Surface Drilling p6-8

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TALKING TECHNICALLY

Principles of Rock Blasting

Combination of
Factors
Blasting by design results from a
large number of factors, all of
which need to be brought under
control in order to achieve the
right result. These include the
choice of drillrig and tools, the
layout of the holes, the explosive,
and the skill of the operators.
Geology is the governing factor,
and experience is a major ingredient. Atlas Copco produces drillrigs
and systems to suit all rock types,
and has the experience to recommend the correct approach to all
ground conditions in order to
achieve the optimum result. The
following outline of the principles
involved in rock blasting is a logical
start point in the quest for the
perfect round.

Blasting
To understand the principles of rock
blasting, it is necessary to start
with the rock fragmentation process
that follows the detonation of the
explosives in a drill hole.
The explosion is a very rapid
combustion, in which the energy contained in the explosives is released in
the form of heat and gas pressure. The
transformation acts on the rock in three
consecutive stages (see figures 1-3).
Compression: a pressure wave
propagates through the rock at a
velocity of 2,5006,000 m/sec,
depending on rock type and type of
explosives. This pressure wave creates
microfractures which promote rock
fracturing.
Reflection: during the next stage,
the pressure wave bounces back from
the free surface, which is normally the
bench wall or natural fissures in the
rock. The compression wave is now
transformed into tension and shear
waves, increasing the fracturing
process.
Gas pressure: large volumes of gas
are released, entering and expanding
the cracks under high pressure. Where
the distance between the blasthole
and the free face has been correctly
6

Compression

Figs 1-3

Reflection

Rock breaking sequence in a normal blast.

calculated, the rock mass will yield and

be thrown forward.

Benching
Bench blasting is normally carried out
by blasting a large number of parallel
holes in each round. Considering
the blasting mechanics, with a compression-reflection-gas pressure stage
in consecutive order for each charge, it
is of vital importance to have a proper
delay between each row, and even
between individual holes in each row.
A proper delay will reduce rock throw,
improve fragmentation, and limit
ground vibrations. The blast should be
planned so that the rock from the first
row of holes has moved about one
third of the burden, when the next
row is blasted (see figures 4 and 5).
The horizontal distance between
the hole and the free face is the
burden, and the parallel distance
between holes in a row is the spacing.

Fig 4

Gas Pressure

The ratio between spacing and burden

will have great impact on the blasting
result, and 1.25 can be considered as
an average ratio. The optimum burden
depends upon a number of parameters, such as rock type, required fragmentation, type of explosives, hole
deviation, and hole inclination.
Nevertheless, as large drill holes can
accommodate more explosives, there is
a distinct relationship between burden
and hole diameter (see figure 6).
As the bottom part of the blast is
the constricted and critical part for
successful blasting, it is used as a basis
for deciding all other parameters. The
bottom charge, normally 1.5 x
burden, from where the initiation
should start, requires well packed
explosives of higher blasting power
than is needed in the column charge
(see figure 7).
Stemming of the top part of the
hole is used to ensure that the energy
of explosives is properly utilised. It will

Delay detonation of a typical bench blast.

SURFACE DRILLING

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TALKING TECHNICALLY

Firing pattern
This firing pattern provides separate delay
time for practically all blastholes and gives
good fragmentation as well as good
breakage in the bottom part of the round.

Fig 5

base

type

detonation velocity
m/s

features

nitro-glycerine

dynamite
gelatin

5500-4500

highly adaptable cartridged

excellent in smaller holes

ammoniumnitrate

ANFO

2500

low cost, high safety, easy to

pour or blow
no water resistance, contains
5-6% fuel oil

water

slurry

4000-3000 watergel

basically ANFO made water

resistant gel
stable oil/water emulsion
heavy ANFO
packaged or pumpable

5000 emulsion
range depends on
storage time

Firing sequence in delay blasting.

also reduce and control the fly rock

ejected from the blast. This tends to
travel long distances, and is the main
cause of on-site fatalities and damage
to equipment. Dry sand or gravel
having a particle size of 4 to 9 mm
constitutes the ideal stemming material.
Inclined holes give less back break,
safer benches and less boulders, when
compared to vertical holes.

