Physics Lab. Manuals - 001

Experiment No.
1
Object :
To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel about its own axis of rotation.
Apparatus :
A strong and thin cotton string, flywheel, stop watch, some different weights, a meter
scale and a piece of chalk.
Theory and formula:
The flywheel consists of a heavy wheel with a long axle supported in bearings and
its centre of gravity lies on its axis of rotation. Its mass in mostly concentrated in the
rim and its moment of inertia is large.
Fig. - 1
Fig. - 2
The flywheel energy storage systems can store/deliver power for only a short period,
a few seconds or minutes (without recharging).
If
mass, of the suspended weight (gm)

Page | 1
linear velocity of mass, cm/sec and
the angular velocity of the flywheel (radian/sec)
then moment of inertia of flywheel

2mgh mr2
I = ---------------------------2 (t+ n/n1)
where
Momentum of inertia of a flywheel (gm-cm2)
radius of the axle (cm)
Number of revolutions during the descent mass (m)
n1
Number of rotations (revolutions) after the weight has been

detached from the peg.
Acceleration due to gravity. (cm/sec2)
The height (cm) from the ground
time
The motion of the flywheel is uniformly retarded by the frictional forces at the axle,
the angular velocity decrease and final velocity is zero.
The average value of
angular velocity is
+ 0
The average angular velocity = -----------2
2 n1
= -------- = ---------------2
= 4 n1 / t
Procedure :
(i)
Take a string whose length is less then the height of the axle from the ground
(ii)
and tie a mass `m on one of its end.

Wrap the other end of the string uniformly round the axle so that mass `m is
(iii)
(iv)
slightly below the rim of the wheel.

Count the number of turns of the string `n wound around the axle.
Allow the mass to fall and note down the time taken `t when the mass is just
(v)
detached from the axle.

Repeat the step 3 and 4 different `n by winding different number of turns on
the axle.
Page | 2
(vi)
Again repeat the step 4 for three different masses keeping the number of
turns wounded on the axle same.
Observations :
Vernier constant
= cm.
Radius of the axle
= cm.
Mass
= gm.
S. No.
Mass of Weight
Height of mass
No. of
No. of
(m) gm.
(h) cm.
revolution till
revolution
the mass
against the
detaches (n1)
friction (n2)
Time (t) sec.
Calculations :
Mean corrected radius of the axle
= .cm
= 4n2 / t
= ..sec-1
m( 2gh/2 r2 )
I
= ------------------------------1 + n 1 / n2
= . gm. X cm.2 = ..kg.m2
( Note : make similar calculation for I from other sets of observations )

Mean value of moment of inertia of flywheel
= .Kg. m2
Result :
The moment moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of rotation = kg m 2
Sources of error and precautions :
1. The length of the string should be always less than the height of the axle of the
flywheel from the floor so that it may leave the axle before the mass strikes the
floor.
Page | 3
2. The loop slipped over the peg should be quite loose so that when the string has
unwound itself. It must leave the axle and there may be no tendency for it to
rewind in the opposite directions.
3. The string should be evenly wound on the axle, i.e there should be no
overlapping of or a gap left between. The various coils of the string.
4. To ensure winding to whole number of turns of string on the axle the winding
should be stopped, when almost complete the projecting peg is horizontal.
5. To determine h measure only the length of the string between the loop and the
mark at the other end where the string left the axle before the start of the
flywheel.
6. The string used should be of very small diameter compared with the diameter of
the axle. If the string is of appreciable thickness half of its thickness should be
added to the radius of the axle to get the effective value of r.
7. The fiction at the bearings should not be great and the mass tied to the end of
the string should be sufficient to be able to overcome the bearing friction and so
to start falling of its own accord.
8. Take extra care to start the stop watch immediately the string leaves the axle.
9. The diameter of the axle should be measured at a number of points along its
length and at each point two readings of diameters at right angles to one another
should be taken.
Experiment No. 2
Object :
To determine the frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork by Meldes method.
Apparatus :
Electrically maintained tuning fork, frictionless pulley, set of weights, a battery,
rheostat, a meter scale and connecting wire.
Page | 4
Theory and formula:

Meldes electrically maintained tuning fork consists of a large tuning fork made of
ferromagnetic alloy, whose shank is rigidly clamped to a heavy rectangular wooden
board.
(a) In the transverse arrangement, the frequency n of the fork, is

n
= 1/2l T/m
= 1/2l Mg/m
(T = Mg )
(b) In the longitudinal arrangement, the frequency n of the fork is

n
Where
= 1/l T/m = 1/l Mg/m

m
is the mass per unit length of thread
is the total mass suspended
is Tension applied to thread
(T = Mg )
Page | 5
is length of the thread in the fundamental vibration
Procedure :
1. Place a load of in a pan attached to the end of the wire and measure the tuning
length of the wire and adjust the position of pulley.
2. Increase the load by repeat the experiment with the same tuning fork.
3. Now calculate the T = Mg (Tension) by the formula for different mass.
4. Note down the m (mass) and length of the wire, calculate the mass per unit
length.
5. Repeat the experiment for longitudinal arrangement.
Mass of thread = ..gm
Length of thread = .cm.
Observations :
S.
Weight
Load
Total
No.
of pan
mass weight
mp
Tension
No.
Length of
Frequency
T = Mg
of
corresponding
n = 1/2 l T/m
M=
loops thread
(mp + m)
Longitudinal Transverse
Mean frequency (Transverse)
= Hz.
Mean frequency (Longitudinal)
= .Hz.
Calculations :
(a) Transverse arrangement
T = Mg
n = 1/2 l T/m
(b) Longitudinal arrangement

T = Mg
n = 1/ l T/m
Page | 6
Result :
The frequency of the electrically maintained tuning fork.
(a) Transverse arrangement = Hz.
(b) Longitudinal arrangement =..Hz
Percentage Error :
Standard Value Observed Value
Percentage Error = --------------------------------------------------- X 100 =
Standard Value
Precautions and Source of Error :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The wire/thread should be uniform in diameter, thin and inextensible.

The friction at the pulley should be negligible.
The weight of the scale pan should be added.
Measure the length of the thread should be a properly.
The vibration of the thread/wire should not rotate.
The transverse arrangement should be horizontal and longitudinal arrangement
should be vertical.
7. The transverse arrangement should be horizontal and longitudinal arrangement
should be vertical.
Experiment No. 3
Object :
To determine the dispersive power of a glass prism using spectrometer and mercury
source.
Apparatus :
Spectrometer, mercury source, glass prism, magnifying lens and spirit level.
Theory and formula:
It is a measure of the changes of the refractive index of the medium with wave
length. The dispersive power of a prism is given by
Page | 7
Fig. - 2
v - r
= -------------------1
where
refractive index for violet colour.
refractive index for red colour.
mean of refractive index of violet and red colour.
Calculate the value of , using

(A + m)
Sin --------------2
= -----------------------------------------------------------------Sin A/2
Page | 8
Where,
A = angle of prism.
m
angle of minimum deviation
Procedure :
A. For Calculation of A
(i)
First adjust the spectrometer to get parallel light beam and check whether
the prism table is horizontal by spirit level.
Now put the prism on prism table such that the two refrecting edges
(ii)
should point towards the light source. The light should fall on both sides
(iii)
of the prism.
Rotate the telescope in the direction OP and then along OQ to see the
diffraction pattern that is slit of white light on the crosswire of the
telescope. Write down the position of these two images from the vernier
scales. The difference between these two positions gives twice the value
of angle A.
B. For measurement of m
(i)
Now remove the prism from the table. Bring the telescope to the straight
(ii)
position and note down the reading.

Put the prism back on the table such that the rough face of the prism faces
(iii)
the right with respect to the straight position.

Choose any two colour in the spectrum. Rotate the telescope to right side
and look for the slit of these two colour on the crosswire. Note down these
(iv)
position from the vernier scale.

The difference between this position of a particular colour with the position
of straight view will gives the angle of minimum deviation for that particular
(v)
colour.
Now calculate and .
Observation :
Vernier constant of the spectrometer =
A. Table for measurement of angle A
S. No.
Vernier
First position Second
reading
of telescope
2A
A (Degree)
position of
telescope
1.
Page | 9
2.
Mean A = .
B. Table for measurement of angle m (violet)
S. No
Vernier reading
Minimum deviation
Straight position
reading
reading
Diffrece
Minimum deviation
Straight position
reading
reading
Difference
A. Table for measurement of angle m (red)

S. No
Vernier reading
Mean m = .
Calculations :
The dispersive power
v - r
= -------------------1
where
(A + m)
Sin --------------2
= -----------------------------------------------------------------Page | 10
Sin A/2
Calculate the value of r and v, using
for violet
for red
R.I. of violet colour,
angle of prism
R.I of red colour
angle of minimum diviation
average R.I
= degrees
=..degrees
= ..
= .degrees
= .degrees
Result :
The dispersive power of prism = .
Percentage Error:
Standard Value
Precautions and source of error :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The wire/thread should be uniform in diameter, thin and inextensible.

