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Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
Uses of Different Metals through history
Copper Age (3200-2300 BC)
Predominant Metal/Metal Substitute
Copper
Important Properties
Easily extracted
Extraction/Production
Working copper was difficult as the melting point needed was too great for wood fires
to achieve.
Around 2000 BC, bronze became prominent and used for tools and weapons
throughout European and Asian continents. This led to technological difference
between societies with bronze and those without it.
Bronze was discovered when impure copper ores containing arsenic and lead minerals
were smelted.
The copper that formed had different physical properties due to presence of other
metals.
Arsenic bronze was a useful alloy as it was harder than pure copper and could make
stronger and harder tools.
Arsenic bronze was replaced by tin bronze, as tin bronze wasnt as brittle. Tin bronze
was used to make cutting tools and was superior to copper as they maintained a
sharper edge that could be readily resharpened.
Iron Age (700 BC-AD 1)
Predominant Metal/Metal Substitute
Iron
Important Properties
Hard, durable, tough
Extraction/Production
Air blown into a fire to produce high
temperatures for heating iron with charcoal.
Use
Tools and weapons
Important Alloy(s) in use at the time
Cast iron (iron with carbon)
In order to extract iron from iron oxide, using wood-fires, you must generate a
temperature higher than that of copper extraction. It wasnt until 1200 BC that humans
developed a method and ability to forge iron into tools and weapons.
The charcoal burned in the blast of air to form CO, reducing the iron ore to iron.
The technology improved by 1 AD that iron strips could be created. These were shaped
into swords and strengthen chariot wheels.
Pure iron was never obtained. Instead, various types of iron alloys like carbon-steels
were formed. These readily corroded.
Iron had been known to exist at least a thousand years before from samples of
meteoric iron.
Technology for extracting, processing and moulding spread out throughout Europe and
Asia.
Since it is much harder and stronger than bronze, most weapons and tools were made
of iron instead.
Modern Age (AD 1 to present)
Predominant Metal/Metal Substitute
Iron, aluminium
Important Properties
Iron hard, durable tough
Aluminium lightweight, corrosion resistant,
good tensile strength
Extraction/Production
Iron blast furnace
Aluminium electrolysis
Use
Iron car bodies, roofing sheets, household
appliances, machinery
Aluminium planes, car parts, drink
containers, building, domestic use, high
voltage transmission lines
Copper electrical wiring, pipes and
plumbing fittings, electroplating
Zinc galvanising iron, protective paints,
diecast alloys and brass, casing for dry cells
Lead car batteries, plumbing and in solder,
glaze for pottery
Important Alloy(s) in use at the time
Carbon steel, stainless steel, alloy steel with
tungsten, magnesium, titanium
Technologies for producing iron and steel rapidly improved and quantities being used
increased.
Alloy steels were developing from about the late 1880s (order of tungsten steel,
manganese steel, silicon steel, chromium steel, nickel steel, vanadium steel).
Aluminium, tungsten, magnesium came into common use in the last 100 years.
Future Age
Predominant Metal/Metal Substitute
Ceramics, plastics, composite material
Important Properties
Ceramics high melting temperature, low
density, high strength, stiffness, hardness,
wear resistance and corrosion resistance,
good electrical and thermal insulator
Plastics hard or soft, doesnt corrode,
flexible, tough, lightweight, easy to process
at low temperatures
Composites overall properties superior to
individual components
Extraction/Production
Ceramics extracted from clay or sand and
fired in a kiln
Plastics made mainly form fractions of
crude oil through different processes
Composite made as a combination of
polymer and ceramic or metal and ceramic
Use
Ceramic includes glass windows, liquid
crystal displays, optical fibres, cooking
utensils, food storage, insulators
Plastics electrical wire insulation, flexible
tubing, bottles, carpet fibres, ropes, packing
foams, lighting panels, hoses, pipes, toys,
raincoats, electrical appliance components,
valves
Composites sporting equipment, racing
cars, structural and building materials
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or more other elements (usually metals). Most
alloys ware examples of solid solutions.
