WETLAND, AN ALTERNATIVE FOR FLOOD AND

STORMWATER CONTROL
Baiah Widia Utaminingtyas
Water Resource Engineering University of Brawijaya Malang
email: baiahwidia@yahoo.com

Background
Urbanization dramatically alters the natural hydrologic cycle.

As urban

structures such as roads and buildings are built, the amount of impervious area within a
watershed increases. Increases in impervious area increase the volume and rate of
runoff, while decreasing groundwater recharge. Urbanization also increases the and
amount of surface runoff. The increased amount of surface runn off caused flood in
some regions.
Floods and storms are some of the most destructive hydro-meteorological
phenomena in terms of their impacts on human well-being and socioeconomic
activities. Within the last year, the papers and airwaves around the world once again
have been inundated with reports of flooding and consequent human loss and suffering.
The risks of floodplain development are well known; the failures of

structural

protection are well demonstrated; the social costs of flooding are enormous. How are
we going to reform our use of floodplains?
Older approaches to stormwater management have focused on efficiently
collecting and conveying stormwater offsite. This approach can increase downstream
property damage and impacts on receiving waters. Newer approaches to stormwater
management seek to retain natural features of drainage systems and provide onsite
management to address water quality and water quantity goals. This approach views
stormwater as a resource to be used to recharge groundwater and to supply fresh water
to surface waters, including wetlands. Properly managing stormwater can avoid
problems with erosion, flooding, and adverse impacts on natural drainage features.
Sustainable ood and storm control schemes could include structural and
nonstructural measures. Design modications of physical structures that allow the
maintenance of natural environment to a large extent could be sustainable. This,
together with the nonstructural measures (for example,water retention areas, restoration

of wetlands, land use, zoning, and risk assessment, and early warning systems), can
deliver benets to humans and ecosystems over a long period of time. Wetland is one
of the alternatif to overcome the problem related to flood and stormwater control which
is sustainable and environmentally friendly.

What is Wetlands?
There are numerous definitions of wetlands that can be found in the literature.
Some of these definitions include: an area of wet soil that is inundated or saturated
under normal circumstances and would support a prevalence of hydrophytic plants
(Ward and Elliot, 1995), and the occurrence of water in bodies that do not constitute
permanent watercourses, such as lakes or rivers (Percy, 1993). A reference definition
given by the National Research Council (1995) includes: an ecosystem that depends
on constant or recurrent, shallow inundation or saturation at or near the surface of the
substrate. The minimum essential characteristics of a wetland are recurrent, sustained
inundation or saturation at or near the surface and the presence of physical, chemical,
and biological features reflective or recurrent, sustained inundation or saturation.
Common diagnostic features of wetlands are hydric soils and hydrophytic vegetation.
These features will be present except where specific physicochemical, biotic or
anthropogenic factors have removed them or prevented their development.
For this paper, however, a wetland will be defined as an area of land that is
saturated with water long enough to promote wetland or aquatic processes as indicated
by poorly drained soils, hydrophytic vegetation, and various kind of biological
activities which are adapted to a wet environment (National Wetlands Working Group,
1987).

Wetland Characteristics
Wetlands vary widely due to local and regional differences in topography,
hydrology, vegetation, and other factors, including human involvement. Because
wetland is a collective term encompassing a wide range of wet environments, all
wetlands must share three basic characteristics:

There must be water present at or near the surface of the ground for a portion of the
year.

There must be plants adapted to wet conditions (hydropylic plants).

There must be soil types that develop from wet conditions (hydric soils).
Wetlands are typically classified as distinct entities since they are neither

completely aquatic nor completely terrestrial; wetlands often represent a physical

interface between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems resulting in a functional
overlap (Figure 1a) (National Research Council 1995). Wetland areas can also be found
isolated from aquatic systems (Figure 1b). They can share the vascular flora of
terrestrial ecosystems, however, the flora are usually of a different species.