The friction at the pulley should be negligible.
The weight of the scale pan should be added.
Measure the length of the thread should be a properly,
The vibration of the thread/wire should be rotate.
The transverse arrangement should be horizontal and longitudinal arrangement
should be vertical.
Page | 11
Experiment No. 4
Object :
To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newtons rings.
Apparatus :
A plane glass plate, plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, a travelling
microscope, sodium lamp source, , magnifying lens and spirit level.
Theory and formula:
The arrangement for Newtons ring is shown in fig. 1. A plano-convex lens of large
radius of curvature is placed with convex surface on a plane glass plate, an air film is
formed between the lens and glass plate. If monochromatic light source falls on
normally on this air film. The alternate bright and dak concentric rings is formed in
the air film and the centre of ring is dark. These rings are formed as a result of
interference between the light waves from the lower and upper surfaces of the film.
The wavelength of the light is given by the formula
Page | 12
Fig. 1
Newtons ring
=
Where
D2n+k
D2n
k
R
D 2n+k - D2n
---------------------4kR
is the diameter of (n+k)th ring.

is the diameter of nth ring.
an integer number of the rings.
is the radius of curvature of the curved face of the plano-convex
lens.
Procedure :
1. The convex lens L1 is used only when we have to use a point sourse
otherwise using an extended source. The convex lens L1 is not required.
2. The surfaces of the glass plate and the plano-convex lens should be
thoroughly cleaned with spirit.
3. The centre of plano-convex lens is well illuminated by adjusting of glass plate
at an angle 450
Page | 13
4. The microscope is adjusted so that the rings are clearly seen in the field of
view. If the rings obtained are not circular then either the glass plate of lens
or both are irregular. The circular rings are obtained it the point of contact is
uniform. Sometimes the central spot is bright. This is because contact
between the lens and the plate is not perfect on account of the presence of
dust particles.
5. The microscope is now moved to left and the cross wire is set on the 22 th ring.
Reading are taken for both on the main scale and the vernier scales. The
cross wire is than moved towards right (i.e., back) for taking readings of
different ring keeping a gap of 2 (i.e., on 2 th, 4th , 6th, till 22th ring on right
hand side.
6. The difference of the consecutive reading of left and right hand sides give the
diameter of that ring. Hence, the mean value of D 2n+k D2n is calculated.
7. Measure the radius of the curvature of plano-convex lens R by using formula
R = l2/6h + h/2
= cm.
Distance between the two legs
l1 = ..cm.
l2 = cm.
l3 = ..cm.
l1 + l2 + l3
l =
------------------------------ cm.
3
= .cm.
Where
l =
mean distance between the two legs of the spherometer in cm.
a = speherometer reading on convex surface in cm.

b = spherometer reading on plane surface in cm.
then
(a b) = h
The wavelength of sodium light is calculated from the formula.

D2n = 4nR
D2n+k = 4(n+k)R
D2n+k D2n = 4kR
= (D2n+k D2n)/4kR
Observations :
Least count of the microscope = ..
S.No
No.
of
Microscope reading
(L.H.S.)C
(R.H.S.)C
Diameter of
Dn2 =2(X2-X1)
D2n+k D2n
the ring
cm2
Cm2
Page | 14
rings
m (x1)
m (x2)
Dn=(x2-x1) cm.
Calculations :
The wavelength of sodium light is given by
= (D2n+k D2n)/4kR
= . A0
Result :
The mean wavelength of sodium light = ..A0
Percentage Error :
Standard Value
Precaution and Sources of Error :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The monochromatic light (source) should be adjusted for maximum visibility.

Glass plate and lens should be cleaned properly with spirit.
The cross wire should be focused on a bright ring tangentially.
Radius of curvature should be measured carefully.
The range of the microscope should be properly adjusted.
The lens used should be of large radius of curvature and be measured properly.
The glass plate G inclined of an angle of 45 0.
Page | 15
Experiment No. 5
Object :
To determine the specific rotation of canesugar solution with the help of polarimeter.
Apparatus :
Laurents half-shade polarimeter, a sodium lamp, filter paper, an eye-piece, a
balance, source of light, sugar, a weight box, two beakers, a glass rod and
graduated cylinder.
Theory and formula:
The specific rotation at a given temperature and given wave length of light is
defined as the observed angle of rotation when plane polarized light is passed
through a sample with a path length of 1 decimeter and sample concentration of 1
gram per milliliter.
Fig. 1
Page | 16
Fig. 2
S = ----------lXc
Rotation in Degrees
= ----------------------------------------------------------------Length in Decimeters X Concentration is gm/cc
i.e.,
and concentration c = m/V,

V
S = --------------------lm
where,
= specific rotation
= length of the tube (decimeter)
= mass of sugar (gms)
= volume of sugar solution
= is the rotation produced (degrees)
Procedure :
1. To prepare a 20% solution of sugar (20 gm sugar and 100 cc of water).
2. Now filter the solution in clean dry beaker.
3. Take the clean polarimeter tube (No dust particles) and fill with pure water
(without air bubble).
4. Put the tube in its position in the polarimeter and two halves of the half shade
device of the field appear unequally dark.
5. Rotate the analyzing/analyzer nicol till two halves of the half shade device of the
6.
7.
8.
9.
field appear equally dark.

Take the reading on the scale.
Now note down the temperature of the sugar solution.
Repeat the step 1 to 7 with 5%, 10%, 15%,25% and 2.25% sugar solutions.
Note down the length of the tube (decimeters).
Observations :
Page | 17
Weight of sugar
..gm.
Weight of beaker
.gm.
Total weight of (sugar + beaker) =
.gm.
Length of the tube
.decimeter
Temperature
.0C
Concentration of the solution m/V =

S.
gm/cc
Sugar solution
Scale of reading
Per 100 Per cc
with solution
Ist
IInd
cc
position position position
No.
Rotations
Ist
Mean
IInd
Positio
n
Calculations :
The specific rotation
S =v/lm
Result :
The specific rotation of sugar solution
= .degrees.
Percentage Error :
Standard Value
Precautions and Sources of Error :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The wavelength of light and room temperature should be noted properly.

Make sure no air bubble inside the tube.
The polarimeter tube should be clean and dry.
The water should be pure ( without dust particles).
The position of the Half shade device should be set accurately.
Take the reading of equally dark position properly.
Page | 18
Experiment No. 6
Object :
To determine the wave length of sodium light using diffraction grating.
Apparatus :
a spectrometer, a diffraction grating of known grating element, sodium lamp and a
reading lens.
Theory and formula:
If light from a narrow slit, rendered parallel by a lens, is made to fall on the grating and
another lens employed to converge the rays issuing from the grating. We obtain an
image if the slit along the same direction as the incident rays. This is the image of the
zero order and has the same colour as the source of light. Surrounding this image on
either side are the images of the first order, the second order and so on. For
heterogeneous light we have the first order spectrum, the second order spectrum etc.,
on either side of the central image. If be the angle of diffraction in the order n for any
wavelength then.
Page | 19
Fig. 1
Sin
n
= -----------(e + d)
(e + d) sin
= -------------------------n
Thus, the necessary measurement with the grating for the determination of are the
angle of diffraction and the order of the spectrum n.
Procedure :
Make the preliminary mechanical and optical adjustments of the spectrometer. Then
proceed as follows :
Set the telescope and the collimator in a line so that the direct image of the slit falls on
the intersection of the cross-wires of the eye-piece of the telescope and lies in the
centre of the field of view. Note the reading for this position of the telescope on both the
verniers. Let it be on one of them. Next mount the grating with the help of its proper
clamping device so that its perpendicular to the line joining two of the leveling screws Q
and R. Now turn the telescope so that the reading of the vernier becomes + 90 0 and
clamp it. It means that the axes of the collimator and the telescope are now at right
angles to each other. Turn the grating with the help of the turn-table so that the crosswires of the eye-piece of the telescope.
Adjust the leveling screws Q and R.
if
necessary, to get the reflected image in the adjustments of the spectrometer are correct
it will be noticed that when the telescope is rotated through 180 0 from this position and
the turn-table carrying the grating also rotated to send the reflected image of the slit on
to the intersection of the cross-wires, the image occupies the centre of the field of view.
So when the collimator and the telescope axes are at right angles to each other and the
grating has been adjusted to send the reflected image on to the intersection of the
cross-wires, the incident rays on the grating are inclined at 45 0 to the plane of the
grating. Take the reading on the verniers. From this position rotate the turn-table
through 450 or 1350, as the case may be, so that the grating surface is normal to the
incident rays and faces the telescope.
Page | 20
Now it remains for us to see that the rulings of the grating are parallel to the main axis of
the instrument. When the axis of the telescope is parallel to that of the collimator, an
image of the slit will be seen lying with its centre on the intersection of the cross wires of
the telescope. Turn the telescope about the axis of the instrument until the diffracted
image of the first order is visible on the cross-wires of the telescope. If necessary,
adjust the leveling screw P so as to get the middle of the diffracted image on the
intersection of the cross-wires of the telescope.
When this adjustment has been
carefully attended to the centre of all diffracted images on either side of the direct image
will be found to lie on the intersection of the cross-wires of the telescope. Then the
rulings of the grating are parallel to the main axis of the instrument.
Finally, the slit should be parallel to the rulings of the grating. To carry out this setting,
adjust the telescope on a diffracted image and rotate the slit in its own plane till the
image observed becomes well defined and bright. Due care is necessary not to disturb
the collimating arrangement, i,e., the distance between the slit and the collimating lens
should remain unaltered as the slit is rotated.
For all these adjustments light from an incandescent filament lamp may be used.
Illuminate the slit with sodium light. Turn the telescope to get the first order image on
the left to the intersection of the cross-wires, final setting being done with the help of the
tangent screw or the telescope. Read the two verniers. Next turn the telescope to get
the first order image to the right on the intersection of the cross-wires and setting as
before, read the two verniers. The difference in the reading of the same vernier for the
two settings gives twice the angle of diffraction. Calculate its mean value. Use this and
the known grating element for the calculation of the wavelength of sodium light.
Repeat the experiment for the second order. Finally, calculate the mean wavelength by
taking the average of those obtained with the first order image and the second order
image.
Observations :
(A) Measurements of the angle of diffraction.
Value of one main scale division
= min.
Total number of vernier divisions
Least count
= .sec.
Page | 21
Order of spectrum
Vernier
Spectrum left of direct image
Difference of the
Mean value
two reading of
of
the same vernier
Main
Vernier
Total
Main
Vernier
Total
scale
reading
reading
scale
reading
reading
reading
Spectrum right of direct image
reading
V1
V2
V1
V2
(B) Determination of the grating element.