The properties of a metal are altered by the inclusion of atoms of another element .The
inclusion of small amounts of other elements tend to disturb the regular arrangement
of the crystal lattice, leading to a new lattice that is harder and less malleable.
Alloys tend to be poorer electrical conductors than their pure metal components. The
presence of impurities disrupts the crystal lattice and creates defects.
The colour of an alloy depends on the proportion of each component metal. For
example, the 20c coin is silvery-grey due to the high nickel content, whereas the $1
coin is golden because of the high copper content.
Alloy
Composition
Properties
Use
Brass
50-60% copper with
Plumbing fittings,
Lustrous gold
zinc
musical instruments,
appearances
decorations
Softer, more
mainly iron
roofing and nails
malleable and
ductile than
higher carbon
steels.
Structural steel
0.3-0.6% carbon,
Steel girders, rail
High tensile
mainly iron
tracks, axles
strength
Hard
High carbon steels
0.6-1.3% carbon,
Small tools such as
Very Hard
mainly iron
axes
Low malleability
and ductility
Stainless steel
Iron with 10-20%
Food processing
Hard
chromium, 5-20%
machinery, kitchen
Corrosion
nickel
sink and appliances,
resistant
cutlery, surgical and
dental instruments,
razor blades
Extraction of metals
Only few metals, such as gold and silver, occur free in nature. Most metals occur as
compounds in rock.
Gangue is the unwanted waste of an ore after the mineral has been extracted.
All metal compounds in rocks can be called minerals but only those that are
commercially exploited are called ores. For an ore to be mined, it must contain a
mineral in sufficiently high concentration to make the mining and extraction an
economic proposition.
Land and water pollution can result from the inappropriate disposal of this waste. In the
process called rehabilitation, mining companies are careful to return mined areas to
their original state (or as close as possible) when they have finished mining an area.
Steps in the extraction of metals
A chemical reaction is used to extract the metal from its ore. Every chemical
reaction involves either the release or absorption of heat.
In the case of gold, only separation is needed, and so in history people could simply the
gold from gangue to obtain the metal, giving rise to famous gold rush and gold
fever, since people hoped they could get rich quickly by hurrying to where gold had
been discovered and finding the precious metal.
The ease of extraction of metals
Metals differ in their ease of extraction and this has led to their uses at different times
throughout history.
The metals found free, such as gold, or easiest to extract, such as copper, were the
first used.
Since the extraction of metals from their ores involves the decomposition of
compounds such as metal oxides, energy is needed to break the intermolecular bonds
to produce a metal in its elemental form.
The most active metals form the most stable compounds so need the most energy to
decompose them.
3 types:
- The easiest metal compounds to decompose (e.g. CuS) can be decomposed by
roasting with carbon.
- The next easiest (e.g. Fe2O3) can be decomposed by roasting with coke in a furnace.
- The more difficult (e.g. aluminium and sodium compounds) are decomposed by the
electrolysis of aqueous solutions or molten compounds.
There are many more metals available for us to use because of improved
technology.
For example, we did not know sodium or aluminium existed until we developed
technology needed to carry out electrolysis (passage of an electric current through a
solution or melted solid bring about a chemical change).
Improvement of metallurgical skills for making and testing new alloys led to the
incorporation of a wider range of metals into everyday products. This improvement led
to increasing amount of alloys being produced.
E.g. titanium wasnt widely used on its own but it was discovered that when Ti is
combined with limited amounts of other metals, it improves various physical
properties.
Lower cost of electricity generation has also made it more attractive to extract metals
requiring electrolysis.
Two hundred years, the extraction technology was not as advanced (e.g. no
electrolysis), meaning some metals like aluminium couldnt be extracted for use.
