EXPERIMENTS IN

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Additional Pre-Lab Components

CHEM1075

Experiment 1:
Measured properties are characterized by their accuracy and their
precision. When using measured values in calculations, it is most
important to note that precision can neither be gained nor lost.
The rules for significant figures usually obey this principle, but
sometimes the result has to be adjusted to maintain precision.
Use the following example to illustrate these ideas:
1. A liquid was measured to occupy a volume of 4.8 mL
using a graduated cylinder, and its mass was determined
using balances of different precision:
Triple-beam balance (precision of 1 dec. pl.): m = 5.3 g
Analytical balance (precision of 3 dec. pl.): m = 5.261 g
Show that both mass-measurements, combined with the
volume measurement, yield the same value for the density
of the liquid.
2. A high-density liquid (d = 2.32 g/cm3) was measured to
occupy a volume of 49.4 mL using a graduated cylinder.
Report the mass of the liquid with correct precision. Is this
result in accordance with the rules for significant figures?
When measuring volumes, the correct reading of the meniscus is
key to producing reliable results. Use the following example to
illustrate this idea:
3. A liquid was measured to occupy a certain volume using
a graduated cylinder, and its mass was determined using
balances of different precision. Two experimenters report
two different values for the density:
Experimenter 1:
m = 37.598 g (Analytical balance)
d = 1.0 g/mL
Experimenter 2:
m = 37.6 g (Triple-beam balance)
d = 1.1 g/mL
Decide which experimenter reports a correct result, and
explain where the other experimenter went wrong.

Experiment 2:
Chemical equations serve a variety of purposes, but the most
general form of a chemical equation is reactants products.
Most often, reactants and products are described by their
chemical formula, possibly including a designation of state of
matter. Contrary to a general chemical equation, a balanced
chemical equation always uses molecular formulas and is
amended by stoichiometric factors to assure conservation of mass
and/or moles.
Chemical equations represent chemical reactions, and chemical
reactions can be classified according to two groups:
Group I (bond breakage and/or bond formation): The four
reaction
types
are
Synthesis,
Decomposition,
Single
Displacement, Double Displacement.
Group II (common reaction principles): Representative examples
are Precipitation, Redox, Acid-Base, Combustion.
Choose from the following general chemical equations, and
illustrate the four principle group I reaction types, and the four
representative group II reaction types:
A) aqueous potassium sulfate + aqueous barium nitrate
aqueous potassium nitrate + solid barium sulfate
B) magnesium metal + nitrogen gas solid magnesium
nitride
C) copper metal + aqueous silver nitrate aqueous copper
nitrate + silver metal
D) chlorine gas + fluorine gas chlorine monofluoride gas
E) aqueous hydrochloric acid + aqueous calcium hydroxide
aqueous calcium chloride + water
F) gaseous sulfur dioxide + oxygen gas gaseous sulfur
trioxide
G) solid calcium carbonate solid calcium oxide + gaseous
carbon dioxide
H) solid silver oxide oxygen gas + silver metal
When you discuss reaction types, formulate the chosen general
equation as balanced chemical equation.
Any given equation might serve as an example for a group I as
well as for a group II reaction, but try to use as many different
equations as possible.

Experiment 3:
When chemical reactions are carried out under well-defined
conditions, mass differences provide an access to chemical
compositions and empirical formulas. However, when no steps
are included that correct for certain aspects of the reaction, or
when the reaction conditions are not carefully controlled, one
might obtain erroneous chemical formulas. One example is the
synthesis of metal oxides. When the combustion of a metal is
carried out in an oxygen atmosphere, the only products obtained
are metal oxides. However, when carried out in air, part of the
metal forms metal nitrides as well. Another example is the
determination of crystal water. If carefully executed, the
anhydrous compound is formed, and the hydration number is
most often integer. If not heated sufficiently, not all crystal water
is driven out. If overheated, the product might undergo thermal
decomposition. Use the following examples to illustrate these
ideas.
1. When a 1.50 g sample of aluminum metal is burned in an
oxygen atmosphere, 2.83 g of aluminum oxide are produced.
However, the combustion of 1.50 g ultrafine aluminum in air
results in 2.70 g of a product, which is a mixture of 80%
aluminum oxide and 20 % aluminum nitride (% by mass). Use
this information to determine the empirical formulas of aluminum
oxide and aluminum nitride.
2. Samples of hydrated manganese perchlorate are heated to
determine the amount of crystal water:
Mn(ClO4)2nH2O Mn(ClO4)2 + nH2O
Two samples of different weight are studied:
a) m (before heating) = 1.629 g ; m (after heating) = 1.142 g
b) m (before heating) = 9.048 g ; m (after heating) = 6.645 g
For both samples, calculate the number of moles of crystal water
per formula unit of manganese perchlorate. Decide which sample
is most likely to represent the correct result, and explain what
might have gone wrong with the other.

Experiment 4:
When sending copper metal through a cycle of reactions, it is
most important to have an idea how much of any given reagent is
needed to bring each step of the cycle of reactions to completion.
In order to assure a complete reaction, reagents are often added
in excess (up to 10 fold), but too much as well as too little might
hamper the course of a reaction. The five key steps of the copper
cycle are shown below:
Step 1: 3 Cu(s) + 2NO3- + 8H+ 3 Cu2+(aq) + 4 H2O + 2 NO
Step 2: Cu2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
Step 3: Cu(OH)2(s) CuO(s)+ H2O
Step 4: CuO(s) + 2 H+ Cu2+(aq) + H2O
Step 5: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Assume that you want to carry out a sequence of cycle reactions
based on 1.00 g of copper. In order to use the right amount of
reagents, present answers to the following questions:
1. What volume of 16 M HNO3 is required to completely react with
Cu in the first step of the cycle?
2. What volume of 3.0 M NaOH is required to precipitate all
copper(II) cations as Cu(OH)2 in the second step of the cycle?
3. How many grams of copper(II)oxide will form when the third
step of the cycle goes to completion?
4. What volume of 6.0 M H2SO4 is required to completely convert
all copper(II)oxide to copper(II) cation in the fourth step of the
cycle?
5. How many grams of zinc metal are needed to completely
regenerate all copper in the fifth step in the cycle?