No. of lines
= .per inch
Grating element (e+d)
Calculations :
(e + d) sin / n = A0
Similar calculation for the second order spectrum.

Mean value of = ..A0
Result :
The mean wavelength of sodium light = A0
Sources of error and precautions :
1)
2)
3)
4)
The mechanical adjustments of the telescope should be correct.

The optical adjustment of the spectrometer must be made correctly.
The slit used should be as narrow as permissible.
In handling the grating do not touch the faces of the glass; hold it between
the thumb and the fingers by the edges.

5) The grating should be so set that its ruled surface faces the telescope and is
normal to the incident pencil. In this setting when the telescope and the
collimator axes are perpendicular, the reflected image brought on to the
Page | 22
intersection of the cross-wires should be one obtained by reflection from the

ruled surface. Care must be taken to select this, for two or more images are
sometimes observed. A mistake made here will be evident when the grating
has been rotated through 45 0 or 1350 for, now it will be observed that the
grating does not lie normal to the incident pencil coming from the collimator.
This faulty adjustment is apparent to the eye.
The turn-table should be properly rotated through 45 0 or 1350 so that the
grating faces the telescope. It is not to face the collimator.
6) At no time while taking observations should both the table and the telescope
be unclamped, i.e., while reading the movement of the table, the telescope
must be clamped and vice versa.
7) Read both the verniers; this eliminates any error due to non-coincidence of
the centre of the divided circle with the axis of rotation of the telescope or the
table.
8) Since the two lines of sodium will be resolved with the grating, the telescope
should be set on the same line in all the observations.
Page | 23
Experiment No. 7
Object :
To determine the compressibility of a liquid (e.g. Kerosene oil) by ultrasonic diffraction of
light.
Apparatus :
Radio frequency oscillator, glass cell with piezoelectric crystal attached on its side,
spectrometer, monochromatic light source, liquid.
Theory and formula:
Sound waves having frequencies above the limit of human audibility, i.e. frequency
greater than 20,000 Hz, are called ultrasonic waves or ultrasonics. The piezoelectric
crystal attached on a side in the glass cell, filled with liquid, is connected to a R.F.
oscillator. When the frequency of the oscillator is equal to the natural frequency of the
piezoelectric crystal, resonance occurs and ultrasonic waves of the same frequency is
produced in the liquid. The ultrasonic wave passing through a liquid is an elastic wave in
which compressions and rarefactions travel one behind the other regularly spaced
equally apart. The distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions is
the wavelength l of ultrasonic wave in the liquid.
Due to reflection at the opposite sides of the glass cell a stationary wave pattern is
obtained with nodes and antinodes formed at equally apart. Now the liquid serves as
an acoustic diffraction grating to the light incident normally on it and produces diffraction
of light according to the grating rule.
If is the wavelength of ultrasonic wave in air, l that in the liquid and n is the angle of
diffraction of the nth order, then
(a + b) sin n = n
Page | 24
In the present case, a + b = l , therefore,

l sin n
= n .. (i)
if f is the frequency of the ultrasonic wave and v its velocity in the liquid, then
f v = l .(ii)
thus, knowing and n and measuring the angle of diffraction, the wavelength of
ultrasonic wave in the liquid can be determined by using Eq. (ii).
It is known that the velocity of sound wave in a liquid is related to its bulk elasticity E by
the relation.
v = (E / ) .(iii)
where, is the density of liquid. Thus, knowing v we can calculate the bulk elasticity of
the liquid. The reciprocal of this bulk elasticity E is known as the compressibility K of
the liquid, i.e.,
K = 1/E ...(iv)
Thus, compressibility of the liquid can be determined by ultrasonic diffraction of liquid.
Procedure :
1. Adjust the spectrometer, so that a well collimated beam of light is obtained from
the collimator.
2. Mount the glass cell (with piezoelectric crystal fixed on one of its side ) on the
prism table and fill it by the given liquid upto of its height. The crystal should
be fully immersed in the liquid.
3. Adjust the prism table so that the front and back faces of the cell are exactly
normal to the incident light. Also make sure that the piezoelectric crystal in the
liquid is located in such a way that the ultrasonic waves generated by it travel in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of light.
4. Switch on the radio frequency oscillator and adjust its frequency to match with
the natural frequency of the crystal. When this happens, diffraction pattern is
observed in the spectrometer telescope.
5. Measure the angle 21 between the first order spectrum lines on either side of
the undeviated image of the slit. Also, measure 2 2, 23, .similarly.
6. Note down the frequency of r.f. oscillator at which diffraction pattern is obtained.
This is also the frequency of the ultrasonic wave in the liquid.
Page | 25
Observation and calculations :

Wavelength of light
Frequency of ultrasonic wave f
Density of liquid
S.
Order of
No.
diffraction
Vernier I
Vernier II
Mean n
n
l = ----------Sin n
Velocity of ultrasonic wave in liquid v l = f =

Bulk Elasticity E = v2
Compressibility K = 1/E = .. N/m2
Result :
(i)
(ii)
Velocity of ultrasonic wave in the liquid

Compressibility of the liquid
= .m/s
= N/m2
Sources of errors and Precautions :

1) Care should be taken to make sure that the liquid is completely stationary before
experiment is started.
2) The piezoelectric crystal should be completely immersed in the liquid.
3) The incident light should be perfectly normal to the direction of propagation of
ultrasonic wave in the liquid.
4) The light used should be monochromatic.
5) As the angles measured is extremely small, angles should be observed very
carefully.
Page | 26
Experiment No. 8
Object :
To determine the value of modulus of rigidity of the material of a given wire with
Maxwells needle - dynamical method.
Apparatus :
Maxwells needle, a fairly thin and long wire of the material to be tested, clamps and
chucks, screw gauge, a meter scale, a stop watch, a balance and a weight box.
Description of Apparatus
Suspended horizontally by a vertical wire attached to its middle point and carrying within
it four cylinders made of rolled brass and each of length L/4. The four cylinders are
identical in dimensions. The two of them are solid and equal in mass, and the
remaining two are hollow and also equal in mass.
Theory and formula:

Let the two hollow cylinders be placed in the middle and the solid ones at the two ends
of the tube and let the combination be slightly rotated in a horizontal plane and then
released. The body will then execute S.H. M., about the wire as the axis and the period
of oscillation is given by
T1 = 2 I1/c ..(1)
Where I1 is the moment of inertia of combination about the wire as the axis and c the
restoring couple per unit twist due to torsional reaction.
Now let the positions of the hollow and solid cylinder be interchanged so that the solid
cylinders are now in the middle.
Then, if I 2 is the moment of inertia of the new
combination about the axis of rotation, the new period of oscillation is given by
T2 = 2 I2/c ..(2)
Squaring Eqs. (1) and (2) and subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1), we get
Page | 27
T12 T22 = 4 2/c ( I1 I2)

4 2 (I1 I2)
Whence
= -----------------------------T12 T22
But c is also equal to nr4/2l, where r is the radius and l the length of the wire whose
modulus of rigidity is n
n r4
Hence
4 2 (I1 I2)
-------- = --------------------T12 T22
2l
8 l (I1 I2)
or
n = --------------------------- (3)
r4 ( T12 T22 )
Now let m1 and m2 be the masses of each of the hollow and the solid cylinders
respectively and I0, I and I be the moments of inertia of the hollow tube, the hollow
cylinder and the solid cylinder respectively about a vertical axis passing through their
middle points. Then, if L is the length of the hollow tube,
I1 = I0 + 2I + 2m1 (L/8)2 + 2I + 2m2 (3L/8)2
and
I2 = I0 + 2I + 2m2 (L/8)2 + 2I + 2m1 (3L/8)2
hence
I1 I2 = 2m2 [ (3L/8)2 (L/8)2 ] 2m1 [(2L/8)2 (L/8)2]

= (m2 m1) L2 /4
Putting this value of (I1 I2) in Eq. (3)

2 l (m 2 m1)L2
= ------------------------------ .(4)
r4 (T12 T22)
This expression can be used to find the value of modulus of rigidity n of the material of
the suspension wire.
Page | 28
Procedure :
Suspend a wire of about 50 cm, length and 0.1 cm. in diameter of the material whose
modulus of rigidity is required from a rigid support, and to its lower end fasten with a
suitable chuck and a clamp the hollow tube of the Maxwells needle at its middle point
so that it may remain horizontal. Place all the four cylinders of the Maxwells needle
inside the hollow tube, the tow hollow cylinders being in the middle and no portion of the
solid cylinder should be projecting outside the tube. Then fix a light pointer in the
middle of the needle and place a strip of mirror with a straight line mark below the
pointer in the equilibrium position.
Rotate the Maxwells needle slightly in a horizontal plane and then release it, it will
perform torsional oscillations. Begin timing the oscillations of the Maxwells needle with
an accurate stop-watch by observing the transits of the pointer past the mark on the
mirror when viewed vertically.
Determine twice the time for a large number of
oscillations, say 30 and take at least two sets of observations with different number of
oscillations and thus find out the mean value of T1.
Now interchange the positions of the hollow and solid cylinders fifing them properly
inside the tube. Again set the Maxwells needle oscillating in a horizontal plane and
determine the period T2 as before. T2 will be less than T1.
Next measure the length of the hollow tube and that of the wire between the two clamps
by a meter scale. Than measure with a screw gauge the diameter of the wire, now to
find out (m2 m1) put one solid cylinder in the left pan of a physical balance and one
hollow cylinder in its right pan, and by putting extra weights in the right pan, find the
difference between the masses of the two cylinders. Similarly determine the difference
between the masses of the other two cylinders. From these two weighing, find out the
mean value of (m2 m1).
If a balance of high capacity and suitable sensitivity is
available, the value of (m 2 m1) may be found by a single weighing. Finally calculate
the value of modulus of rigidity of the material of the wire from equation (4).
Observations :
Page | 29
(A) Determination of T1 and T2