Fifty years ago, electricity was much more expensive, discouraging the extraction of
aluminium as it requires high amounts of electrical energy. Instead, steel was much
more competitive and was used more.
Alloy
Reasons for production
Uses
Alnico
812% Al, 1526% Ni, 5
24% Co, up to 6% Cu,
up to 1% Ti, and the
balance is Fe.
Magnalium
Aluminium with 5-50%
Magnesium
Magnet applications
electric guitar pickups
microphones
sensors
loudspeakers
cow magnets
Vitallium
60% cobalt, 20%
chromium, 5%
molybdenum and other
substances.
Gunmetal
88% Copper, 10% Tin
and 2% Zinc
Galinstan
68.5% Ga, 21.5% In,
10% Sn
- Guns
- Valves, pump parts and steam
fittings as it is resistant to corrosio
from steam/salt water.
- Machinery brushes
- Gears and bearings subjected to
heavy loads + low speeds.
Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences their
uses
Reactions of metals
We find that metals are not all different and can be grouped together on the basis of
their chemical reactions. The reactions of metals with dilute acids, water and
oxygen are most commonly considered.
Metals vary in their reactions with certain substances. Some are very reactive whereas
others are extremely unreactive to the same substance.
In general:
- metals that react vigorously with dilute acids also react vigorously with water and
oxygen and are called active metals (e.g. Mg).
- metals that react less vigorously with dilute acids also react less vigorously with water
and oxygen are less active metals (e.g. Zn).
Metals that do not react at all with dilute acids also do not react with water and oxygen
and are called inactive metals (e.g. Au).
Reaction with Oxygen
Burning (combustion) is carried out by heating the metal in a Bunsen burner flame in
air or oxygen.
All metals except silver, platinum and gold react with oxygen to form oxides:
- Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react rapidly at room temperature.
- Mg, Al, Fe, Zn react slowly at room temperature but burn vigorously if heated in air or
pure oxygen.
- Sn, Pb, Cu react slowly and only if heated.
Those metals which burn in air or oxygen form crystalline white solids that have none
of the physical properties of the original metal.
When metals slowly react at room temperature, they lose their shiny lustrous
appearance. Some, such as Al, become coated with a dull layer of tightly adhering
oxide, preventing further reaction. Others like iron form a powdery surface layer of
oxide that doesnt impede further reaction.
Li, Na, K tarnish rapidly when exposed to air and must therefore be stored in liquid
paraffin oil. Rubidium and caesium are so reactive that they catch fire in air and must
be handled in an inert gas environment like argon.
E.g. magnesium burns readily with a very bright flame to form a white solid. The
reaction is magnesium + oxygen -> magnesium oxide
2Mg(s)+O2(g)
2MgO(s)
Most metals when placed in cold water undergo no observable changes and show no
signs of chemical reaction:
- Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react with water at room temperature.
- Mg, Al, Zn, Fe react with water at high temperatures.
- Sn, Pb, Au, Ag, Cu dont react at all.
When a reaction occurs with water the products formed are hydrogen gas and the
metal hydroxide.
metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
When calcium is dropped into water, bubbles of colourless gas form. Furthermore, a
suspension of insoluble calcium hydroxide forms:
calcium + water calcium hydroxide + hydrogen
Ca(s) +2H2O(l) Ca (OH)2(s) + H2(g)
Magnesium no reaction with cold water but with hot water or steam, bubbles of gas
are produced.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
In the metal-water reaction, the metal displaces hydrogen from the water. The reaction
involves the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to hydrogen atoms in the water
and is classed as an oxidation-reduction reaction.
The loss of electrons by metal atoms and the gain of electrons by hydrogen atoms can
be represented by the following equations:
Na(s) Na+(aq) + e
2H2O(l) +2e- H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
Water is more energetically stable than dilute acids, thus less metals react with it in
comparison to acid.
Reactions with dilute acid
These ions result in the transfer of electrons between the substances involved.
