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Drilling Operations
DRILLING OPERATIONS
SUBMITTED TO: MUHAMMAD AYUB KHAN
SHOUKAT ALI BALOCH
ADNAN SIRAJ
TRAINEE MECHANICAL ENGINEER
Drilling Operations
Acknowledgement
In the name of ALLAH, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. All praise and thanks to
ALMIGHTY ALLAH, who Has blessed me with the skills and abilities to complete this report
and hence, thereby, portraying a clear picture of what I have been doing during the course of
my working on a drilling of PKL-7 and PKL-8. I also would like to thank to Mari Petroleum
for providing me a prestigious opportunity of working in a professional field.
I also take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Mr. Muhammad Ayub Khan, Mr.
Shoukat Ali Baloch, Mr. Faisal Amjed, Mr. Sarfraz Ahmad and Mr. Muhammad Rashid
without whom it would be difficult to convert the whole drilling project into a comprehensive
documentation.
My two months working on a drilling project of PKL-7 and PKL-8 was a memorable
experience. During the course of my orientation each job that I had done, every moment that I
spent with my colleagues, subordinates and seniors was unforgettable.
I owe enormous thanks to my parents, who always extend their support towards me.
Drilling Operations
Abstract
This report highlights all the learning that I had done, all the jobs in which I assisted and all the
assignments that I had completed during the drilling of PKL-7 and PKL-8.
The synopsis of report is such that it covers the drilling operations, casing and cementing, well
testing, well logging and well completion and the jobs that I had done, as well as, the tasks in
which I participated during the course of my training.
Drilling Operations
Contents
1
1.2
Rotary cutting.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.1.1
Mast............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3.1.2
Derrick ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3.1.3
Substructure ................................................................................................................ 2
1.3.2
1.3.2.1
Mechanical rig............................................................................................................. 3
1.3.2.2
1.3.3
1.3.3.1
Drawworks .................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.3.2
1.3.3.3
1.3.3.4
1.3.3.5
1.3.3.6
1.3.3.7
1.3.3.7.1
1.3.3.7.2
1.3.3.8
1.3.3.9
1.3.4
1.3.4.1
Swivel ....................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.4.2
1.3.4.3
Kelly.......................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.4.4
1.3.4.5
1.3.4.6
1.3.4.7
1.3.5
Circulating system......................................................................................................... 18
1.3.5.1
1.3.5.2
1.3.5.3
Stand pipe.................................................................................................................. 20
1.3.5.4
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1.3.5.5
1.3.5.6
Desander ................................................................................................................... 22
1.3.5.7
Desilter ...................................................................................................................... 22
1.3.5.8
Degasser .................................................................................................................... 23
1.3.5.9
1.3.5.10
2
2.2
2.3
2.4
Subs ....................................................................................................................................... 26
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
Elevator ......................................................................................................................... 29
2.5.3
Tugger/winch ................................................................................................................ 29
2.5.4
Slips............................................................................................................................... 30
2.5.5
Safety clamp.................................................................................................................. 31
2.5.6
Tong .............................................................................................................................. 32
2.5.7
2.5.8
2.5.9
3.1.1
3.2
3.1.1.1
3.1.1.2
3.1.1.3
3.1.2
3.2.1
3.2.1.1
3.2.2
Impregnated bits............................................................................................................ 38
3.2.3
4.2
4.3
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4.4
4.5
Liner ...................................................................................................................................... 41
5.1.1
Accelerators .................................................................................................................. 42
5.1.2
Retarders ....................................................................................................................... 42
5.1.3
Extenders....................................................................................................................... 42
5.1.4
Pozzolans ...................................................................................................................... 42
5.2
5.3
Spacer.................................................................................................................................... 43
5.4
5.5
5.6
Perforations ........................................................................................................................... 45
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.3.6
Detonator system........................................................................................................... 46
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
Retrievable packer......................................................................................................... 47
6.6.3
6.6.4
6.6.5
6.6.6
6.6.7
6.6.8
6.6.9
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6.6.9.1
6.6.10
6.8
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
7.3.9
7.4
7.5
Acid job................................................................................................................................. 56
7.5.1
7.5.2
Surfactant ...................................................................................................................... 56
7.5.3
7.5.4
7.5.5
Acid ............................................................................................................................... 57
7.5.6
7.5.7
7.5.8
7.6
6.7