Least count of stop-watch = ..sec.
S. No.
No. of
oscillation
s
1
2
3
4
5
Mean
(B) (i) Length of the wire
Determination of T1
Time taken
Min.
Sec.
T1 sec.
Determination of T2
Time taken
Min.
Sec.
Mean
= .cm.
(ii) Measurement of diameter of the wire
= cm.
(iii) least count of screw gauge
= ....cm.
Zero Error
= cm.
S. No.
T2 sec.
Reading along any
Reading along
diameter
perpendicular diameter
a+b
cm.
cm.
cm.
Mean uncorrected diameter

Mean corrected diameter
= cm.
(C) (i) length of the hollow tube
= .cm.
(ii) Determination of (m1 m2)

Difference between the masses of one solid and one hollow cylinder =..gm.
Difference between the masses of other pair of solid and
hollow cylinder= ...gm.
Mean value of (m2 m1) = .gm.
Calculations :
Mean radius of the wire
= .cm.
2 l (m 2 m1)L2
n
= -----------------------------r4 (T12 T22)

= .dynes/cm2
Result :
Page | 30
The value of modulus of rigidity for the material of the wire
=. dynes/cm2
Standard value
= ... dynes/cm2
Error
= ..%
Sources of error and precautions :1. The two sets of cylinders should be exactly identical and the hollow tube should
be clamped exactly in the middle.
2. The Maxwells needle should always remain horizontal so that the moment of
inertia of the hollow tube about the axis of rotation remains unaltered throughout
the whole experiment. Hence while placing the cylinders inside the tube, no
portion of them should be left projecting outside the hollow tube.
3. The motion of the Maxwells needle should be purely rotational in a horizontal
plane. All undesirable motions (up and down, or pendular) should be completely
checked.
4. As in the expression for n the periods occur raised to the second power, they
must be carefully measured by timing a large number of oscillations with an
accurate stop-watch upto an accuracy of say, 0.1 of a second.
5. The wire should not be twisted beyond elastic limit otherwise the restoring couple
due to torsioanl reaction will not be proportional to value of the twist.
6. There should be no kinks in the wire. The wire should be fairly long and thin
particularly when the rigidity is high so that the restoring couple per unit twist due
to torsional reaction may be small and hence the period of oscillation of the
Maxwells needle is large.
7. In the expressional for n the radius occurs raised to the fourth power and is a
very small quantity usually of the order of 0.1 cm. Hence the diameter must be
measured very accurately. Readings should be taken at several points equally
spaced along the wire and two diameters at right angles to each other should be
measured at each point, care being taken not to compress the wire in taking the
readings.
Experiment No. 9
Object :
To find the wave length of He-Ne laser using transmission diffraction grating.
Apparatus :
He-Ne Laser, Diffraction grating, screen, stands, meter scale and power supply.
Theory and formula:
Page | 31
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation,

When a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wave length be incident normally on a
diffraction grating. It is diffracted by the diffraction grating. The principal maxima of n th
order is given by
Fig. - 1
(e + d) sin n = n
(e + d) sin n
= ------------------------n
where,
the width of each slit
the width of each opaque space between two slits
an angle of (Diffraction)
order
(e+d) =
grating element (inch)
(e+d) =
2.54/N per cm.
No. of lines on a grating per inch.
Procedure :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Set the He-Ne laser source horizontally.

Place the diffraction grating between He-Ne laser source and screen.
Find out the principal maximum, Ist and IInd order maximum.
Page | 32
(iv)
Now measure the distance between diffraction grating and screen that is D
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(cm.)
Measure the distance from principal maximum to Ist maximum that is d (n=1).
Now find out the value of Sin 1 by formula.
Repeat the steps 1 6 three times for different distance D and note down the
reading.
Observations :
No. of lines on the Diffraction grating N = ..per inch.
2.54
Grating Element
(e + d)
= ------------ per cm.

N
S. No.
Order n
Distance between
Distance of
screen and diffraction
maximum from
D (cm.) D (cm.)
central point O
grating
(dn) cm.
dn
Sin n = ------------(D2 + dn2)
1
2
3
4
5
If D >> dn than,
Sin n = dn / D
Calculations :
n = (e + d) Sin n
(e + d) Sin n
= ---------------------- A0
n
Than, find out
(e + d)
= ..per cm.
= ..
Sin n
= ..
=.. A0
=.. A0
Page | 33
=.. A0
( 1 + 2 + 3 )
Mean = ----------------------------
= .. A0
Result :
The wave-length of He-Ne laser = .. A0
Percentage Error :
Standard Value
Precaution & Sources of Error :
1) The plane diffraction grating should be very close to the He-Ne laser source.
2) The He-Ne laser source should be Horizontal. The grating element (e+d) should
be in cm.
3) Adjust the distances between diffraction grating and screen properly.
4) Ruled surface of the diffraction grating should be vertical.
5) The diffraction grating should be handled by the edges.
Experiment No. 10
Object :
To determine the frequency of a tuning fork by means of a sonometer.
Apparatus :
Sonometer with weights, tuning fork, meter rod, balance, paper riders and a rubber
cork.
Theory and formula:
A sonometer is a long, hollow wooden box, having two fixed knife-edges A and B and a
edge C. a wire has its one end tied to a hook H, the other end passes over a smooth
frictionless pulley P and carries a load. If C be removed and the wire pressed at the
middle and let go, it vibrates as a whole in one segment with nodes at A and B and an
Page | 34
antinode midway between them. If the wire is held at the middle and one segment
pressed and let go, it vibrates in two segemtns. If held at the one third and the shorter
segment pressed, it vibrates in three segments and so on.
(Sonometer)
Now n = v/, also for a stretched string
v = (T/m)
where T is the tension on it and m = mass of 1 cm. of wire.
or
n = 1/ (T/m)
in general
n = p/2l (T/m), {where p ( No. of loops ) = 1,2,3,4 . }
the length of wire, l = /2 i.e., = 2 l
Fig. 1
Procedure :
(i) Place the sonometer on the table and stretch the wire with a load of 2 kg. Hold
the tuning fork, which has been set vibrating by striking its prong on a rubber
cork, against one ear and pluck the wire.
(ii) Adjust the length of the vibrating segment of the wire by sliding the movable
knife-edge C, till the two sounds - that of the wire and that of the fork appear
alike, if the ear is not musically trained, it is of help to put a thin paper rider on the
middle of the wire AC and place the handle of the vibrating fork firmly on the
sonometer board. When the frequency of the wire is set vibrating and the paper
is violently thrown off.
Page | 35
(iii) For greater accuracy, vibrate the wire as well as the fork and try to listen to
beats between the two sounds.
The beats are then made to disappear by
sliding C. the two frequencies are now equal.

(iv) Perform the experiment thrice and determine the mean length l = AC. Repeat
the observation with various loads put on the wire.
(v) Take a measured length of wire and determine its weight accurately and hence
find m, the mass of 1 cm, of wire.
Observations :
S. No.
Length of wire
= .cm.
Mass of wire
= gm.
Mass/length
= gm.
Load or Tension M
Vibrating length l
(grams)
(cm.)
n = 1/2l (Mg/m)
Calculations :
n = 1/2l (Mg/m)
Result :
The frequency of the tuning fork = .. cycles/sec.
Sources of Error and Precautions :
1. The wire should be stretched horizontally i.e. A, B, C and the pulley must all be in
one plane.
2. The tuning fork should never be struck on a hard surface. Its tip should be struck
gently on a rubber cork.
3. The beats must be eliminated to determine the correct vibrating length.
Weak Points :
1. The resonance point may not be exact.
2. The frequency of the fork may differ slightly from the value marked on it.
Page | 36
Experiment No. 11
NAME
Study of Numerical Aperture of Optical fiber.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to measure the numerical aperture of the plastic fiber
provided with the kit using 660 nm wavelength LED.
THEORY
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the fiber
end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone
formed by the rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone acceptance of
the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance, else it is
refracted out of the fiber core.
CONSIDERATIONS IN N.A. MEASUREMENT
1 It is very important that the optical source should be properly aligned with the
cable & distance from the launched point & the cable is properly selected to
ensure that the maximum amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.
2 This experiment is best performed in a less illuminated room.
Page | 37
EQUIPMENTS
Experimental Kit Fiber Link A, 1 meter fiber cable, Fiber holding fixture, Ruler.
PROCEDURE
1 Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V. Do not remove the cap from the
connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tighten
the cap by screwing it back.
2 Now short the jumpers as shown in the jumper diagram. Remove jumper caps of
JP7&JP*.
3 Connect the power cord to the kit & switch on the power supply. Keep switch
near power connector at lower position.
4 Apply SQUARE O/P signal to BUFI/P & short O/P to TX I/P.
5 Insert the other end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig.
Hold the white sheet facing the fiber. Adjust the fiber such that its cut face is
perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
6 Keep the distance of about 10mm between the fiber tip and the screen. Gently
tighten the screw and thus fix the fiber in the place.
7 Now observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen.
8 Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal diameters
MR and PN indicated in the fig.
9 Mean radius is calculated using the following formula
R = (MR + PN)/4
10. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula
NA = sin max = r / (d2 + r2)
Where max is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly
transmitted through the fiber.
Experiment No. 1
Object :
To determine the value of e/m of electron by J.J. Thomson method.
Apparatus :
Cathode ray tube with its power supply, pair of bar magnets, compass box, wooden
stand to place bar magnets.
Theory and formula:
C.R. tube is basically made up of there components :
1. Electron gun : Its function is to produce, accelerate and focus the emitted
electrons in to a narrow beam.
2. Deflecting system :Its function is to deflect the e beam either electronically or
magnetically.
3. Fluorescent screen : Beam of e impinges on its to produce a visible spot.
Page | 38
If V is the potential difference between deflecting plates separated by distance d

then value of e/m is given by
e
-----------m
yV
-------------------LldH 2
Where, V = P.d between deflecting plates

d = Seperation between plates
l = length of deflection plates
L = distance of screen from edges of plates
H = Intensity of magnetic field,
y = deflection of the spot.
Cathode Ray Tube

