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Engineering
Safe
Fundamentals
Techniques
Applications
Published
Vol. 1
Forthcoming
Engineering Safety Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
by 49.128.170.166 on 09/20/15. For personal use only.
Vol. 2
Engineering
Safe
Fundamentals
Techniques
Applications
B. S. Dhillon
University of Ottawa, Canada
V | b World Scientific
wb
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: Suite 202, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.
ISBN 981-238-221-6
ISBN 981-238-328-X(pbk)
Preface
Safety has become very important because each year a vast number of
people die due to workplace and other accidents. For example, in the United
States alone for the year 1996 as per National Safety Council, there were
93,400 deaths and 2,070,0000 disabling injuries due to workplace accidents
with total losses of $121 billion.
The history of safety may be traced back to ancient times when Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (2000 BC) developed a code containing clauses on
areas such as injuries, allowable fees for physicians, and monetary damages
assessed against those who caused injury to others. In modern times, the
first recorded safety program was established in 1892 in a steel plant, Joliet,
Illinois.
Today, safety is a well-developed discipline and it may simply be categorized in two broad categories: general and system. The general includes
occupational safety, highway safety, etc. and the system includes the various aspects concerning engineering equipment safety. Although there are a
large number of books available on safety, none, to the best of the author's
knowledge, cover both general and system safety (i.e., in a significant depth)
and application or specialized areas such as software safety, robot safety,
health care system safety, and maintenance safety. The knowledge of safety
in these areas is becoming quite crucial because such areas are playing a
pivotal role in the industrial development.
Currently, information on general safety and system safety plus application or specialized safety areas is available either in specialized books,
Vll
viii
Preface
articles, or technical reports but not in a single volume. This book is written to satisfy this vital need. The source of most of the material presented is
given in references at the end of each chapter. This will be useful to readers
if they desire to delve deeper into a particular area. Although the book contains almost a chapter on mathematical concepts, necessary to understand
the mathematically based safety related concepts, the other topics covered
in the volume are treated in such a manner that the reader will require no
previous knowledge to understand the contents. At appropriate places, the
book contains examples along with their solutions, and at the end of each
chapter there are numerous problems to test reader comprehension.
The book is composed of twelve chapters. Chapter 1 presents various
introductory aspects of engineering safety including the need for safety,
safety facts and figures, safety terms and definitions, and useful information on safety. Chapter 2 is devoted to safety mathematics and reliability
basics and covers topics such as the mean, standard deviation, Boolean
algebra, statistical distributions, Laplace transforms, reliability measures,
and standard reliability networks.
Chapter 3 presents various important areas of workplace accidents and
safety, including workplace accident facts and figures, accident causation
theories, the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), and workers'
compensation. Chapter 4 is devoted to safety management and control
and includes topics such as safety management principles, safety department and manager functions, safety committees, and safety performance
measures.
Chapter 5 presents safety analysis methods and techniques. Some of
the methods and techniques covered in the chapter are fault tree analysis
(FTA), failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA), the Markov method,
hazard and operability analysis ( HAZOP), the technique of operations
review (TOR), and job safety analysis (JSA). Chapter 6 covers various
aspects concerning risk management, including risk management process,
risk analysis methods, functions and qualifications of a risk manager, and
common errors in risk management.
Chapters 7 and 8 are devoted to human factors in safety and safety
costing, respectively. Some of the topics covered in Chapter 7 are job stress,
typical human behaviors, worksite analysis program for human factors, and
human error and human reliability prediction models. Chapter 8 includes
topics such as safety cost facts and figures, safety cost estimation methods,
safety cost estimation models, and safety cost performance measurement
indexes.
Preface
ix
Author Biography
Dr. B. S. Dhillon is a professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Ottawa. He has served as a Chairman/Director of Mechanical
Engineering Department/Engineering Management Program for over ten
years at the same institution. He has published over 290 articles on
reliability, safety, maintainability, etc. He is or has been on the editorial boards of seven international scientific journals including International Journal of Reliability, Quality, and Safety Engineering and Journal
of Reliability Engineering and System Safety. In addition, Dr. Dhillon
has written 24 books on various aspects of reliability, safety, maintainability, human factors, and design published by Wiley (1981), Van Nostrand
(1982), Butterworth (1983), Marcel Dekker (1984), Pergamon (1986), etc.