Most metals react with dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids to form hydrogen gas and
a metal salt.
metal + acid metal salt + hydrogen gas
Magnesium vigorous bubbling from the surface of the metal, bubbles rise through the
acid, the metal disappears and the container gets hot. The reaction observed is:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc a few bubbles are produced but the zinc doesnt disappear. The reaction that
occurs is similar to the reaction with magnesium, with hydrogen being formed, but is
slower and less vigorous.
Zn(s)+2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g)
With dilute sulfuric acid, similar reactions occur with magnesium and zinc, but the
sulfate is formed instead of the chloride.
Metals more reactive than magnesium, such as Na, K, Ca react explosively with dilute
hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. Less reactive metals such as copper, silver and gold do
not react with these acids.
During the reaction between a metal and an acid, the metal dissolves as it loses
electrons and forms positively charged ions. Hydrogen ions from the acid gain electrons
to form hydrogen gas. As this reaction involves a transfer of electrons it is an oxidationreduction reaction (redox reaction where reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously
or electron-transfer reaction).
The substance that loses one or more electrons has been oxidised. It is called a
reducing agent. The substance that gains one or more electrons has been reduced. It
is called an oxidant. Hence, two half equations can be written.
Zinc:
Ionic equation Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Half equations - Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
The zinc has been oxidised while the H+ has been reduced.
Magnesium:
The different reactions of metals with dilute acids, water and oxygen can be used to
draw up a list or sequence of the metals in order of decreasing reactivity. This is called
the activity series of metals.
In this list, metals that react most vigorously (e.g. Na) are placed at the top of the list,
while metals that react least (e.g. Au) are placed at the bottom.
The criteria used to place metals into an activity series is their ease of reaction with
oxygen, water and acids.
Reactive metals will react with oxygen, whereas those that are inactive will not, placing
them lower on the activity series.
A highly reactive metal will react with cold water, whereas metals that dont react with
cold water may react with hot water and are lower on the activity series.
Metals that dont react with water need to be tested in dilute acid to test their
reactivity. Thus metals that react vigorously are deemed more reactive than those that
react less vigorously or only with concentrated acids.
The reason for this procedure is that a metals reactivity with acid is greater than its
reactivity with water which is greater than its reactivity with oxygen. Thus by
determining where each metal will react, we can draw an activity series.
The more recently discovered metals such as aluminium and magnesium are high in
the activity series. These metals are finding more and more uses, especially in alloys.
Aluminium is used in packaging, window frames, boats, cars and drink cans due to its
strength, availability and lack of reactivity.
Titanium is used as artificial joints, aircraft and ship bodies and pipes due to its low
reactivity, stableness, resistance to corrosion and chemically inert nature in the human
body.
Zinc is used in galvanized roofs, fences, car bodies, motor vehicle grilles, and
household appliances since it is fairly reactive, reacting with the environment as a
sacrificial metal, protecting the less reactive metal such as iron.
Due to golds resistance to corrosion it is being used in jewellery but also finding use in
areas such as microchips and electronics.
Relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions in the Periodic
Table
The activity series shows that Group 1 metals are the most reactive, followed by Group
2 metals. Group 3 comes next in reactivity followed by some transition metals and then
metals of group 4. At the end of the series are more transition metals (Cu, Ag, Pt, Au).
The activity series also shows that in groups 1 and 2 reactivity increases from top to
bottom.
Hence, the reactivity of metals increase going down a group and decrease across
a period from left to right.
As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that
patterns in their physical and chemical properties could be used to organize the
elements into a periodic table.
The reactions of metals with oxygen, water and dilute acids belong to a class of
chemical reactions known as oxidation-reduction reactions.
In each case, where a reaction occurs, the metal loses its valence electrons to form a
positively charged ion.
The relative ease with which a metal loses its valence electrons is a major factor
affecting its reactivity. Very reactive metals such as potassium and sodium lose their
valence electrons relatively easily. Less reactive metals such as copper dont lose their
valence electrons as readily, and gold and silver rarely lose their electrons at all.