6.8.1
7
Operation................................................................................................................... 48
7.6.1
7.6.2
7.6.3
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8.1
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.1.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.1.1
8.3.2
8.3.2.1
8.4
Advantages ................................................................................................................ 60
Density log .................................................................................................................... 60
Tool configuration..................................................................................................... 60
8.4.1
8.5
Application .................................................................................................................... 61
8.5.1
Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 61
8.5.2
Application .................................................................................................................... 61
8.6
8.6.1
Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 61
8.6.2
Application .................................................................................................................... 61
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List of figures
Figure 1-1 Mast ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 1-2 Derrick................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1-3 Substructure........................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1-4 Power and prime mover for Mechanical drilling rig ............................................................. 3
Figure 1-5 Power and prime mover for Electrical drilling rig ................................................................ 4
Figure 1-6 Drawworks ............................................................................................................................ 5
Figure 1-7 Crown block .......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1-8 Fast and Crown sheaves of crown block ............................................................................... 6
Figure 1-9 Block of travelling block ....................................................................................................... 7
Figure 1-10 Hook of travelling block ..................................................................................................... 7
Figure 1-11 Hooks for travelling block................................................................................................... 8
Figure 1-12 Deadline anchor................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 1-13 Supply reel ........................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 1-14 Right lang lay .................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 1-15 Left lang lay ...................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 1-16 Right regular lay ................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 1-17 Left regular lay .................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 1-18 wire rope construction types ............................................................................................. 11
Figure 1-19 Hoisting system ................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 1-20 Swivel ................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 1-21 Swivel assembly ................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 1-22 Kelly Spinner .................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 1-23 Kelly .................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 1-24 Top drive (Hydraulically powered device) ....................................................................... 15
Figure 1-25 type HDS: Heavy duty for square drive rotary table ......................................................... 16
Figure 1-26 Type HDP: Heavy duty fits 23" through 49-1/2" rotary table........................................... 16
Figure 1-27 Type MDS: Medium duty for square drive rotary table .................................................... 16
Figure 1-28 Type MSPC-Type MSPC- Fits 17-1/2" to 27-1/2" rotary table ........................................ 16
Figure 1-29 Type MPCH-Type MSPC- Fits 37-1/2" to 49-1/2" rotary table ....................................... 16
Figure 1-30 Type MSPC- Fits 20-1/2" to 27-1/2" rotary table ............................................................. 16
Figure 1-31 Type MBSS-Type MSPC- Fits 17-1/2" to 27-1/2" rotary table ........................................ 16
Figure 1-32 Rotary tables with master bushings ................................................................................... 17
Figure 1-33 Mud Pump ......................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 1-34 Parts of circulation system ................................................................................................ 19
Figure 1-35 Pump manifold .................................................................................................................. 20
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Figure 1-36 Stand pipe .......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 1-37 Mud return line .................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 1-38 Shale shaker along with its parts ....................................................................................... 21
Figure 1-39 Desander ............................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 1-40 Desilter .............................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 1-41 Degasser ............................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 1-42 Mud Pit .............................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 1-43 Circulation system ............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 2-1 Components of drill pipe ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-2 Drill pipes ............................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 2-3 Drill collars.......................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 2-4 Heavy weight drill pipe ....................................................................................................... 26
Figure 2-5 Kelly sub, crossover sub, drill collar sub and bit sub .......................................................... 27