His books on reliability have been translated into many languages including Russian, Chinese, and German. He has served as General Chairman of
two international conferences on reliability and quality control held in Los
Angeles and Paris in 1987.
Dr. Dhillon is recipient of the American Society of Quality Control
Austin J. Bonis Reliability Award, the Society of Reliability Engineer's
Merit Award, the Gold Medal of Honor (American Biographical Institute),
and Faculty of Engineering Glinski Award for Excellence in Research. He is
a registered Professional Engineer in Ontario and is listed in the American
Men and Women of Science, Men of Achievements, International Dictionary of Biography, Who's Who in International Intellectuals, and Who's
Who in Technology.
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xii
Author
Biography
Dr. Dhillon has served as a consultant to various organizations and bodies and has many years of experience in the industrial sector. At the University of Ottawa, he has been teaching reliability, maintainability, safety,
and related areas for over 22 years and has also lectured in over 50 countries. Professor Dhillon attended the University of Wales where he received
a B.S. in electrical and electronic engineering and an M.S. in mechanical
engineering. He received a Ph.D. in industrial engineering from the University of Windsor.
Contents
Preface
Author Biography
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
vii
xi
Introduction
Background
Need for Safety and Engineering Safety Goals
Safety Facts and Figures
Major Disasters
Safety Terms and Definitions
Useful Information on Safety
1.6.1 Books, Standards, and Reports
1.6.2 Journals
1.6.3 Organizations
1.6.4 Data Information Sources
1
2
2
4
4
5
6
9
10
10
13
2.1
2.2
13
Introduction
Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Mean Deviation, and
Standard Deviation
2.2.1 Mean
2.2.2 Median
14
14
14
xiv
Contents
2.2.3 Mode
2.2.4 Range
2.2.5 Mean Deviation
2.2.6 Standard Deviation
2.3 Sets, Boolean Algebra Laws, Probability Definition, and
Probability Properties
2.3.1 Sets
2.3.2 Boolean Algebra Laws
2,3.3 Probability Definition
2.3.4 Probability Properties
2.4 Statistical Distributions
2.4.1 Poisson Distribution
2.4.2 Binomial Distribution
2.4.3 Exponential Distribution
2.4.4 Rayleigh Distribution
2.4.5 Weibull Distribution
2.4.6 Normal Distribution
2.5 Laplace Transform Definition and Final Value Theorem
2.6 First Order Differential Equation Solution Through Laplace
Transforms
2.7 Bathtub Hazard Rate Curve
2.8 Reliability Measures
2.8.1 Reliability
2.8.2 Hazard Rate
2.8.3 Mean Time to Failure
2.9 Reliability Networks
2.9.1 Series Network
2.9.2 Parallel Network
2.9.3 Parallel-Series Network
2.9.4 Series-Parallel Network
2.9.5 Standby System
Problems
References
15
15
16
16
41
3.1
3.2
41
42
Introduction
Workplace Accident Facts and Figures
17
18
18
19
19
21
21
21
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
29
29
30
31
31
31
33
34
35
37
38
39
Contents
3.3
xv
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Introduction
Safety Management Principles
Safety Department Functions, Safety Manager
Qualifications and Functions, and Safety Engineer
Qualifications and Functions
Developing a Safety Program Plan, Plant Safety Checklist
for Managers, Safety Responsibilities of Non-Safety
Managers, and Managerial Deficiencies Leading to Accidents
Safety Committees, Motivating Employees to Work
Safely, and Safety-Related Strategies for Safety Professionals
4.5.1 Motivating Employees to Work Safely
4.5.2 Safety-Related Strategies for Safety Professionals
Product Safety Management Program, Organization
Tasks, and Functions of Non-Safety Organizations
Safety Performance Measures
4.7.1 Index I: Disabling Injury Frequency Rate
4.7.2 Index II: Disabling Injury Severity Rate
43
44
45
46
48
48
51
52
54
54
55
57
57
58
59
61
66
67
68
69
72
73
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xvi
Contents
4.7.3
Problems
References
74
74
75
77
5.1
5.2
77
78
Introduction
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
5.2.1 Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis
(FMECA)
5.3 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
5.3.1 Probability Evaluation of Fault Trees
5.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fault Tree