First Ionisation energy is a measure of the energy needed to remove an electron from
the electrostatic attractive force of the positively charged nucleus. The ionization
energy of an atom or ion is defined as the amount of energy required to remove the
most loosely bound electron from the atom or ion in the gaseous state.
The lower the ionisation energy, the easier it is to remove an electron. Therefore, the
reactivity of metlas increases astheir ionisation energy decreases (transfer of electrons
required in reactions).
As we go from left ro right across the activity series, metal ions become easier to
reduce to metal atoms. Due to the fact that metal ions are present in ores, it can be
said that the further to the right in the activity series a metal is, the more easily it can
be extracted from its ores.
The positively charged particles in the nucleus of the atom were called protons.
Protons carry an equal, but opposite, charge to electrons, but protons are much
larger and heavier than electrons.
Atoms are electrically neutral since the number of protons balances the number of
electrons. However some essential refinemeents were necessary to this model and
these were incorporated as they were discovered.
For example, the discovery of neutrons in 1932 by James Chadwick explained why
the dense nucleus of the atoms was able to stay together as it did.
The discovery of subshells and valence electrons were essential and added to the
same atomic structure proposed by Ernest Rutherford.
It contained a number of errors, but provided scientists with a base that an atom is
more than just a singular particle, and is made of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Contributor
Date
Aristotle
Antoine
Lavoisier
~330 BC
~ 1770 1789
Jns Jakob
Berzelius
1828
Johann
Dbereiner
1829
Alexandre-Emile
Bguyer de
Chancourtois
1862
John
Newlands
1864
Lothar Meyer
1869
Comment
Some of these elements were later
found to be compound and
mixtures.
Dmitri
Mendeleev
1869
William
Ramsay
1898
Henry Moseley
1914
Glenn Seaborg
1940
1
2
Explain the relationship between the position of elemenetsi nthe Periodic Table, and:
- electrical conductivity
- ionisation energy
- atomic radius
- melting point
- boiling point
- combining power
- electronegativity
- reactivity
Reactivity
The reactivity of a metal associates well with its first ionisation energy: the lower the
first ionisation energy, the greater the reactivity of the metal. This is due to one sole
reason: that both reactivity of a metal and ionisation energy are related to the ease
with which the metal will lose its electrons. Therefore the logical comparison can be
made that:
For metallic elements reactivity decreases from left to right across a period of the
table (for example Na, Mg, Al) and increases from top to bottom down a group (Be,
Mg, Ca, Sr). 3
This is simply because the more left and down you proceed in the periodic table,
the easier it is for the electrons to be removed, thus resulting in higher reactivity.
However, the case for non-metals is not as simple as it is for metals. This is mainly
due to the fact that there are a minimum of two types of reactivity for non-metals.
There is the formation of ions (anions) and also the formation of covalent
compounds.
Generally in both cases the reactivity increases as you go from left to right across a
period. Furthermore, the reactivity decreases as you go from top to bottom down a
group. This is simply because the farther to the right and up you proceed in the
periodic table, the higher the electronegativity, this results in a more forceful
exchange of electrons.
Ionisation Energy
First Ionisation Energy is the energy required to remove an electron from the
outermost shell of an element when it is gaseous state. Ionisation energy is
measure in kJ/mol.
Each element has several ionisation energies and the energies always increase per
ionisation level. This is simply because it requires more energy to remove a
negative electron from a position ion than it does from a neutral species.
This is fully due to the electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and the
negative electron cloud. After the first electron is removed, there is extra
electrostatic attraction on the remaining electrons making them harder to remove.
Ionisation energies provide strong evidence towards periodic law. Furthermore they
also provide significant confirmation that the atoms want to have noble gas
configuration. As can be seen from the graph above, when first ionisation energies
are plotted against atomic number a clear trend is seen. The minimum values are
all captured by the alkali metals (group 1 Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs) showing that it is
easy to remove an electron from these elements. On the other hand the maximum
values are captured by the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) showing that a large
amount of energy is needed to remove an electron from these stable elements.