Procedure :
Part- A
1) A Mark the North- South line using a compass needle and place C.R. tube in the
wooden stand such that its axis lie along North-South line and wooden stand
towards East-West line.
2) Connect CR tube to power supply and switch on it to get a bright spot on the
screen. Adjust the brightness and focus control so as to get a narrow, focused
bright spot.
3) Read the initial reading of the spot on the scale and apply suitable deflection in
upward direction so that total deflection is about 0.5 to 1.0 cm.
4) Note the applied deflecting voltage. Let it be V.
Page | 39
5) Now place bar magnets symmetrically on either side of C.R. tube so their
apposite poles face each other and the line joining their axis is exactly
perpendicular to the axis of C.R. tube.
6) Adjust distance and polarity of the magnets so that spot comes back to its initial
position as in step (3) Note the distance of the poles of the magnets on the scale
fixed on wooden stand say r1 and r2.
7) Remove the magnets and reverse the voltage applied to deflecting plates PQ.
Now initial deflection would be reversed. Now repeat the step (3).
8) Place the magnets again on the stand and adjust them to get the initial reading.
Note the distances of poles of magnets say it be r 1 and r2.
Part B : To Measure magnetic field H :
1. Remove C.R. tube and magnets from the stand and place a deflection
magnetometer compass box so that its centre lie on the point of intersection of
common axis of bar magnet and axis of cathode ray tube. Adjust the pointer to
read O O.
2. Now place bar magnets exactly in the same position as in step (6) at distances r 1
and r2 respectively. Read both the ends of pointer and let it be 1 and 2.
3. Again place the magnets exactly in the same position as in step (8) at r 1 and r2
respectively and let it be 1 and 2.
4. Mean deflection for deflecting voltage V is calculated.
1+2+1+2
= ----------------------4
So that magnetic field H = He tan .
Where
He = earths horizontal component of field at the experimental place.
5. For various sets vary the deflecting voltage (V) and repeat the whole procedure
as given above.
Observations :
Separation between plates
Length of deflection plates
Distance of screen from edges of deflecting plate
Horizontal component of earths magnetic field at the place
d = .cm.
l = ...cm
L= ..cm.
He =.oersted
1) Deflection y for different values of voltage V.

S
.
N
o
Appl
ied
volt
age
Direct Field
Position of spot
Pole and distance
Reversed field
Position of Spot
Pole and distance
Page | 40
V
Initia
l
Fin
al
Deflectio
n
= y2 y1=cm
Pol
e
r1
c
m
.
Pole
r2
cm
.
Initia
l y1
Fin
al
y2
Deflectio
n
y2 y1
=y1
Pol
e
r1
cm
.
Pol
e
r2
cm.
1
.
2
.
3
.
For determination of B :
S. No.
Applied
voltage V
Reading of two ends points

1
Reading of two ends of

points
3
4
Mean =
1 + 2 + 1 + 2
4
1.
2.
3.
Calculations :
H
= He tan
1.
e/m
V 1 X y1
= ---------------- C/Kg.
L l d H 12
2.
e/m
V 2 X y2
= ---------------- C/Kg.
Lld H22
3.
e/m
V 3 X y3
= ---------------- C/Kg.
Lld H32
Mean of e/m = . C/Kg.

Result :
e/m for an electron ..C/Kg.
Percentage Error :
% Error
Standard value observed value

= ------------------------------------------------- X 100 = .%
Standard Value
Page | 41
Precautions and sources of error :

1) CR tube must be placed in north south direction.
2) Luminour spot on the screen must be bright, sharp and in the middle of
the screen.
3) Axis of magnates and axis of C.R tube must be exactly perpendicular.
4) Deflecting voltage must give deflection within range 0.5 1.0 cm.
Experiment No. : 2
Object : To measure fine the low resistance by Carey Foster Bridge.
Apparatus :
Carey Foster Bridge, a Laclanche cell, two equal resistance, thick copper strips, a
factional resistance box, galvanometer, unknown small resistance wires, a single way
plug Key etc.
Theory And Formula :

Page | 42
Carey Fasters bridge is specially suited for the comparison of two nearly equal
resistance whose difference is less than the resistance of the bridge wire.
Carey Foster bridge is a modified form of slide wire bridge in which P and Q are ratio
arms, X is resistance between (A & D) and Y is resistance (C&D)
If K be the resistance per unit length of wire, 1 & 2 be the end resistances at A and B
and AD = l is balancing length as shown in Fig. 1(a)
There we have
P
--------Q
X+l 1k+1
----------------------------Y + (100 l 1 )k + 2
(1)
If, X and Y are interchanged and the balance point shifts to D as shown Fig. 1(b) so that
AD = l2.
P
Y + l2K + 1
Than
------- = -------------------------------------- (2)
Q
X + (100 l1)K + 2
Compare (i) and (ii) and add one to both sides, get
X+Y+100K+ 1 + 2
-------------------------------- =
Y + (100 l1)K + 2
or
or
Y + (100 l1)K + 2
X+Y+100K+ 1 + 2
-----------------------------X + (100 l2)K + 2
= X + (100 l2)K + 2
X Y = (l 2 l1)K
Where X is unknown resistance (l 2 l1) is shift in balance point, when position of X and
Y are interchanged. In general, let d 1 and d2 be the shift corresponding to resistance Y 1
and Y2 than
X Y1 = d1K .(3)
Page | 43
X Y2 = d2 K (4)
From equation (3) and (4)
X Y1
d1
------------- = -----X Y2
d2
we have,
d2X d2Y1 = d1 (X Y2)

(d2 d1) X = d2 Y1 d1Y2
d2Y1 d1Y2
X = ----------------------d 2 d1
Procedure :
1) Make connections as shown Fig. (a) and (b).
2) When the circuit completed keep X and Y at zero value and find balance point.
Interchange X & Y and again find balance. The difference between these two
reading gives correction l to be applied to the various readings.
3) Replace strip of gap 1 by unknown resistance X and strip of gap 4 by Y. Find
balance point.
4) Repeat step 3 for Y = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 etc.
Observations :
Correction to be applied, l = cm.
S.
No.
Known
resistance
Y (ohm.)
Position of balance point

with in
Left gap l1
Right gap l2
Difference
(l1 l2)
Corrected Shift
d = (l1 l2) - l
Unknown
resistance ()
d2Y1 d1Y2
X = ------------------d2 d1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Page | 44
Calculations :
The unknown resistance
d 2 d 1 y2
X = -------------------------d 2 d1
here d1 and d2 be the shift corresponding to resistance y1 and y2.
Results :
Find value of X using reading of observations 1 & 2, 2&3, 3&4 ..and so on.
Percentage Error :
% error = ---------------------------------------------- X 100 = %
Standard Value

1) All the terminals should be tight and the ends of the connecting wires should be
clean.
2) A plug key should be included in the cell circuit and should be closed when
observation are being made.
3) The cell circuit should be closed depressing the jockey over the bridge wire, but
when breaking, reverse order should be followed.
4) The connections should be tight and the plugs of the resistance box should be
given twist so that they are tight.
5) The connecting wires and the copper strip should be thoroughly cleaned with
sand papers.
6) For bridge to have high sensitivity, the resistance of the four arms should be of
the same order.
7) The difference between P and Q should not be more than the resistance of the
bridge wire.
Experiment No. : 3
Object :
To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor and to find out the time constant.
Apparatus :
Charging and discharging kit, stop watch and Connecting Leads.
Theory and Formula :

A Capacitor is a passive device that stores energy in its Electric Field and returns energy to the
circuit whenever required. A Capacitor consists of two Conducting Plates separated by an
Page | 45
Insulating Material or Dielectric. Figure 1 and Figure 2 are the basic structure and the schematic
symbol of the Capacitor respectively.
Figure 1: Basic structure of the Capacitor
Figure 2: Schematic symbol of the Capacitor

When a Capacitor is connected to a circuit with Direct Current (DC) source, two processes,
which are called charging and discharging the Capacitor, will happen in specific conditions.
In Figure 3, the Capacitor is connected to the DC Power Supply and Current flows through the
circuit. Both Plates get the equal and opposite charges and an increasing Potential Difference, v c,
is created while the Capacitor is charging. Once the Voltage at the terminals of the Capacitor, v c,
is equal to the Power Supply Voltage, v c = V, the Capacitor is fully charged and the Current stops
flowing through the circuit, the Charging Phase is over.
Page | 46
Figure 3: The Capacitor is Charging

A Capacitor is equivalent to an Open-Circuit to Direct Current, R = , because once the
Charging Phase has finished, no more Current flows through it. The Voltage vc on a Capacitor
cannot change abruptly.
When the Capacitor disconnected from the Power Supply, the Capacitor is discharging through
the Resistor RD and the Voltage between the Plates drops down gradually to zero, vc = 0, Figure
4.
Figure 4: The Capacitor is Discharging

In Figures 3 and 4, the Resistances of RC and RD affect the charging rate and the discharging rate
of the Capacitor respectively.
The product of Resistance R and Capacitance C is called the Time Constant , which
characterizes the rate of charging and discharging of a Capacitor, Figure 5.
Page | 47
Figure 5: The Voltage vc and the Current iC during the Charging Phase and Discharging Phase
The smaller the Resistance or the Capacitance, the smaller the Time Constant, the faster the
charging and the discharging rate of the Capacitor, and vice versa.
Capacitors are found in almost all electronic circuits. They can be used as a fast battery. For
example, a Capacitor is a storehouse of energy in photoflash unit that releases the energy quickly
during short period of the flash.
Observations and Calculations :

Max voltage of capacitor
S. No.
Resistance
R ()
= .. Volts
Capacitance
C (F)
T1 charging
(sec.)
T2 (discharging)
(sec.)
RC
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Result :
Experimental value of time constant is within percentage error limits.