Figure 2-6 Subs ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2-7 Elevator and lifting sub ....................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2-8 Elevator links ...................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2-9 Single joint elevator ............................................................................................................ 29
Figure 2-10 Center latch elevator.......................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2-11 Side door elevator.............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 2-12 Elevator links along with elevator links ............................................................................ 29
Figure 2-13 Tugger/Air winch .............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 2-14 Casing slips ....................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 2-15 Drill pipe slips ................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 2-16 Drill collar slips ................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 2-17 Usage of slips during drilling operation ............................................................................ 31
Figure 2-18 Safety clamps .................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 2-19 Usage of safety clamp while drilling ................................................................................. 31
Figure 2-20 Make up and break up tongs ............................................................................................. 32
Figure 2-21 drill pipe spinner................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 2-22 Iron roughneck .................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 2-23 Bit breaker ......................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 3-1 Roller cone bit ..................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3-2 Tooth cutting structure, teeth spacing and tooth angle of milled tooth bit .......................... 35
Figure 3-3 Milled tooth tricone bit ........................................................................................................ 35
Figure 3-4 Tungsten cribde insert tricone bit ........................................................................................ 36
Figure 3-5 Medium PDC bit ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 3-6 Short PDC bit ...................................................................................................................... 37
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Figure 3-7 TSP bit................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 3-8 Impregnated bit ................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 3-9 Diamond bit ......................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4-1 Casings ................................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 6-1 Slip joint .............................................................................................................................. 49
Figure 6-2 DST tool .............................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 7-1 Packerless completion ......................................................................................................... 52
Figure 7-2 Selective single string completion....................................................................................... 53
Figure 7-3 Dual string completion ........................................................................................................ 53
Figure 7-4 Single string packer completion .......................................................................................... 53
Figure 7-5 Wellhead and Christmas tree............................................................................................... 56
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1.3.1.2 Derrick
A large load bearing structure, usually of bolted construction. The standard derrick has four
legs standing at the corners of the substructure.
1.3.1.3 Substructure
The foundation in which the derrick or mast and usually the Drawworks sit. In contains space
for storage and well control equipment.
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1.3.2 Power and prime movers
Internal combustion engine or a turbine that is the source of power for driving equipment on
the Rig.
1.3.2.1 Mechanical rig
A drilling rig in which the source of power is one or more internal combustion engine and in
which power is distributed to rig components through devices such as chains, sprockets,
clutches and shaft is said to be a Mechanical Rig.
Figure 1-4 Power and prime mover for Mechanical drilling rig
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Figure 1-5 Power and prime mover for Electrical drilling rig
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Crown block
Travelling block
Deadline anchor
Supply real
Drilling line
1.3.3.1 Drawworks
The hoisting mechanism on a drilling rig. It is essentially a winch that spools off or takes in the
drilling line and thus raises or lowers the drill string.
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1.3.3.5 Supply reel
A spool that stores the unused portion of the Drilling Line.
Dead line
Drilling line from supply reel to crown block is called deadline, this line cannot move due to
dead line anchor.
1.3.3.7.2
Fast line
Drilling line from drawworks to crown block is called fast-line and it can move. Drum brake
is used to stop fast-line.
1.3.3.8 Types of wire-rope for drilling line
The following are the wire ropes used for drilling line;
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Swivel
Kelly spinner
Kelly or top drive
Kelly bushing
Master bushing
Rotary table
1.3.4.1 Swivel
The rotary tool that is hung from the hook of the traveling block to suspend the drill string and
permit it to rotate freely. It also provide connection for the rotary hose and provide passageway
for the flow of drilling fluid into the drill string.
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1.3.4.2 Kelly spinner
A pneumatically controlled device mounted below the Swivel that when actuated causes the
Kelly to spin.
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1.3.4.3 Kelly
The heavy steel member, usually four or six-sided that is suspended from the Swivel through
the Rotary Table and connected to the top most joint of drill pipe to turn the drill stem as the
rotary table turns. It has a bored passageway that permits fluid to be circulated into the drill
stem and up the annulus or vise-versa.