Elements with low ionisation energies readily form positive ions and therefore
such elements form ionic compounds (Na+1, Ca+2, Al+3). 4
As you go across any period of the periodic table, the first ionisation energy
increases, indicating that when you move from left to right, the tendency to lose
electrons deceases. When you go down any group of the periodic table, the
ionisation energy decreases. This indicates that elements lose electrons less readily
as we move from left to right.
This is because elements on the right hand side of the periodic table wish to gain
electrons to form an octet, whereas the ones on the left would rather lose those
electrons. Also elements more readily lose electrons as we go down a group. This is
because the increasing number of shells in the atom allow for the easier removal of
the outermost electrons.
Atomic Radius
When atomic radius is plotted against atomic number, the curve shows a distinctly
periodic nature. The atomic radius passes though a set of maximums which
corresponding directly to the group 1 metals (also known as the alkali metals).
There is also a set of minimums which occur in the last group of the periodic table
known as the noble gases.
3
4
Thus the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic table and
their atomic radius is that the atomic radius decreases from left to right across any
period of the table.
This is because of the stronger attractive forces in atoms between the opposite
charges in the nucleus and electron cloud cause the atom to be contracted in
slightly. Furthermore the atomic radius also increases in going down any group of
the table. This is because of the increasing size of the nucleus as you move down a
group. Also, new energy levels of electrons are added to the atom, each making
the atom significantly larger in both mass and volume.
Melting point
When a substance melts, some of the forces that hold the particles together are
broken or loosened so that the particles can move freely but are still together. The
stronger the attraction forces (intermolecular bonds), the more energy is needed to
break them, and thus they have higher melting points.
When the melting points of the elements are plotted against their atomic numbers
a periodic behaviour occurs, as the curve passes a series of minimums which
correspond to the noble gases. The maximums do not appear in such a simple
pattern however. The maximum melting points occur approximately half-way
between the minimums.
Boiling Point
When a substance boils, the majority of the remaining attractive forces between
the molecules (intermolecular forces) are broken so that the particles can freely
and far apart (because of their gaseous state which results in rapid translational
movement). The stronger the intermolecular bonds (attractive forces), the more
energy is required to overcome them, thus giving them a higher boiling point.
When the boiling points of the elements are plotted against atomic numbers, the
graph that is produced is similar to the graph on the previous page which showed
the melting points of the elements plotted against their atomic numbers. The
boiling point graph undergoes a similar series of minimums which correspond to
the atomic numbers of the noble gases. Furthermore, the maxima occur
approximately half-way between the minimums.
Electronegativity
The electronegativity increases as we move from left to right across a period. This
is because elements situated on the left of the table have one or two valence
electrons and would give those electrons away to achieve an octet. Accordingly,
they have a low electronegativity. On the other hand, elements situated on the
right of the table only require a few electrons to complete a full octet, so they want
to grab other elements electrons, thus giving those elements high electronegativity.
The most common valency of an element is its group number (if it is in groups one
to four) or eight minus its group number (if it is groups five to seven).
The noble gases are situated in group eight (also known as group eighteen or group
zero) because they have no valence electrons and therefore are very unreactive
and rarely form compounds.
have a valency of two or three etc. However most of these transition elements from
cations with a positive two charge.
The position of an element determines its valency which hence determines its
combining power. If an element is situated in group eight it has zero valencies and
thus will have limited combining power. If an element is situated in any other group
of the periodic table it will have a number of valence electrons meaning that it will
have a significant combining power. Generally the most reactive metals are located
to the bottom left of the periodic table (due to their low electronegativity) whereas
the most reactive non-metals are situated towards the top-right (due to their high
electronegativity). These elements have the greatest combining power but the
lowest valencies. I.e. therefore it could be said that the lower the valency the
greater the combining power.