1) The electrical connections should be made carefully.
2) Time for charging and discharging should be noted very carefully.
3) Product of R and C should not be very small.
Page | 48
Experiment No. : 4
Object :
To study the thermo e.m.f. using thermocouple.
Apparatus :
A Iron-constantan thermocouple, thermocouple kit, a water bath, a funnel, a clamp, a
two way key, ice, beaker and connecting wire.
Theory and Formula :

Thermoelectricity refers to the phenomena that occur at the junctions of dissimilar
conductors when a temperature difference exists between the junctions. The same
phenomenon occurs within a single conductor too, with the two ends are maintained at
different temperatures.
In this section, we discuss three such phenomena, namely Seebeck effect, Peltier effect
and Thomson effect, discovered historically in this order. These involve conversion of
thermal energy into electrical energy or voce versa.Umber the Joule effect, all the above
three effects are reversible with respect to the direction of the current and reversal of
temperature difference. The Seebeck effect is a combination of Peltier and Thomson
effects.
Seebeck Effect
This effect is named after common Johann Seebeck, a German physicist, who
discovered it in 1821. He found that Bismuth, are joined at their ends (called a junction)
through a sensitive galvanometer, and the two junctions are kept at different
temperatures, then the galvanometer shows a deflection. This emf generated in the
circuit is called thermoelectric emf or thermo-emf, for short. The resulting current is
known as thermoelectric current. The two junction circuit is called a thermocouple, and
is known below.
This effect is called thermoelectric effect because heat energy is directly converted into
electrical energy.
Page | 49
The thermo-emf produced is very small, of the order of mV per every degree of
temperature difference. The Seebeck effect is reversible, i.e., if the hot and cold
junctions are interchanged, the direction of emf (and hence current) reverses.
The magnitude and direction of thermo-emf depends on the materials forming the
thermocouple and the temperatures of the 2 junctions.
Seebeck conducted a number of experiments by forming thermocouples of different
metals. He arranged the metals in a series such that in a thermocouple formed from any
two of them, current will flow from a metal earlier in the series to the one later in the
series through the cold junction. This is called the thermoelectric series. Part of the
series is:
Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Au, Cr, Sn, Pb, Cu, Co, Ni, Bi.
The greater the separation of the metals forming the thermocouple in the series, greater
is the thermo emf produced.
It is found that emf of a thermocouple AB is the difference between the emfs of two
thermocouples AC and BC, provided the junctions are held at the same temperatures.
The thermo emf of e many thermocouples has been measured as a function of the
temperature T of the hot junction, when the cold junction is maintained at 0 oC. Its
temperature dependence is given by
Where a and b are constants (called thermoelectric coefficients) which depends on the
nature of the metals.
This temperature dependence is an approximate empirical relation valid over a limited
temperature range.
Neutral temperature and Inversion Temperature
The diagram below shows an arrangement to study the effect of temperature difference
between the two junctions in a Cu-Fe thermocouple .
Page | 50
Keeping the junction B at 0 oC, the temperature of junction A is increased. The graph
below shows the variation of the thermo emf with the temperature of hot junction, with
the cold junction at 0oC.
When both the junctions are at the same temperature, there is no thermo emf junction
increases. The thermo emf increases with temperature and reaches a maximum value
at a certain temperature, called the neutral temperature Tn.
The value of the neutral temperature is constant for a thermocouple, depends on the
nature of materials and is independent of the temperature of the cold junction.
As the temperature of the hot junction is increased, the thermo emf starts decreasing
instead of increasing. The particular temperature at which, the thermo emf becomes
zero is called the inversion temperature. On heating slightly further, the direction of the
thermo emf is reversed, as the number densities of both the metals used are reversed.
Therefore, the current reverses direction. This temperature depends on the temperature
of the cold junction and the nature of the material.
The thermo electric power (also called Seebeck coefficient) is given by
i.e. S a T
Page | 51
When T = 0,
This shows that thermoelectric power is independent of the temperature of the cold
junction.
The neutral temperature (Tn) is when the thermo emf is the maximum.
This gives
a + b Tn = 0
For Cu-Fe thermocouple, Tn is ~518oF. For most pure metal thermocouples, the neutral
temperature is much higher. For those made with alloys, b is small and the thermo - emf
varies almost linearly with temperature over a wide range of temperature.
To obtain an expression for Ti, we have to put e = 0.
Expressions for Ti and Tn show that the inversion temperature T i is twice the neutral
temperature Tn.
Procedure :
1) Connect hot junction terminal of thermocouple to +ve lead of Digital
Microvoltmeter & Cold Junction terminal of thermocouple to ve lead of Digital
Microvoltmeter.
2) Put one junction (-ve) of the iron constantan in funnel full of ice & other junction
(=ve) of thermocouple in test tube containing glycerin, put the test tube on sand
bath thermometer in test tube. Further put partition cum wooden stand in the
middle.
3) Heat the sand bath with burner and note down the reading of Digital
Microvoltmeter.
4) Put out the burner and note the reading while cooling. Take mean of digital
Microvoltmeter read ng during increasing temperature & decreasing temperature
at various temperatures.
5) Put a curve between temperature ( along X-axis) corresponding to thermo e.m.f.
developed at various temperature (along the X-axis).
Page | 52
Observation Table :
Temperature of the cold junction = . 0C
Table : 1
S. No.
Temperature of Hot Junction

As shown by
Above cold junction
0
thermometer 0C
C
Thermo e.m.f. = Volts
Table : 2
S. No.
Temperature of the
hot junction (0C)
Balance point length

of potentiometer wire l
(cm.)
Thermo e.m.f.
= P X l (mV.)
Result :
e.m.f. measured by potentiometer = .mV
Percentage Error :
% error = ---------------------------------------------- X 100 = %
Standard Value
Precautions and Sources of Errors :

1) The accumulator should be fully charged and its e.m.f. should remain constant
while observations are being made.
2) The keys should be closed only when observation are to be made.
3) The ends of the connecting wires should be properly cleaned with a sand paper.
As the thermo e.m.f. to be measured is small, bad contacts will lead to
troublesome difficulties.
4) The potential difference across the potentiometer wire should not be greater than
the maximum e.m.f. of the thermocouple.
5) To protect the standard cell, a high resistance of about 10 k should be
connected the series with it. This will prevent large currents from being taken
from the cell. When its e.m.f. is nearly balanced, the resistance is removed and
the final adjustment is made without it.
6) In the thermocouple, the wires of the two metals should be in contact at the
junction only and the contact should be good.
7) The galvanometer should be very sensitive.
8) The hot junction should be kept away from the rest of the contacts of the circuit.
9) The contact between the jockey and the wire should not be made while the
former is being moved along. The contact should be momentary.
Page | 53
Experiment No. : 5
Object :
To measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves in organic liquid (Kerosene Oil).
Apparatus :
R. F. oscillator, piezo electric crystal, spectrometer ( ultrasonic), glass cell, light source
(sodium lamp).

When ultrasonic waves are passed through a liquid, a diffraction pattern similar to those
as observed in ruled grating is formed.
The ultrasonic waves passing through a liquid are elastic waves and forms
compressions and rarefactions in the liquid. These compressions and rarefactions after
reflection form sides of a cell form a stationary wave pattern in which nodes and
antinodes are spaced periodically. Due to this density and hence refractive index of
medium also shows periodic variation with distance from the source along the direction
of propagation of as diffraction grating [where grating element (a+b) equal to wave
length of ultrasonic wave i.e. u ]. Such a grating is known as acoustic grating.
When the crystal is at rest, a single image of the slit is observed. But when ultrasonic
waves are produced in the liquid, a number of diffracted images appear on either side of
the central image. The angular separation between the direct image of the slit and the
diffracted image of any order, say `n is measured.
Using the theory of diffraction grating the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be
calculated.
If is the wavelength of the sodium light then.
n sin n
= n
n
= -------------Sin n
If v is the frequency of ultrasonic oscillations.
The velocity of ultrasonic wave, in
liquid V can be written as

V = v n
Procedure :
1. Setting of spectrometer
(a) Rotate the telescope and focus it on some distant object. Make clear image
of distant object with the help of rack and pinion arrangement. The telescope
Page | 54
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
is in a position to focus parallel beam of rays coming from distant object at

focus. Do not disturb this position through out the observations.
(b) Bring telescope in line with the collimator. Illuminate the slit of collimator with
light source (sodium light ) and adjust its width with the help of adjusting
screw provided on the slit. Look through the telescope and adjust rack and
pinion arrangement of collimator till a clear image of slit is observed. In this
position, the collimator is providing parallel beam of rays.
Setting of glass cell : mount the glass cell on the prism table and fill it with the
given liquid upto of its height. Turn the prism table the front and back faces of
cell are perpendicular to the incident light.
Immerse the piezoelectric crystal in the liquid and rotate it such that the
ultrasonic waves generated by it travel in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light. Connect the crystal to the output terminal of the
R.F. oscillator.
Switch on the R.F oscillator and adjust its frequency to match with the natural
frequency of the crystal. At this instant resonance takes place and diffraction
pattern will be observed in the spectrometer telescope. Usually five line including
slit are seen in the telescope on either side.
Measure angle 21 between first order spectral line similarly 2 2, 2 3 and so on
between higher order spectral lines on either side of central maxima. Note down
the frequency of RF oscillator.
Repeat for higher order maxima.
Observations and calculations :