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1.3.4.7 Rotary table
Equipment used to turn the drill string and support the drilling assembly. It has a beveled gear
arrangement to create the rotational motion and opening into which bushings are fitted to drive
and support the drilling assembly.
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2
4
13
11
6
12
10
11
6
12
6
10
10
7
7
8
16
12 13
15
14
15
14
1.Suction tank
2.Prehydration tank
3.Charging pump
4. Agitator motors
5. Mud hopper
6. Suction line
7. Charging pump
(MP)
8. Mud pump
9. Valve and piston
10. Mud pump
discharge manifold
11. Pressure gauge
12.
Pulsation
dampener
13. Pressure relief
valve
14. Discharge line
15. Mud pump
engine
16.
Intermediate
tank
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1.3.5.4 Return line
The passageway of the drilling fluid as it comes out of the well.
3
3
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Shale shakers are designed to handle100-1600 gpm flow rate of mud and be able to remove
cutting to size of 77 microns usinga200 mesh screen.
1.3.5.6 Desander
A centrifugal device for removing sand from the drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of the pumps.
1.3.5.7 Desilter
Its a centrifugal device for removing free particles of silt from the drilling fluid to keep the
amount of solids in the fluid at the lowest possible point.
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1.3.5.8 Degasser
It is used to remove the gas from a drilling fluid.
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Drill pipe
Drill collar
Heavy weight drill pipe
Kelly subs
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2.2 Drill collar
The heavy, thick-walled tube steel, used between the drill pipe and the bit in the drill string to
provide pendulum effect to the drill string and to provide weight on bit.
2.4 Subs
A short, threaded piece of pipe used to adapt parts of the drilling string that cannot otherwise
be screwed together because of difference in thread size or design. These consist of;
1. Bit sub
2. Cross over
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3. Kelly saver sub
4. Lifting sub
5. Bent sub
Figure 2-5 Kelly sub, crossover sub, drill collar sub and bit sub
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2.5.2 Elevator
Clamps that grip a stand of casing, tubing, drill pipe or drill collars so that the stand or joint
can be raised from or lowered into the hole opening of the rotary table.
2.5.3 Tugger/winch
A pneumatically operated
drum with wire ropes
pooled onto it to move or
lift heavy objects on the
rig floor.
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2.5.4 Slips
A wedge shape piece of metal with teeth or other gripping elements that are used to prevent
pipe from slipping down into hole or to hold the pipe in place.
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2.5.6 Tong
Large wrenches used to make or break out tubulars.
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2. Tungsten carbide inserts (TCI) bits
3.1.1 Milled tooth bits
There are three basic design features incorporated in steel tooth cutting structures, teeth
spacing, tooth hard-facing, and tooth angle (Figure 3-2). Using variations of these parameters,
bits are separated into formation types.
Figure 3-2 Tooth cutting structure, teeth spacing and tooth angle of milled tooth bit
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3.1.2 Tungsten carbide inserts bits
TCI design takes the properties of tungsten carbide materials and the geometric efficiency for
drilling of a particular rock formation into account. As noted, softer materials require
geometries that are long and sharp to encourage rapid penetration. Impact loads are low, but
abrasive wear can be high. Hard formations are drilled more by a crushing and grinding action
than by penetration. Impact loads and abrasion can be very high. Tough materials, such as
carbonates, are drilled by a gouging action and can sustain high impact loads and high operating
temperatures. Variations in the way that drilling is accomplished and rock formation properties
govern the shape and grade of the correct TCIs to be selected.
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carbide grains metallurgically bonded with a softer, tougher, metallic binder. Matrix is
desirable as a bit material because its hardness is resistant to abrasion and erosion. It is capable
of withstanding relatively high compressive loads but, compared with steel, has low resistance
to impact loading. Matrix is relatively heterogeneous because it is a composite material.
Because the size and placement of the particles of tungsten carbide it contains vary (by both
design and circumstances), its physical properties are slightly less predictable than steel.