Figure 1a. Wetlands as physical interface between aquatic and terrestrial system

Figure 1b. Wetlands isolated from other water bodies

Hydrology
Hydrology is described by Mitsch and Gosselink (1986) as probably the most important
factor in the establishment and maintenance of specific types of wetlands and wetland

processes. Precipitation, surface water inflow and outflow, groundwater exchange, and
evapotranspiration are the major factors influencing the hydrology of most wetlands.
Figure 2. shows a simplified diagram of a wetland hydrologic cycle.

Figure 2. Wetland Hydrological Cycle

Some wetlands remain permanently inundated or saturated, some are wet for
only a short period during the year; and others may remain dry over periods of several
years. The periods of saturation or dryout in wetlands have strong implications for the
characteristic structures that develop in wetlands (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Each
wetland type exhibits a unique hydroperiod that is fundamental in the stability of a
wetland system. Hydroperiod is defined as the periodic or regular occurrence of
flooding and/or saturated soil conditions (Marble, 1992). Mitsch and Gosselink (1986)
suggested characterizing hydroperiod as the ratio of flood duration divided by flood
frequency over a given period of time. Cowardin and others (1979) provided general
descriptions of hydroperiod for both tidal and nontidal wetland systems. The
hydroperiod for a particular wetland is a function of the water budget (i.e., inflow and
outflow water balance) and storage capacity, which is affected by the surface contours
of the landscape and subsurface soil, geology, and groundwater conditions (Mitsch and
Gosselink, 1986).

Hydric Soil (Saturated Soil)

Wetlands soil already saturated long enough to create an anaerobic state in the
soil horizon. Carbon is the major nutrient cycled within wetlands. Most nutrients, such
as sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen are found within the soil of wetlands.
Anaerobic and aerobic respiration in the soil influences the nutrient cycling of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the solubility of phosphorus thus contributing to
the chemical variations in its water. Wetlands with low pH and saline conductivity may
reflect the presence of acid sulfates and wetlands with average salinity levels can be
heavily influenced by calcium or magnesium. Biogeochemical processes in wetlands
are determined by soils with low redox potential.
Biota
The biota of a wetland system includes its vegetation zones and structure as well
as animal populations. The most important factor affecting the biota is the duration of
flooding. Other important factors include fertility and salinity. In fens, species are
highly dependent on water chemistry. The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands
depends on the source of water and the geological material in which it flows through as
well as the nutrients discharged from organic matter in the soils and plants at higher
elevations in slope wetlands. Biota may vary within a wetland due to season or recent
flood regimes.

Wetland Types
The effects of stormwater on a particular wetland depend, in part, on the type of
wetland in question. Wetland type can be defined as the combination of attributes (e.g.,
physical, chemical, and biological) that make a particular wetland different from other
wetlands. A wide range of wetland types, which are the result of the cumulative effect
of many environmental variables, exist in the United States. In an effort to bring
precision and standardization to the classification of wetland types, Cowardin and
others (1979) developed Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the
United States for use in the National Wetlands Inventory. Their classification system
breaks wetlands into systems, subsystems, and classes analogous to plant or animal
taxonomic classifications.

Table 1. Wetland Classification

The major type of wetland which almost every countries in the world have are
categorized as:

Marshes
A marsh is a type of wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than
woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams,
where they form a transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They
are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds. If woody plants are present they
tend to be low-growing shrubs. This form of vegetation is what differentiates
marshes from other types of wetland such as swamps, which are dominated by
trees, and mires, which are wetlands that have accumulated deposits of acidic peat.
Marshes differ depending mainly on their location and salinity. Both of
these factors greatly influence the range and scope of animal and plant life that can
survive and reproduce in these environments. The three main types of marsh are
salt marshes, freshwater tidal marshes, and freshwater marshes. These three can be
found worldwide and each contains a different set of organisms.

