicle.
167. Mountains, tunnels, large buildings and other objects can interfere with satellite communication and make it unreliable.
168. Most vehicle tracking systems can work very accurately without satellites once their initial position has been determined. On board sensors can
be used to keep track of the exact vehicle location.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.

175.
176.
177.
178.

Triangulation/trilateration

179.

Summary

180. Trilateration or triangulation is the system whereby a vehicle's location is determined by forming a triangle with a group of four or more
satellites.

181.
182. The Global Positioning System or GPS uses a group of at least 24 satellites orbiting approximately 12 600 miles or 20 200 kilometers above the
earth. The vehicle is equipped with a receiving antenna and computer system. The GPS receiver on the vehicle has to locate four or more of
these satellites, determine the distance to each, and use this information to establish it's own location. This operation is based on a
mathematical principle called trilateration.
183. Trilateration in three-dimensional space is quite complex. For ease of understanding, the term that is generally used in the automotive industry
to describe how the GPS positioning system operates, is Triangulation.
184. Triangulation is the process of finding the position of an unknown point based on forming a triangle with two known points.
185. For simplicity, the dimensions used to determine these points are commonly known as Latitude, Longitude and Elevation
186. If a group of three satellites are taken to form a triangle, 12 600 miles or 20 200 kilometers above the earth, the shape and size of this triangle
will never change.
187. Equally any fixed point on the surface of the Earth will triangulate with the satellites. The numbers of fixed points are infinite.
188. What the GPS does to work, is form many triangles with different pairs of satellites.
189. Each satellite has an atomic clock onboard and regularly transmits a unique radio frequency signal simultaneously with all other Global
Positioning Satellites. The RF signals travel out across space in all directions.
190. The speed at which an RF signal travels in space is approximately 186,000 miles or 300,000 kilometers per second, the speed of light in a
vacuum.
191. Each of these transmitted signals will reach the GPS antenna of the vehicle. The time taken for the RF signal to travel from each satellite and
arrive at the vehicle is dependant on the distance each satellite is from the vehicle. The greater the distance the longer the time taken.
192. The vehicles onboard GPS system needs to know three things to determine the location of the vehicle.
193. The time it takes for the signal to travel from the satellites to the vehicle.
194. The location of each satellite
195. And accurate time.
196. Given these facts, enough information is available to form a three dimensional figure of a pyramid with a triangle base.

197. The base of the pyramid is formed by the location of the satellites and the apex of the pyramid is the location of the vehicle on the Earth, a point
derived from triangulation of the known points of the base.
198. The GPS equipment knows that all of the apexes (the position of the GPS) of each triangle must be in the same literal position.
199. Adding more satellites makes this more accurate because it gives the GPS more triangles to work with.
200. Satellites are positioned so that every location of the earths surface has access to four satellites 24hrs a day.
201. Satellites rely on the use of solar energy for their operating power and to maintain position. As the earth and moon move through their orbits,
varying gravitational forces are placed on the satellites. The system allows for accurate positioning ensuring the satellites do not move from their
correct location.
202. Inaccuracies caused by weather conditions do occur as the RF signal moves into the earths atmosphere it travels through air, with varying
levels of density. This slows the speed at which the RF signals travel.
203. Inaccuracies also occur when RF signals are reflected off objects such as large buildings. Solar radiation can also cause inaccuracies.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.

210.

Satellite navigation

211.
212.
213.

214.

Summary

215. Once a vehicles position is determined via trilateration, software can be used to generate an accurate map of the area. The GPS continues
to provide updated information to ensure accuracy of the map data.

216.

217. Trilateration is used to determine an initial vehicle position for reference. Once this has been determined, mapping software stored on a DVD
can be used to generate an overlay map and data for the driver on a display screen. As the vehicle moves the GPS continues to provide the
necessary information to allow for plotting of position on the map.
218. Various DVDs are available to cover the different continents.
219. Accurate and reliable navigation is still possible even when satellite signals become unavailable. This is achieved by using electronic sensors to
monitor vehicle variables such as: Pitch, roll, yaw, road speed, steering angle, acceleration, and deceleration.
220. By using the information from these sensors, the navigation system is not continually and totally reliant on satellites.
221. During normal operation, the computer program compares vehicle position data derived from the satellites, and onboard sensor information, to
ensure high levels of accuracy. In addition, ground based stations may be used in suitable locations, as an absolute reference point.
222. Satellite navigation features can include: Multiple languages and a choice of voice gender and destination and journey plotting, where the most
suitable route is provided and deviation from the recommended route causes the system to provide an alternate route.
223. It can also include directional information provided with a combination of screen icons, maps and audible instructions; a self-learning route
memory function; congestion avoidance, which can warn of the latest traffic bottlenecks and suggest alternative routes; various monitor color
display settings; infra red remote control; trip computer; speed dependent setting; and telephone mute for sound systems.