Analysis (FTA)
5.4 Markov Method
5.5 Technic of Operations Review (TOR)
5.6 Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)
5.7 Hazards and Operability Analysis (HAZOP)
5.8 Interface Safety Analysis
5.9 Job Safety Analysis (JSA)
5.10 Control Charts
Problems
References
79
80
81
83
84
86
87
88
89
90
90
93
93
95
6.1
6.2
6.3
95
96
6.4
6.5
6.6
Introduction
Risk Management Related Terms and Definitions
Risk Components and Types, Risk Management Objectives,
and Risk Analysis Objectives in Hazardous System Life
Cycle
Risk Management Process, Interested Parties in the Risk
Management Process, Functions and Qualifications of a Risk
Manager
Risk Management Rules and Audits
Risk Analysis Process and Methods
6.6.1 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)
6.6.2 Event Tree Analysis (ETA)
6.6.3 Consequence Analysis
97
99
100
101
103
103
104
Contents
xvii
104
105
106
107
109
7.1
7.2
7.3
Introduction
Terms and Definitions
Job Stress
7.3.1 Classification of Occupational Stressors and
Workplace Stress Effects
7.3.2 Physical Stress Influencing Factors
7.3.3 Human Operator's Stress Characteristics and
Stressors' Checklist
7.4 Worksite Analysis Program for Human Factors
7.5 Symptoms of Human Factor-Related Problems in
Organizations, Identification of Specific Human Factors
Problems, and Strategies for Solving Human Factors
Problems
7.6 Typical Human Behaviors, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration Ergonomics Guidelines, and
Human Factors/Safety Issues
7.7 Employee Training and Education
7.8 Human Error and Human Reliability Prediction Models
7.8.1 Human Reliability Prediction Models
Problems
References
109
110
110
Chapter 8
129
6.7
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Safety Costing
Introduction
Safety Cost Facts, Figures, and Examples
Resource Losses Related to Safety and Health and
a Company's Losses Due to an Accident Involving its
Product
Safety Cost Estimation Methods
8.4.1 The Heinrich Method
111
112
113
114
116
119
121
122
123
127
127
129
130
131
133
133
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Contents
133
134
135
135
136
136
136
137
138
138
138
139
143
9.1
9.2
9.3
Introduction
Facts, Figures, and Examples
Reasons for Safety Problems in Maintenance and Factors
Responsible for Dubious Safety Reputation in
Maintenance Work
9.4 Maintenance Personnel Safety and Typical Human
Behaviors
9.5 Maintenance Safety-Related Questions for Equipment
Manufacturers and Useful Guidelines for Equipment
Designers to Improve Safety in Maintenance
9.6 Maintenance Safety Models
9.6.1 Model I
9.6.2 Model II
Problems
References
143
144
159
10.1 Introduction
159
139
141
141
145
146
147
149
149
152
156
156
Contents
xix
160
160
177
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Terms and Definitions
11.3 Robot Accident Facts, Figures, and Fatality-Related
Examples
11.4 Unique Robot Safety Problems, Robot Accident Types, and
Robot Hazard Causes
11.5 Safety Considerations in Robot Life Cycle
11.5.1 Design Phase
11.5.2 Installation Phase
11.5.3 Programming Phase
11.5.4 Operation and Maintenance Phase
11.6 Common Robot Safety Features and Robot Safeguard
Approaches
11.7 Robot Safety Analysis Methods
11.7.1 Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
177
178
161
162
164
167
168
168
168
169
170
170
170
171
173
173
174
179
180
182
182
183
183
183
184
186
186
xx
Contents
187
188
199
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
Introduction
Facts and Figures
Medical Device/Equipment Safety versus Reliability
Medical Device Safety Types, and Medical Device Hardware
and Software Safety
12.5 Patient Injury and Medical Device Accident Causes
12.6 Human Error in Health Care Systems
12.6.1 Medical Device/Equipment Associated Operator
Errors
12.6.2 Medical Devices/Equipment with a High Occurrence
of Human Error
12.7 Medical Device Safety Requirements and Legal Aspects
12.8 Models for Predicting Accident Occurrence Probability of a
Medical Device/Equipment
12.8.1 Model I
12.8.2 Model II
12.9 Organizations, Standards, and Data Sources
12.9.1 Organizations
12.9.2 Standards
12.9.3 Data Sources
Problems
References
199
200
200
Index
215
193
196
196
201
202
203
205
205
205
208
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211
211
211
212
212
213