Figure 3. A Marshes

Bogs
A bog is a mire that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material
often mosses, and in a majority of cases, sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main
types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, quagmire and muskeg;
alkaline mires are called fens. They are frequently covered in ericaceous shrubs
rooted in the sphagnum moss and peat. The gradual accumulation of decayed plant
material in a bog functions as a carbon sink.
Bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic and low in
nutrients. In some cases, the water is derived entirely from precipitation, in which
case they are termed ombrotrophic (rain-fed). Water flowing out of bogs has a
characteristic brown colour, which comes from dissolved peat tannins. In general,
the low fertility and cool climate results in relatively slow plant growth, but decay
is even slower owing to the saturated soil. Hence peat accumulates. Large areas of
landscape can be covered many metres deep in peat.
Bogs have distinctive assemblages of plant and animal species and are of
high importance for biodiversity, particularly in landscapes that are otherwise
settled and farmed.

Figure 4. A Bog

Swamps
A swamp is a wetland that is forested. Many swamps occur along large
rivers where they are critically dependent upon natural water level fluctuations.
Other swamps occur on the shores of large lakes. Some swamps have hammocks,
or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation, or vegetation that tolerates
periodic inundation. The two main types of swamp are "true" or swamp forests and
"transitional" or shrub swamps.

Figure 5. A Swamps

The Values of Wetlands

Wetlands provide a variety of ecological values and functions that directly and
indirectly benefit people. Most residents of rural communities have taken advantage of
recreational opportunities afforded by wetlands, such as boating, hunting, and fishing.
However, many important functions are far less obvious. For example, a wetland may
enhance downstream water quality by filtering chemicals, excess nutrients, and
sediments. Wetlands can also act as natural flood control areas through retaining
floodwaters and delaying their release downstream. Because of their numerous
ecological and sociological functions, every effort should be made to protect existing
wetlands and to restore those degraded by human activities.
While not all wetlands provide all functions and values, most wetlands provide
several. Under appropriate circumstances, wetlands can provide:

water quality improvement

flood storage and the desynchronization of storm rainfall and surface runoff

cycling of nutrients and other materials

habitat for fish and wildlife

recreation

education and research

aesthetics and landscape enhancement

Wetland can be alternative solution for flood and stormwater control because of

its physical and hydrological values. Physical and hydrological can be described as:

Flood Control
The wetland system of floodplains is formed from major rivers downstream
from their headwaters. Notable river systems that produce large spans of
floodplain. The floodplains of major rivers act as natural storage reservoirs,
enabling excess water to spread out over a wide area, which reduces its depth and
speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and rivers can slow down
rainwater runoff and spring snowmelt so that it doesnt run straight off the land
into water courses. This can help prevent sudden, damaging floods downstream.
Wetlands act as protective natural sponges by capturing, storing and slowly
releasing water over a long period of time, thereby reducing the impact of floods.

Ground Water Recharge

Wetland systems are directly linked to groundwater and a crucial regulator

of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetland systems
that are made of permeable sediments like limestone or occur in areas with highly
variable and fluctuating water tables especially have a role in groundwater
replenishment or water recharge. Sediments that are porous allow water to filter
down through the soil and overlying rock into aquifers which are the source of
95% of the worlds drinking water. Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when
the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is too high.

Sediment Trap
Wetlands improve water quality by acting as sediment sinks or basins.
They are especially effective at trapping sediments in slow moving water. Wetland
vegetation slows water velocity and particles settle out.

Coastal Protection
Coastal marshes, mangrove swamps and other estuarine wetlands act as
effective storm buffers. Studies have concluded that more than half of normal wave
energy is dissipated within the first 3 meters of encountering marsh vegetation such
as cord grass. The erosive nature of tides is also dampened by wetland plants
because their roots hold soil in place and their stalks reduce the destructive energy
of waves and wind. Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize
coastal zones. Coral reefs provide a protective barrier to coastal shoreline.
Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the
shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation
benefit these systems have against storms and tidal waves is the ability to reduce
the speed and height of waves and floodwaters.