224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.

230.

Telematics

231.
232.
233.

234.

Summary

235. Automotive telematics is a satellite-based system that combines two-way communication and information technology within the vehicle.

236.

237. Automotive telematics is a satellite-based system that combines two-way communication and information technology within the vehicle. The
vehicle is equipped with a satellite transceiver enabling data to be sent to and from the vehicle.
238. Using this system allows for: vehicle tracking, monitoring of onboard systems, messaging, travel information, entertainment, security, safety and
fleet management systems which monitor information such as location, distance traveled, speed, stops and fuel usage.
239. A vehicle manufacturer may offer telematics as a service to its customers. The benefits of this can include: the location & immobilization of a
stolen or lost vehicle, notification to emergency services after SRS deployment, engine shut down and door unlocking in the event of a severe
accident, roadside assistance and remote diagnosis.

Airbags

Summary
There are a number of different types of air bag, including: driver & passenger
frontal impact air bags, side impact air bags, and curtain side air bags. There are
two different types of air bag triggering mechanisms - electrical and mechanical

Airbags are usually described as a Supplemental Restraint System, or SRS, but in

some countries, wearing seat belts is not mandatory in which case air bags then
become the primary restraint mechanism, and they would need to trigger at

lower speeds and be larger in volume. There are a number of different types of
air bag, their size and location determined by the type of protection they offer.
The most common location for an airbag is in the center of the steering wheel. It
protects the driver from frontal impacts. Airbags are also commonly fitted to the
passenger side of dashes for the same reason. Side impact air bags are located
in the sides of front seats to protect the occupants from side impacts. Curtain
side air bags are located in the side edge of roof linings to protect the occupant s
head from side impacts.
The air bag assembly consists of:

a nylon bag

squib

igniter

gas generator

and an air bag triggering mechanism.

There are two different types of air bag triggering mechanisms - electrical and
mechanical. Most air bags are triggered electrically, with a small electric current
delivered from a remote SRS control unit. Mechanically activated systems use
inertia to move a triggering pin. Regardless of the type the triggering
mechanism, the air bag deploys due to simultaneous explosions occurring within
the squib, the igniter, and the gas generator. All three of these are located in a
metal housing attached to the back of the air bag assembly.
When the control unit determines the air bag should be deployed the electric
current triggers the squib. The heat generated causes the igniter to burn, which
in turn explodes the gas generator. The high-pressure nitrogen gas is produced
and the air bag rapidly inflates. When the air bag assembly is mounted, it sits
behind a pad which has a fracture line cast into the inner face. When the air bag
deploys, the force of the generated gas causes the line to rupture, allowing the
bag to fully inflate.
Mechanically deployed air bags do not have any electrical circuitry. The squib is
ignited with a firing pin. Under severe deceleration, inertia causes a steel ball to
release a firing pin into the squib. Once the squib has been triggered, the
deployment process is identical to electrically triggered air bags. The air bag is
fully inflated within three hundredths or 0.03 of a second, cushioning the head
and upper chest of the occupant as it moves forward.
The air bag is made from nylon and is folded into the front face of the assembly.
It is coated in cornflower, which acts as a lubricant during deployment. Holes are
usually located in the rear face of the air bag to allow the nitrogen gas to escape.
This deflates the air bag and provides a cushioned, rather than a hard surface, to
help protect the occupant.

Seatbelt

Summary
A seatbelt is a safety harness designed to hold the driver and passengers of
automobiles firmly in their seats during an accidental collision.

A seat belt, or safety belt, holds a car driver or passenger firmly in their seat
when a collision occurs. This reduces personal injuries by preventing occupants
from being thrown about inside the vehicle and crashing into the dashboard or
windshield or, in the case of rear passengers, from impact with the rear of the
front seats.
The most common type of seatbelt fitted to most vehicles is a three-point
harness consisting of a lap belt from one side of the seat to the other, plus a
second belt going from the inner lap anchor point up and across the wearer's
torso to an anchor point on the inside shell of the vehicle behind and above the
wearer's shoulder.