Page | 55
Wave length of sodium length ()
5893A0
Room temperature
.. 0C
Frequency of R.F. Oscillator v
Hz
Density of oil
gm/cc
(for kerosene = 0.8 gm/cc)
Observation Table :
S. No.
Order of
Position of image
diffraction
ba
Mean n
n = --------
pattern (n)
n
lu = -------
sin n
Mean value of u = m
Velocity of ultrasonic V = v u = .. m/sec.
Result :
Velocity of ultrasonic waves travelling in liquid is found to be ..m/sec.
Percentage Error :
% error = ---------------------------------------------- X 100 = %
Standard Value
% error in the velocity of the ultrasound is .. m/sec.
Precautions and Sources of Errors :

1) The spectrometer should be adjusted carefully and rack and pinion
arrangement of telescope should not be disturbed throughout the
observations.
2) Cell should be thoroughly cleaned and filled with liquid upto of its height.
3) The crystal slab should be immersed completely in liquid and should not
touch to bottom and wall of the cell.
4) The crystal slab should be rotated till the ultrasonic waves produced by it
travel perpendicular to incident light.
5) Frequency of R.F oscillator should be adjusted properly for resonance.
6) Pattern should be narrow and sharp.
Experiment No. : 6
Page | 56
Object :
To study the different wave form like sine wave & square wave and measure the Vp-p,
Vp, Vrms, Amplitude, Time period and frequency by oscilloscope.
Apparatus :
CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope), two function generator, connecting leads etc.

CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) cathode-ray oscilloscope, electronic-display
device containing a cathode-ray tube (CRT) that generates an electron beam that is
used to produce visible patterns, or graphs, on a phosphorescent screen. The graphs
plot the relationships between two or more variables, with the horizontal axis normally
being a function of time and the vertical axis usually a function of the voltage generated
by the input signal to the oscilloscope. Because almost any physical phenomenon can
be converted into a corresponding electric voltage through the use of a transducer.
Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of
this graph is determined by the nature
of the input signal.
In addition to the properties labelled on
the graph, there is frequency which is
the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but
these properties apply to any signal
with a constant shape.
Amplitude is the maximum

It is measured in volts, V.
voltage
reached
by
the
signal.
Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an

oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
RMS voltage ( root means square voltage ) : Vrms = VP / 2
Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds
(ms) and microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and
1s = 0.000001s.
Frequency
is
the
number
of
cycles
per
second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz)
and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.
Page | 57
frequency =
1
time period
and
time period =
1
frequency
The trace of an AC signal

Y AMPLIFIER: 2V/cm
TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm
Example measurements:
peak-peak voltage = 8.4V
amplitude voltage = 4.2V
time period = 20ms
frequency = 50Hz
Procedure :
Voltage
Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it
can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the
peak-peak voltage.
If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you must check the position of 0V
(normally halfway up the screen): move the AC/GND/DC switch to GND (0V) and use YSHIFT (up/down) to adjust the position of the trace if necessary, switch back to DC
afterwards so you can see the signal again.
Voltage
=
distance
in
cm
Example:
peak-peak
voltage
=
4.2cm
amplitude (peak voltage) = peak-peak voltage = 4.2V
2V/cm
volts/cm
=
8.4V
Time period
Page | 58
Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the TIMEBASE
(TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle
of the signal. The frequency is the number of cyles per second, frequency = 1/time
period
Observation Table :
For sine wave
S.
No.
Amplitude
Cm. V multiplier
Vp-p
Cm.
V multiplier
Vp-p
Cm.
V multiplier
Vp = Vp-p / 2
Vrms = Vp / 2
Vp = Vp-p / 2
Vrms = Vp / 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
For square wave
S.
No.
Amplitude
Cm. V multiplier
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
For Time Period and Frequency :
S.
No.
Time Period
Cm.
Frequency f = 1/T
Time multiplier
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Precaution and Sources of Error :

1) Do not allow the spot of light to remain on the screen for a long time, otherwise
the area will be burnt.
2) Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains controls of the CRO to obtain proper
amplitude of the wave pattern on a large part of the screen.
3) The frequency of the audio-oscillator should be slowly adjusted so as to lock the
pattern.
Page | 59
Experiment No. : 7
Object : Use the Multimeter to measure the Resistance and D.C voltage.
Apparatus :
Multimeter, D.C. voltage supply, resistance box and connecting leads.
Theory :
A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter
measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an ohmmeter
measures resistance. A multimeter combines these functions, and possibly some
additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
Procedure :
Before going in to detail about multimeters, it is important for you to have a clear idea of
how meters are connected into circuits. Diagrams A and B below show a circuit before
and after connecting an ammeter:
Page | 60
to measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the

ammeter to be connected in series
ammeters must have a LOW resistance
Think about the changes you would have to make to a practical circuit in order to
include the ammeter. To start with, you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter
can be connected in series. All the current flowing in the circuit must pass through the
ammeter. Meters are not supposed to alter the behaviour of the circuit, or at least not
significantly, and it follows that an ammeter must have a very LOW resistance.
Diagram C shows the same circuit after connecting a voltmeter:
A
to measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed:

the voltmeter is connected in parallel
voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance
This time, you do not need to break the circuit. The voltmeter is connected in parallel
between the two points where the measurement is to be made. Since the voltmeter
provides a parallel pathway, it should take as little current as possible. In other words, a
voltmeter should have a very HIGH resistance.
Which measurement technique do you think will be the more useful? In fact, voltage
measurements are used much more often than current measurements.
Page | 61
The processing of electronic signals is usually thought of in voltage terms. It is an added

advantage that a voltage measurement is easier to make. The orginal circuit does not
need to be changed. Often, the meter probes are connected simply by touching them to
the points of interest.
An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a power supply. If you want
to measure the resistance of a particular component, you must take it out of the circuit
altogether and test it separately, as shown in diagram D:
A
to measure resistance, the component must be removed from the circuit altogether
ohmmeters work by passing a current through the component being tested
Ohmmeters work by passing a small current through the component and measuring the
voltage produced. If you try this with the component connected into a circuit with a
power supply, the most likely result is that the meter will be damaged. Most multimeters
have a fuse to help protect against misuse.
Observation Table :
S.
No.
Actual
Voltage
Measured
Voltage
( Multimeter)
Error = A. Volt
M. Volt
Actual
Resistance
Measured
Resistance
Error = A. R. M. R.
Page | 62
Result :
The use of Multimeter for measuring voltage and resistance was done successfully.
Percentage Error :
% error = ---------------------------------------------- X 100 = %
Standard Value
Precautions :
1) De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or
disconnecting a multimeter.
2) Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with a multimeter.
3) Connect the multimeter in series with the circuit for current measurements, and in
parallel for voltage measurements.
4) Be certain the multimeter is switched to ac before attempting to measure ac
circuits.
5) Observe proper dc polarity when measuring dc.
6) When you are finished with a multimeter, switch it to the OFF position, if
available. If there is no OFF position, switch the multimeter to the highest ac
voltage position.
7) Always start with the highest voltage or current range.
8) Select a final range that allows a reading near the middle of the scale.
9) Adjust the "0 ohms" reading after changing resistance ranges and before making
a resistance measurement.
10)Be certain to read ac measurements on the ac scale of a multimeter.
11) Observe the general safety precautions for electrical and electronic devices
Experiment No. : 8
Page | 63
Object :
To find temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum using Callender and Graiffith
bridge.
Apparatus :
Platinum resistance thermometer, Callender and Graffith bridge, a Leclanche cell, a
galvanometer, beaker (600 cc capacity), electric stove, a decimal - ohm dial box, a
mercury thermometer and connection wires.
Theory :
The resistance of a metal at temperature t is given by the relation.
Rt = R0 (1 + t)
Where R0 is the resistance of the metal at 00C.
If R1 and R2 be the resistance of the metal at t1 0C and t2 0C respectively than
temperature coefficient of resistance can be written as
R2 R1
= -----------------R1t2 R2t1
Using cellender and Graffiths bridge the resistance R of platinum resistance
thermometer is given by the relation R = r 2l
Here
is the resistance in the resistance box
is the resistance/unit length of the wire
in the distance of null point from the mid point (electrical zero).
Platinum Resistance Thermometer