Figure 6. How Wetland Works

Constructed Wetland
A constructed wetland consists of a properly designed basin that contains water,
a substrate, and, most commonly, vascular plants. These components can be
manipulated in constructing a wetland. Other important components of wetlands, such
as the communities of microbes and aquatic invertebrates, develop naturally.
Constructed wetlands satisfy a range of urban design objectives such as
improving water quality, regulating flow rates and enhancing landscape and ecological
values. They also provide a range of passive recreational and aesthetic benefits to the
community. The priority of design criteria for constructed stormwater treatment
wetlands are:
1. stormwater treatment
2. enhanced aesthetic, recreational and cultural values
3. habitat provision
It should be noted that constructed water bodies can attract flocking birds,
which may be a concern under some circumstances. Further information should be
sought from the relevant planning authority as to whether any particular design
considerations are required.
The design intent/concept design should include a site analysis as well as
describe the preliminary assessment of the treatment performance of the proposed
wetland, landscaping objectives and recreational use objectives. Site analysis involves
an audit of regional land-use planning (such as green corridors and conservation areas),
climate and landscape characteristics. Design considerations which can used for
wetland drainage are:

Subsurface Flow Systems. This system are commonly used in Europe

Surface Flow Systems. This kind of system is more common in US/North America.
This system is a marsh-like system.

Vertical Flow Systems. This is a new design which is used to overcome oxygen
depletion problem and boost nitrification

Figure 7. Drainage System in Wetland Design

Wetlands are likely to form where landforms direct surface water to shallow
basins and where a relatively impermeable subsurface layer prevents the surface water
from seeping into the ground. These conditions can be created to construct a wetland. A
wetland can be built almost anywhere in the landscape by shaping the land surface to
collect surface water and by sealing the basin to retain the water.
Hydrology is the most important design factor in constructed wetlands because
it links all of the functions in a wetland and because it is often the primary factor in the
success or failure of a constructed wetland. While the hydrology of constructed
wetlands is not greatly different than that of other surface and near-surface waters, it
does differ in several important respects:

small changes in hydrology can have fairly significant effects on a wetland and its
treatment effectiveness

because of the large surface area of the water and its shallow depth, a wetland
system

interacts

strongly

with

the

atmosphere

through

rainfall

and

evapotranspiration (the combined loss of water by evaporation from the water

surface and loss through transpiration by plants)

the density of vegetation of a wetland strongly affects its hydrology, first, by

obstructing flow paths as the water finds its sinuous way through the network of
stems, leaves, roots, and rhizomes and, second, by blocking exposure to wind and
sun.
While wetlands are primarily treatment systems, they provide intangible

benefits by increasing the aesthetics of the site and enhancing the landscape. Visually,
wetlands are unusually rich environments. By introducing the element of water to the
landscape, constructed wetlands, as much as natural wetlands. Add diversity to the
landscape. The complexity of shape, color, size, and interspersion of plants, and the
variety in the sweep and curve of the edges of landforms all add to the aesthetic quality
of the wetlands. Constructed wetlands can be built with curving shapes that follow the
natural contours of the site, and some wetlands for water treatment are
indistinguishable, at first glance, from natural wetlands.

Reference
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1993. Wetland Creation and Restoration:
Status of the Science. Washington, DC.

EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1995. A Handbook of Constructed Wetlands.

Washington, DC.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1999. Manual Constructed Wetlands
Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. Washington, DC.
Juliano, Kristine. and Slobodan P. Simonovic. 1999. The Impact of Wetlands on Flood
Control in the Red River Valley Of Manitoba. Natural Resources Institute University of
Manitoba. Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Percy, David R. 1993. Wetlands and the Law in the Prairie Provinces of Canada.
Alberta Environmental Centre Society. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 128p.
Ward, Andy D. and William J. Elliot. 1995. Environmental Hydrology. CRC Press
Inc. Boca Raton, Florida. 462p.
http://www.epa.gov
http://www.helsinki.fi/urbanoases/
http://news.wef.org/
https://www.wetlands-initiative.org
http://whyfiles.org/107flood/