Types of Explosive
The geology frequently has more
effect on the fragmentation than does
the explosive used in the blast. The
properties that influence the result of
the blast are compressive strength,
tensile strength, density, propagation
velocity, hardness and structure. In
general, rock has a tensile strength
which is 8 to 10 times lower than
the compressive strength. The tensile
strength has to be exceeded during
the blast, otherwise the rock will not
break. High rock density requires
more explosives to achieve the
displacement.

Table 1

Features of common types of explosives.

The propagation velocity varies with

different kinds of rock, and is reduced
by cracks and fault zones. Hard, homogeneous rocks, with high propagation
velocity, are best fragmented by an
explosive having high velocity of detonation (VOD).
An extensive range of different
types and grades of explosives is available to suit various blasting applications. A breakdown is presented in
table 1.
In dry conditions, ANFO has
become the most used blasting agent,
due to its availability and economy.
The blast hole diameter, together
with the type of explosive used, will
determine burden and hole depth.

Practical hole diameters for bench

drilling range from 30 to 400 mm.
Generally, the cost of large diameter
drilling and blasting is cheaper per
cubic metre than using small holes.
However, rock fragmentation is
improved by higher specific drilling.
The explosive is initiated with detonators which can be electric or nonelectric. Electric systems have the
advantage that the complete circuit
can easily be checked with an Ohmmeter to ensure that all connections
and detonators are correct before
blasting. To eliminate the risk for spontaneous ignition from lightning, nonelectric systems, including detonating
cord, are used.
Boulders and flyrock
come from this zone

Back break

Burden as a function of
Drill Hole Diameter

Stemming
(length ~ burden)

Practical Values

Burden

Column charge
only light charge
needed for good
fragmentation

Bottom charge
requires well packed
high blasting power

Hole Diameter, mm
Spacing Equal to 1,25  Burden

Fig 6 Burden as a function of drill hole

diameter.

SURFACE DRILLING

Fig 7

Subdrilling
= 0,3  burden

Charging for optimum fragmentation.

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Hole Deviation
Collaring
misalignment
Collaring offset

Planned
hole

In-hole
deviation

Incorrect
depth

Due to
collar error

Fig 8

Various causes of hole deviation.

Fig 9

Hole deviation in a presplit rock wall.

A main factor influencing fragmentation and the overall blasting result, is

that the drill hole follows its designed
path along its entire length. As straight
holes are important, hole deviation
should be avoided as far as possible.
To make the practical outcome correspond to the pre-calculated blasting
results, a first requirement is that the
blast holes are actually drilled as assumed in the theoretical pattern. This
means that the holes must be collared in
the exact spot, and drilled in the correct direction and to the proper depth.
Figure 8 illustrates various causes of
hole deviation. Precision in collaring
and hole alignment can be achieved
with proper surveying and mark-ups of
the drill pattern grid, coupled with drill
angle indicator mounted on the feed,
and hole depth instrument. It is also
essential to have a good view of the
collaring procedure from the operators
cabin. Atlas Copco equips their modern
ROC range of crawler drills with

In case is greater than ~15 the

hole deflects perpendicularily
to foliation (bedding).

Fig 10 Influence of bedding and foliation

on drilling.

double drill steel support for improved

visibility and rod guidance. The ROC
D-series are furnished with an intermediate drill steel support on the feed.
The most severe cause, which is
more difficult to overcome, is the
in-hole deviation during drilling, usually
because of geological conditions.
Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the
influence of bedding and foliation.
The drill hole tends to deviate to
a direction perpendicular to the jointing. The longer the holes, the more
accentuated is the deflection. It is often
claimed that the deviation is proportional to the depth to the power of two.
Experience shows that the approach
angle of the drill bit towards the bedding is crucial. There seems to be a
tendency for the bit to follow parallel
to the bedding where the angle of
approach is smaller than 15 degrees.
Drilling through homogeneous
rock, such as isotropic granite with
sparse jointing, causes little, or no, inhole deviation.
There are various ways and means
to reduce this problem:
A stiff drill string, and small clearance between the hole and the drill
string components, give straighter
holes. For top hammer drilling, Atlas
Copco provides TAC tubes to be
added behind the bit. The usage of
TAC tubes will improve the flushing
and reduce the risk of getting stuck.
A combination of reduced feed
force and increased rotation speed
gives less deviation.
DTH drilling, COPROD drilling, and
rotary drilling all give less deviation
than top hammer drilling.
Less hole depth, and consequently
low benches, gives better control of
deviation.

by Hans Fernberg
SURFACE DRILLING