It is a device to measure temperature of a body. It is based on the fact that
electrical resistance of metal increases uniformly with increase in temperature. It
consists of a doubled platinum wire wound in the form of a double spiral on a mica strip
enclosed in porcelain tube. The wire is well insulted from each other using mica discs.
The free ends of a wire are connected to terminal PP (as shown Fig. 2 ) and there are
two extra leads of a platinum which are provided to compensate the resistance of leads
connecting platinum wire. The free ends of compensating platinum wire are connected
to terminal CC.
Page | 64
Fig. -1
Callender and Griffiths bridge is a modified form of wheatstone bridge. The ratio arms
P and Q are made equal. The platinum leads PP are connected to third arm S. in
fourth arm R there are coils of different known resistances of 1,2,3,. Ohms, also there
are terminal CC in the fourth arm where ends of compensating leads of platinum
resistance thermometer are connected. In arm R & S there is a wire MN of uniform
resistance per cm. a sliding contact D moves on wire MN. A battery and galvanometer
along with a one way key are connected as shown in Fig -2
.
Fig. - 2
Page | 65
Procedure :
1) To find position of electrical zero : make electrical connection as shown in
figure. Short circuit the gaps PP and CC by copper strips. Move key of
variable resistance R to zero. Insert plug in one way key of cell circuit and
find out the position of null point by moving jockey on bridge wire. The
position of null point fives position of electrical zero.
2) Determination of the resistance/unit length of the bridge wire : Remove the
copper strip from the gap. Connect a decimal ohm resistance box. The dial
box stands at zero. Now insert a small resistance r in the gap and locate the
null point on the bridge wire.
If the distance found on the, side of the electrical zero be `l than
O = r - 2l
therefore
r
= ---------2l
3) To find R2 and R1 i.e. resistance of platinum resistance thermometers at

steam temp and at room temp :
a) Disconnect the ohm dial box and the copper strip from the gap.
b) Connect compensating leads of platinum resistance thermometer to
terminal PP of Callender and Griffiths bridge. Insert plug in cell
circuit.
c) Place bulb of a platinum resistance thermometer in ordinary water
bath at room temperature & wait for some time so that it attains the
temperature of water. Note the temperature of water bath with the
help of mercury thermometer (say t1 0C)
d) Introduce some resistance from variable resistance with help of
moving dial (say r), find the balance point and note balancing length l
(say), than
R1 = r 2l
r
= resistance introduced by moving dial resistance box
l
= balancing length
= resistance per unit length of bridge wire

The positive sign is taken if balance point is to the right of electrical
zero and negative sign if balance point is to the left of electrical zero.
e) Put the platinum resistance thermometer in steam bath and wait for
same time so that it attain the temperature of steam bath. Note the
temperature of steam bath with the help of mercury thermometer
(say, t2 0C).
f) Repeat step (c) and find R2.
Observations :
Electrical zero of bridge wire = .cm.
Page | 66
To find ()
S.No. Resistance to introduced
moving dial resistance (r)
To find R1 and R2
S. No. Temp. of both
Room temp. t1 = .0C
Temp. of boiling water

(t2) = ..0C
Shift of balance
point from
electrical zero (l)
cm.
Resistance of
dial resistance
(r)
r
= ------2l
Shift of balance
point from
electrical zero l
(cm)
Mean
(ohm/cm)
Resistance
of platinum
wire
R = r 2l
Calculations :
(i)
r
for : = ------ = .ohm/cm.
2l
(ii)
R2 R1
for : = -------------------- = ../ 0C
R1t2 R2t1
Result :
The temperature coefficient of resistance for platinum is ..
Percentage Error :
% error = ---------------------------------------------- X 100 = %
Standard Value
Precaution and Source of Errors :

1. connection should be tight.
2. Clean the ends of connecting wires.
3. Balance point should be noted only when platinum resistance thermometer
attains steady value.
4. The jockey should not be rubbed on bridge wire.
5. Introduced some shunt in galvanometer circuit while take approximate balance
point.
6. The decimal ohm box should be of dial pattern.
7. The cell circuit should be made on by the plug key only when the observation are
taken.
Page | 67
Experiment No. : 9
Object : To find the radius of a steel wire by Laser Light
Apparatus :
He-Ne Laser light, thin wire, wire mounting kit, screen and meter scale.
Theory and formula :

Let A B represent a thin wire of thickness d, held parallel to a narrow rectangular slit S
placed perpendicular to the plane of the paper. If the slit is illuminated by
monochromatic light of wavelength , it will give rise to a cylindrical wavefront XY falling
on the wire. This forms a geometrical shadow EF on the screen. The thin wire acts like
two sharp edges and obstructs a few half period elements of each halt of the wavefront.
Interference fringes are formed inside the geometrical shadow EF due to the
superposition of the waves bending into the shadow from both sides. A point P on the
screen will thus be bright or dark according as
BP AP = n or (2n + 1) /2
These fringes are of equal width and the fringe-width is given by
D
= -----------d
or
.(1)
D
d = ------------- .(2)
where d is the thickness of the wire and D is the distance of the screen from the wire.
The diameter of the wire can thus be determined by measuring by a micrometer eye
piece if D and are known.
Note :As the thickness d of the wire increases the width of a fringe decreases ( 1/d).
Page | 68
Procedure:
Illuminate the wire with the laser beam and observe the diffraction pattern on the
screen. Measure the distance `D of the screen from wire and note down the width of
central maxima of diffraction pattern using a graph paper. Note various readings by
changing the value of distance of screen from wire.
Observation Table :
S. No.
Distance from wire to

screen (D)
Width of central
maxima ()
Diameter of thin
wire
(d) = D /
Result :
The diameter of a given wire by using diffraction pattern is cm.
Precautions :
1. The laser and wire should be in a straight line.
2. Measurement of distances should be made precisely.
Page | 69
Experiment No. : 10
Object : To determine the internal resistance of Leclanche cell using potentiometer.
Apparatus :
10 wire potentiometer, rheostat (low resistance), resistance box( 0-1000),
Galvanometer, Battery Eliminator, Leclanche cell, two plug keys and connecting wire.
Theory and formula :

In the Potentiometer circuit as shown in Fig. let `l 1 be the length of the potentiometer
wire when balance is obtained with cell (L) in open circuit when key K2 is not closed and
`l2 the length when balance is obtained with cell shunted through a resistance `R.
Then if `E is the e.m.f. of the cell and `V the potential difference between the terminals
when shunted, we have according to the principal of the potentiometer.
l1
E
--------
and
l1
------------
l2
------- (1)
l2
If `r be the internal resistance of the cell and I the current through it, when shunted to R,
then by Ohms law
E = I (R+r)
E
So,
and
V =IR
R+r
----------- = -----------------
----- (2)
Page | 70
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we have

R+r
-----------R
r
l1
= -------
r
l1
1+ ------ = -------------
l2
= [ l 1 / l2 - 1 ] R
l2
------ (3)
Procedure :
1. Make the electrical connections as shown in Fig.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of copper wires and clean the ends with
sand paper. Connect the positive pole of auxiliary battery to the zero end (A) of
the potentiometer and negative pole through a one way key, an ammeter and
low resistance rheostat to the other end (B) of the potentiometer wire.
3. With a certain setting of rheostat and by closing key K 1, obtain a balance point.
Note the length of this point from the end A. This gives the length l 1.
4. Now introduce a suitable resistance in the resistance box R (low resistance) and
close the key K2. Again obtain the length l 2 of the potentiometer wire where the
null point is obtained. This gives l2.
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of resistance R.
6. Calculate internal resistance of Leclanche Cell using Eq. (3).
Observations :
Observation Table
S. No.
Balancing
Resistance
Balancing
length (l1)
(R)
length (l2)
Mean r
r = [ l1/ l2 1] R
1
2
3
4
5
Calculations :
r = [ l1/ l2 1] R =
Page | 71
Result :
The internal resistance of Leclanche cell using potentiometer = ...
Precautions :
1. The internal resistance of a Leclanche cell is not constant but varies with current
drawn from the cell. Hence to get suitable readings the resistance from the
resistance box must be varied by small amount ( 1 to 6 ).
2. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than that of the Leclanche cell.
3. The positive terminals should be connected at point A.
4. A high resistance should be connected in series with the galvanometer.
Page | 72

Physics Lab. Manuals - 001

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Physics Lab. Manuals - 001

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Experiment No.

mass, of the suspended weight (gm)

linear velocity of mass, cm/sec and

the angular velocity of the flywheel (radian/sec)

then moment of inertia of flywheel

Momentum of inertia of a flywheel (gm-cm2)

radius of the axle (cm)

Number of revolutions during the descent mass (m)

Number of rotations (revolutions) after the weight has been

Acceleration due to gravity. (cm/sec2)

The height (cm) from the ground

The average value of

and tie a mass `m on one of its end.

slightly below the rim of the wheel.

detached from the axle.

Radius of the axle

Time (t) sec.

( Note : make similar calculation for I from other sets of observations )

Theory and formula:

(a) In the transverse arrangement, the frequency n of the fork, is

(b) In the longitudinal arrangement, the frequency n of the fork is

= 1/l T/m = 1/l Mg/m

is the mass per unit length of thread

is the total mass suspended

is Tension applied to thread

is length of the thread in the fundamental vibration

Mean frequency (Transverse)

Mean frequency (Longitudinal)

(b) Longitudinal arrangement

The wire/thread should be uniform in diameter, thin and inextensible.

refractive index for violet colour.

refractive index for red colour.

mean of refractive index of violet and red colour.

Calculate the value of , using

angle of minimum deviation

position and note down the reading.

the right with respect to the straight position.

position from the vernier scale.

First position Second

A. Table for measurement of angle m (red)

R.I. of violet colour,

R.I of red colour

angle of minimum diviation

The wire/thread should be uniform in diameter, thin and inextensible.

is the diameter of (n+k)th ring.

mean distance between the two legs of the spherometer in cm.

a = speherometer reading on convex surface in cm.

The wavelength of sodium light is calculated from the formula.

The monochromatic light (source) should be adjusted for maximum visibility.

and concentration c = m/V,

= length of the tube (decimeter)

= mass of sugar (gms)

= volume of sugar solution

= is the rotation produced (degrees)

field appear equally dark.

Total weight of (sugar + beaker) =

Length of the tube

Concentration of the solution m/V =

Per 100 Per cc

position position position

The wavelength of light and room temperature should be noted properly.

Adjust the leveling screws Q and R.