Electric Conductivity
Metals are good conductors of electricity, non-metals are not good conductors of
electricity rather they are electrical insulators.
This means that all the elements situated on left hand side of the periodic table
(except hydrogen) all the way to group three have good electrical conductivity. This
is mainly because of their metallic nature and structure. (I.e. they have metallic
bonding which means there is a sea of delocalised electrons which can move freely
and this allows for the conduction of electricity).
The elements on the right hand side of the periodic table (the non-metals) are
electrical insulators because they do not have free moving electrons. They usually
form diatomic covalent bonds and this means that the electrons are tightly bound
within the molecules and therefore no electricity can be conducted since no free
electrons. This is with the exception of carbon, which despite being classified as a
non-metal displays excellent electricity conductivity when in the form of graphite.
All semi-metals are able to conduct electricity but Silicon, Germanium, Boron
Tellurium which display high levels of resistance when it comes to electrical
conductivity.
Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and noneconomic deposits of natural resources.
A naturally occurring, homogenous inorganic solid substance having a specific
chemical composition and characteristic crystallic structure is considered a
mineral, regardless of whether the substance is economical or non-economical
to mine.
An ore is a mineral or rock from which a valuable constituent, especially
metals, can be economically and profitably extracted.
For example, golds high price is due to its low abundance and high demand.
However, it is relatively easy and cheap to produce.
Although aluminium is the most abundant metal, the cost of production is high
because the extraction process is difficult and requires the use of a high amount of
electrical energy. This is why aluminium has historically been very expensive and is
currently more expensive than many other commonly used metals such as iron, which is
easily extracted, from its ore.
FeO(s)
SiO2(s)
FeO.SiO2(l)
iron impurity
silica
slag
After the slag is removed, the product, called matte, is a mixture of copper
sulphides (mostly Cu2S) and impurities such as iron sulphides.
5. Conversion of Matte into Blister Copper
The matte contains about 40% copper and can be fed to a converter.
Air is blown through molten matte which converts iron (II) sulphide to iron(II) oxide
and sulphur dioxide. The iron(II) oxide reacts with silica to form slag.
2FeS(l) + 3O2(g) 2FeO(l) + 2SO2(g)
2FeO(l) + SiO2(l) 2FeO.SiO2(l)
Slag is skimmed off.
Relatively pure copper(I) sulphide, Cu2S, accumulates at the bottom of the
converter.
Air is blasted through this copper(I) sulphide to reduce the copper and oxidise the
sulphur to sulphur dioxide
Cu2S(l)
+
O2(g)
2Cu(l)
+
SO2(g)
The impure copper produced by the converter is called blister copper since bubbles
of sulphur dioxide gas on the surface of the copper look like blisters.
Blister copper contains 97-98% copper. Impurities in blister copper can include Au,
Ag, Sn, Ni, S, Te, Zn, Pb, Fe
6. Electrorefining
The copper is refined by electrolysis.
Thin pure starter sheet cathodes (thin copper foil) and a series of impure copper
anodes are suspended in a tank.
Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode, forming a pure
layer of copper at the cathode. Copper ions transfer from the impure anode and
forms pure copper at the cathode. The anode disintegrates.
The concentration of copper ions in the electrolyte remains constant. For every
copper ion produced at the anode, a copper ion is reduced to metallic copper at the
cathode.
A slime at the bottom of the tank is formed containing valuable metals which are
less active than copper. They occur below copper in the table of standard electrode
potentials, so they are weaker redundants than copper and will not be oxidised at
the anode.
Impurities are left behind in the solution which are more active than copper. Lead
occurs above copper in the table of standard reduction potentials, so lead is a
stronger redundant than copper and will be oxidised at the anode.
Pb(s) Pb2+(aq) + 2eHowever, lead forms an insoluble precipitate with the sulfate ions in the
electrolyte:
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s)
PbSO4(s) will be found in the slime at the bottom of the tank.