Steel is metallurgically opposite of matrix. It is capable of withstanding high impact loads but
is relatively soft and without protective features would quickly fail by abrasion and erosion.
3.2.1.1 Cutting action
The method in which rock fails is important in bit design and selection. Formation failure
occurs in two modes: brittle failure and plastic failure. The mode in which a formation fails
depends on rock strength, which is a function of composition and such down-hole conditions
as depth, pressure, and temperature. Formation failure can be depicted with stress-strain curves
(Fig. 5.22). Stress, applied force per unit area, can be tensile, compressive, torsional, or shear.
Strain is the deformation caused by the applied force. Under brittle failure, the formation fails
with very little or no deformation. For plastic failure, the formation deforms elastically until it
yields, followed by plastic deformation until rupture. PDC bits drill primarily by shearing.
Vertical penetrating force from applied drill collar weight and horizontal force from the rotary
table are transmitted into the cutters. The resultant force defines a plane of thrust for the cutter.
Cuttings are then sheared off at an initial angle relative to the plane of thrust, which is
dependent on rock strength. Formations that are drillable with PDC bits fail in shear rather than
compressive stress typified by the crushing and gouging action of roller-cone bits. Thus, PDC
bits are designed primarily to drill by shearing. In shear, the energy required to reach plastic
limit for rupture is significantly less than by compressive stress. PDC bits thus require less
WOB than roller-cone bits.
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Conductor casing
Surface casing
Intermediate casing
Production casing
Liner
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4.5 Liner
A liner is a string of casing that does not reach the surface. They are usually hung (attached
to the intermediate casing using an arrangement of packers and slips) from the base of the
intermediate casing and reach to the bottom of the hole. The major advantage of a liner is the
cost of the string is reduced, as are running and cementing times. During the course of the well,
if the liner has to be extended to the surface (making it another string of casing), the string
attaching the liner to the surface is known as a tie-back string.
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The main ingredient in most cements is Portland cement, a mixture of limestone and clay.
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5.2 Chemical wash
Before releasing the bottom plug chemical washes are pumped. Chemical washes are fluids
containing surfactants and mud thinners, designed to thin and disperse the drilling fluid so that
it can be removed from the casing and borehole. Washes are available for water-based and oilbased drilling fluids. They are designed to be used in turbulent flow conditions.
5.3 Spacer
Along with chemical washes, spacer is also pumped down the whole. Spacers are fluids of
controlled viscosity, density and gel strength used to form a buffer between the cement and
drilling fluid. They also help in the removal of drilling fluid during cementing.
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G,H
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charge firing, which prevents scoring of polished bores if the gun is moved after firing and may
minimize gun swelling. The scallop also may minimize the metal thickness penetrated,
although this affects the perforation charge performance less than 10%. Keeping the charge
exit point within the scallop becomes critical when through-tubing guns are used in which
polished bores must be traversed with the gun after firing or when tubing clearances are critical.
Hollow-carrier guns, depending on their diameter and design, may be loaded with 1 to 27
shots/ft and have all the commonly used phase angles as well as specialty phasings.
6.3.4 Through-tubing guns
The smaller through-tubing guns should be run through a lubricator and typically are limited
to approximately 40 ft in length, less for larger, heavier guns. The advantages of through-tubing
guns are low cost, the ability to perforate underbalanced, and the ability to maintain positive
well control. The disadvantages of through-tubing guns are limited penetration, small entry
hole, and the production limitation of 0 phasing.