A five-point harness is more common in child safety seats. This has a lap belt,
two shoulder belts, and an extra belt going up from the center front of the seat
vertically between the wearer's legs. Five-point harnesses are also common in
racing cars.
The lap belt is usually on a free-running retracting mechanism, so that any slack
is always taken up and the belt fits snugly against the occupant but without
restricting general movement during normal driving. When the belt is pulled
hard, or if the vehicle is under brakes or cornering, or during a collision, the roller
mechanism locks, holding the occupant firmly in the seat during an impact.
Some seatbelt mechanisms have a pretensioner built in which actively tightens
the seatbelt more firmly when an impact occurs.
It is generally accepted that wearing seatbelts reduces the probability of death or
injury in a collision. For that reason, wearing seatbelts at all times when inside an
automobile is now mandatory in many countries.

Vehicle safety systems

Summary
Vehicle safety systems are designed to protect occupants during accidents. They
include primary systems, such as bumper bars & seat belts; and secondary
systems, such as air bags.

Vehicle safety systems are designed to protect occupants during accidents, and
can be classified as primary, or passive systems and secondary, or active
systems.
Primary systems are ready to use in any accident. They include bumper bars,
body panels, seatbelts, crumple zones and collapsible steering columns.
A secondary system has to be activated to work and is only necessary in severe
accidents. The two most popular types of secondary systems are supplemental
restraint system air bags, and seatbelt pre-tensioners.
Seatbelts locate and secure the occupant within the seat and vehicle cabin, and
in minor collisions perform their task well.
In a more severe impact inertia causes the occupant to move more and with
greater force. This increases the possibility of injury caused by the restraining
force exerted by the seatbelt or from the occupant striking interior fittings.
If a vehicle is fitted with an air bag, it deploys during a collision, offering a
greater degree of protection from injury.
Air bags provide cushioning against the effects of inertia. The bag deploys
towards the occupants approaching body, inflated rapidly by pressurized
nitrogen gas. Typically this takes no longer than three hundredths, or 0.03 of a
second.
The air bag is not a nice soft pillow, but a strong counter force to react against
the inertia of the occupants. It is not designed to be comfortable. It is designed
to minimize injury.
Immediately after absorbing the momentum, the air bag deflates having done its
job.

Crash sensors

Summary
Sensors are located behind the front bumper, headlights, dash and doorsill or 'B'
pillar. Some manufacturers also place sensors within the electronic control unit.

Crash sensors can be fitted in various positions throughout the vehicle. Their
location depends upon the direction of deceleration they are designed to detect.
Some manufacturers place the sensors within the electronic control unit. Others
are located behind the front bumper, headlights and dash.
Side impact sensors are located in the doorsills or B Pillar. They will inform the
SRS control unit of a side impact and whether to deploy the left or right side air
bags.
When the sensors indicate that a predetermined deceleration rate has been
exceeded and it is from the appropriate direction, the SRS control unit deploys
the relevant air bags.

If the collision is from the front, the driver and passenger air bags will deploy.
If the collision is from the side, the sensor determines whether the seat mounted
air bag, or curtain air bags for one side of the vehicle will deploy.
With more refined designs, the passenger air bag deploys only if there is an
occupant in the seat. Deployment can also depend on the weight of the occupant
and whether the passenger air bag switch, if fitted, is turned on.
To prevent incorrect and unnecessary deployment, systems include a safing
sensor mounted within the SRS control unit. The SRS control unit will only pass
current through the squib if both the safing sensor and a crash sensor indicate
simultaneously that a predetermined deceleration rate has been exceeded.
The SRS warning light is illuminated, and stays on, if a fault is detected in the
system.
Capacitors within the SRS control unit are used to store electricity and act as a
back up power supply. If a vehicle has its battery destroyed or disconnected in an
accident, the capacitors supply the electricity required to keep the SRS system
operational.
Some seat mounted side impact air bags also operate without electricity. When
the side of a vehicle is crushed inwards, a detonator mounted on the lower
outside edge of the seat is detonated. Pyrotechnic tubes connect the detonator
to the air bags, which in turn ignite the squib. Many vehicles use two stage side
impact bags. This provides protection to the upper torso over a more extended
time.