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of 3-4% copper sulphate and 10-16%
sulphuric acid. A current at a potential energy of 0.2-0.4 V is required. It contains
copper ions flowing through the tank.
The external power supply is used to pull electrons out of the anode and push them
to the cathode.
Anode:
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2eCathode:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
Overall reaction:
Cu(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Producing 1 tonne of copper requires a total of energy in the order of 10 5 MJ, 2-3
times less than that of aluminium.
Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium
Collection and Transportation
Aluminium products, such as drink cans and car parts, are collected through
council initiatives as well as through the work of individuals and organisations.
Material transported to the central processing plant.
Sorting and Separation
Although aluminium doesnt contain magnetic properties, steel does, so steel is
removed by using magnetic separation.
To ensure alloys of aluminium remain constant, used aluminium cans are separated
from other aluminium products.
Preparation
Aluminium products are compressed to form bales (a separate bale is used for
aluminium cans) and then further processed.
Remelting and Refining
Baled aluminium is fed into a rotary furnace which reaches temperatures of 780C,
melting the aluminium. .
Molten aluminium is cast into ingots, which are sent to rolling mills to create new
kitchenware, drink cans, foil and other products made from aluminium.
Aluminium Cans
Aluminium cans are gathered at large, regional scrap processing companies. Here,
the cans are condensed into highly dense briquettes or bales, which are shipped off
to aluminium companies for melting.
At the aluminium company, the condensed cans are shredded, crushed and
stripped of their inside and outside decorations via a burning process and then
melted in a furnace.
The molten aluminium is treated to remove impurities and is then poured into
casting units. The aluminium ingot solidifies gradually, in three hours, to produce
18 tonne ingots. The ingots are fed into rolling mills which reduce the thickness of
the metal.
The metal is coiled and shipped to can makers, who deliver cans to beverage
companies for filling.
Discuss the importance of predicting yield in the identification, mining, and
extraction of commercial ore deposits.
Yield may be considered as the amount of metal mined in one tonne of ore or
the total quantity of product the mine will produce in its estimated life.
By predicting yield, the amount of mineral and profit expected to be returned
from each ore can be determined.
Without being able to predict the yield of an ore deposit, there is no way to
know if it will be a profitable investment.
Mining costs a lot of money and hence, no one will invest in equipment and
infrastructure without knowing what quantities of ore is going to be produced
and how long production is going to last.
Predicting the yield allows the mining company to estimate the costs it is going
to take to process the metal, to see if it is economically viable.
Predicting the yield allows the mining company to select the extraction method
which creates the most product for the cheapest price.
A prediction of the yield allows the mining company to choose the location of
extraction facility in order to maximise financial return. For example, a
commercial ore deposit with a high yield means a large amount of mineral will
be produced, and therefore it is more economically viable to have the
extraction facility close to consumers or the refinery to save transport costs.
This is not great an issue for deposits with lower yield, as transportation costs
are already low.
Justify the increased use of recycling of metals in our society and across the
world.
Since metals are non-renewable resources, reserves in Earths crust will
become harder to find and extract, increasing costs, and it is possible to run
out of these metals if not recycled.
Recycling metals is frequently more energy efficient and less polluting than
extracting metals.
For example, energy consumption when recycling aluminium is about 10% of
the energy needed to extract it from bauxite and carbon emissions are about
5% as much.
Recycling metal conserves energy that would otherwise be expended in drilling
ore, refining the metal and other processes of the metal manufacturing
process. Energy conservation levels vary according to the product type.
Recycling aluminum uses 95 percent less energy than deriving it from raw
materials, while recycling steel saves 60 percent.
Recycling metals creates 36 times more jobs than sending the same amount of
metal waste to the incinerator and six times more than sending the metal to a
landfill. Recycling metals creates many jobs and is positive for the economy.