Experiment 5:
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an
aqueous
solution.
Although
advanced
quantitative
pHconsiderations often result in fairly acidic calculations, even a
basic qualitative pH-assessment requires a good understanding of
elemental concepts and ideas. Thus, you should be able to
provide a meaningful answer to the following essential questions:
1. How is pH related to the concentration of hydrogen cations
[H+]?
2. What is understood by the auto-ionization of water?
3. What is the ion product of water?
4. What is the pH of a neutral aqueous solution (neither acidic nor
basic)?
5. How is the pH of a neutral aqueous solution related to the ion
product of water?
6. How is pH related to the concentration of hydroxide anions
[OH-]?
7. How many significant figures are contained in the following
value: pOH = 10.45?
8. What is a pH indicator?

Experiment 6:
The specific heat of nickel is measured using a simple
experimental setup. Besides a sample of nickel, all that is needed
for this experiment are hot as well as cold water, Styrofoam cups
and a thermometer.
1.The Styrofoam cups function as calorimeter, and before the
heat capacity of nickel is measured, the heat capacity of the
calorimeter needs to be determined. Hot water and cold water are
mixed in the Styrofoam cups, and the change in temperature is
measured. From the following data, calculate the heat capacity
Ccal of the calorimeter:
Mass of empty Styrofoam cups:

6.2 g

Mass of cups + 70 mL H2O

74.6 g

Mass of cups + 70 mL H2O + 30 mL hot H2O

99.1 g

Initial temperature of water in cups

24.0 C

Temperature of boiling water bath:

99.5 C

Final temperature of water:

40.1 C

2. Having established a value for Ccal, the same calorimeter is

used to determine the specific heat of nickel. To do so, a 78.8 g
sample of nickel is heated to 99.2 C and transferred to 99.2 mL
of water at 26.1 C. The final temperature of the water and metal
is found to be 32.1 C. What is the specific heat sNi of nickel?
3. Finally, the accuracy of the thermometer is checked measuring
the boiling point and the freezing point of water. The
thermometer reads 102.0 C when water is boiling and 2.0 C at
the freezing point of water. Although the thermometer is clearly
not calibrated, explain why this will not affect the results of the
experiment.

Experiment 7
When performing acid-base titrations, the first step is often a
standardization of the titrant, which is an accurate determination
of its concentration. Acidic titrants might be standardized in
titration of a well-defined amount of a solid base, such as sodium
carbonate. In such a procedure, why is it not necessary to know
the exact amount of water used in preparation of a solution of
Na2CO3 used in standardization of an acid?
The standardization of an acid might also be carried out using a
solution of a base with known concentration. For example, it is
found that 37.60 ml of 0.210 M NaOH are required to neutralize
25.05 ml of H2SO4 solution in a titration experiment. Calculate the
molarity and normality of the H2SO4 solution.
In the example given above, the amount of acid to be titrated has
to be delivered by a pipet so that its volume is accurately known.
However, the solution of the acid is often diluted to facilitate the
titration process. Explain why additional de-ionized water might
be added without affecting the results of the titration.

Experiment 8
The Dumas Method is a simple procedure to determine the molar
mass of volatile liquid. In such an experiment, a precisely known
amount of the volatile liquid is transferred from the liquid state to
the gas phase, and the ideal gas law in combination with the
mass of the gas provides an easy access to the molecular weight
of the volatile liquid.
To illustrate this, consider the determination of the molar mass of
diethyl ether. The following set of data was collected in a Dumas
experiment:
Atmospheric pressure:

756.2 mm Hg

Temperature of the boiling water:

99.6 C

Mass of the empty flask:

135.263 g

Mass of flask + condensed liquid:

135.886 g

Volume of water required to fill flask:

262.2 mL

Calculate the molar mass of diethyl ether from this data.

The success of this simple method depends on a lot of things
going right, since it is based on various assumptions. Explain
which assumptions are made when applying the Dumas Method
to determine the molecular weight of a volatile liquid.
The molecular weight then allows one to determine the density of
the gas vapor. Use data of the example given above, and
calculate the density of gaseous diethyl ether at atmospheric
pressure and the temperature of boiling water.

Experiment 9:
This experiment explores Hess Law, a cornerstone of
thermochemistry. The enthalpy of reaction H for two acid-base
reactions serves as key property to employ and confirm Hess
law.
The two acid-base reactions utilize a strong acid HCl as well
as a weak acid CH3COOH. The base used is solid sodium
hydroxide.
1. The heat of neutralization of solid sodium hydroxide with an
aqueous solution of an acid might be determined directly in a
one-step reaction or indirectly using a two-step reaction. Explain
the difference between a one-step and a two-step reaction
mechanism when determining the heat of neutralization.
2. Would you expect different values for the heat of the
neutralization reaction, when solid NaOH is neutralized with an
aqueous solution of a weak acid or with an aqueous solution of a
strong acid? Explain your answer.
3. Explain how the fact that the weak acid is only partially
dissociated might cause discrepancies between a theoretical
predicted and an experimentally determined value.