Seat belt pre-tensioners

Summary
There are two types of seat belt pre-tensioner, mechanical & electrical. Seat belt
pre-tensioners are used to tighten the seat belt in a severe frontal accident.

Seatbelt pre-tensioners are used to tighten the seatbelt in a severe frontal

accident. Both mechanical and electronic control systems are available. The
most common type relies upon an explosive charge that is detonated
electronically by a sensor within the seatbelt tensioning mechanism.
This explosion moves a piston that pulls on a steel cable causing the belt to
tighten by approximately 4 inches or 100 millimeters. The design allows for the
belt to tension before the occupant has moved forward in the seat.
Mechanical systems rely on inertia to move a sensing mass. This releases a
spring to pull on a cable, thus tightening the belt.
Once the pre-tensioner has triggered, a ratchet prevents the seatbelt from
loosening. When the seat belt is removed from the buckle, it cannot be
reinserted, and the assembly should be replaced.
Rip stitching is used on seat belts in conjunction with an air bag and seat belt
pre-tensioners. During a collision the pre-tensioners initially pull the seat belt
tight, however the stitching gradually tears to allow the occupant to move
forward into the air bag at a controlled rate.
For safety reasons, these belts must be replaced once they have had their
stitching ripped. Manufacturers generally fit warning labels within the fold to
indicate the belt is to be replaced when the label is revealed.

Tire pressure monitoring systems

Summary
Automated Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems or TPMS provide a means of reliable
and continuous monitoring of the vehicle tire pressure and are designed to
increase safety, decrease fuel consumption and improve vehicle performance.

Maintaining proper tire pressure is essential for the safety and performance of a
vehicle. It also plays a significant role in decreasing fuel consumption and
extending tire life.
All tires lose inflation over time and, as many modern vehicles have extended
service intervals, tires can become dangerously under-inflated without regular
checking by the vehicle driver.
In addition to increased fuel consumption and tire wear, long periods of driving
with low tire pressures can cause additional stress on the tire sidewalls. This
results in increased operating temperatures that can lead to premature tire
failure.
Tires operating with low pressures can also affect the vehicle's handling and
performance. In a worst-case scenario, under-inflation can lead to a tire blowout
or tread separation.
Automated Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems or TPMS provide a means of reliable
and continuous monitoring of the vehicle tire pressure and are designed to
increase safety, decrease fuel consumption and improve vehicle performance.

There are two types of tire pressure monitoring; direct and indirect.
The direct monitoring system uses a pressure sensor mounted inside each wheel
and uses a wireless transmitter to give direct tire pressure readings.
The indirect system uses the vehicles wheel speed sensors to determine if a tire
is underinflated when compared to each of the other tires.
TPMS can be fitted to all vehicle types using conventional and run-flat tires.
With a Tire Pressure Monitoring System installed on a vehicle, drivers can
monitor the tire pressures and temperatures from the driver's seat to ensure that
their tires are properly inflated under all operating conditions. The systems are
also designed to ignore normal pressure variations caused by changes in
ambient temperature.
The sensor installed inside each wheel is able to respond to as little as a 3PSI or
20Kpa drop in pressure. Real-time information is sent via wireless signal to a
display in the vehicle. If a fluctuation occurs, an audible and visual warning
instantly alerts the driver allowing time for the vehicle to be stopped or driven to
a service station for tire repair or re-inflation. The tire is used to enclose the unit
as protection from the outside environment. An on-board computer receives the
radio messages from the sensors, which are coded for individual wheel
identification.
The interactive display inside the vehicle shows:

The required tire pressure

the actual tire pressure

the tire pressure status

and the temperature of the tire

The driver can use the display control buttons to check the status of each tire.
In OEM installations, each time the ignition is switched on, an indicator on the
instrument panel and on a system display provides information about all four tire
pressures, and gives a "Pressure OK" message if all is well. An indicator on the
display will flash whenever pressure loss is detected. In the case of minor
deflation, an orange "Service" light is shown, and indicates the faulty tire. If the
pressure is dangerously low, a red "Stop" light flashes, accompanied by a
punctured tire icon, indicating that an immediate wheel change is needed.
The sensors are activated by a centrifugal switch and transmit only when the
vehicle is in motion. When the vehicle stops the sensors return to sleep mode to
extend battery life, however the driver is still able to review the latest signals
received from the wheels before the vehicle was stopped.