6.3.5 Expendable guns
Expendable guns have charges that are exposed to well fluids and pressures. The expendable
guns are popular for through-tubing applications. They are more vulnerable to damage, but
without the bulk of the gun body, larger charges can be run through any given small or buckled
tubing restriction. The expendable and semi-expendable carriers normally can use a larger
charge for a given tubing or casing size than the hollow-carrier guns because only the skin of
the capsule around each charge separates it from the walls of the casing. With expendable guns,
there is also more flexibility because some bending can be achieved. The expendable guns are
popular for through-tubing applications. The charges are lined together by a common strip,
wire/cable, or a linked body design. The expendable guns force the casing to endure a much
higher explosive load during firing because the recoil is not contained in a sacrificial shell as
in a hollow-carrier gun. Casing splits are sometimes seen with a downhole television camera
after perforating with expendable guns in cased holes with poor cement or low-strength casing.
Expendable guns are used because their perforating performance is significantly better than
hollow-carrier guns in the smaller diameters. When the gun is fired, some or all the linking
materials, as well as the charge capsule remnants, are left in the hole. Problems with these guns
have centered on:
1. Misfires from damage to the detonating cord.
2. Tubing and surface line plugging from debris.
3. Carrier strip disintegration or severe bending after firing.
6.3.6 Detonator system
Once on depth, charges are fired by an initiator or detonator. Detonator systems have been
redesigned in recent years to improve safety and to prevent several perforating problems that
occur from leaks, pressure problems, and temperature effects. Any wireline-conveyed, hollowcarrier gun should have a detonator system that will not allow the charges to fire if the gun is
completely or partially filled with water. If a water-filled hollow-carrier gun is fired, the outer
body shell may rupture and result in a fishing or milling job. Specialized detonators have
methods of preventing wet (fluid-filled) gun firing, as well as offering a number of other safety
benefits ranging from resisting stray currents, such as static and radio energy, to pressure
switches that prevent accidental surface firing or re-safe the gun when a live gun is pulled from
a well. The standard explosives detonator (also called a blasting cap) is a mainstay of the
construction industry but is not well suited to the petroleum industry. Several accidental
discharges of perforating guns have been linked directly to stray currents or poor electrical
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panel operational procedures. The resistor detonator incorporates resistors that reduce the
possibility of discharge from low-power electrical signals. More modern detonators are
available, including:
1. Flying foil
2. Programmable chips
3. Other units that are radio safe and allow for extra safety
Wireline
Tubing
Coiled tubing
Pumpdown
Slickline
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6.6.4 Hydraulic jar
The jar is run to aid in freeing the packer if it becomes stuck. The jar allows an over pull to be
taken on the string which is then suddenly released, delivering an impact to the stuck tools.
6.6.5 Hydraulic circulating valve (Bypass valve)
This tool is run in conjunction with retrievable packers to allow fluid bypass while running in
and pulling out of hole, hence reducing the risk of excessive pressure surges or swabbing. It
can also be used to equalize differential pressures across packers at the end of the test. It is
automatically closed when sufficient weight is set down on the packer. This valve should
ideally contain a time delay on closing, to prevent pressuring up of the closed sump below the
packer during packer setting. This feature is important when running tubing conveyed
perforating guns which are actuated by pressure. If the valve does not have a delay on closing,
a large incremental pressure, rather than the static bottom-hole pressure, should be chosen for
firing the guns.
6.6.6 Gauge carrier
The carrier allows pressure and temperature recorders to be run below or above the packer in
order to sense either annulus or tubing pressures along with temperatures.
6.6.7 Down-hole tester valve
The down-hole tester valve provides a seal from pressure from above and below. The valve is
operated by pressuring up on the annulus. The down-hole tester valve allows down-hole shut
in of the well so that after-flow effects are minimized, providing better pressure data. It also
has a secondary function as a safety valve.
Usually a low pressure response nitrogen (LPRN) tester valve is used in drill stem test. LPRN
tester valve, basically a ball valve, is operated by applying pressure through annulus. The
pressure through annulus compresses the nitrogen and the resulting pressurized nitrogen moves
the ball in order to open tester valve.
6.6.8 Rupture disc circulating valve
This ball valve is used to terminate the drill stem test. The high pressure is applied through the
annulus which breaks the rupture disc in order to open the valve. By doing so communication
with annulus is established and after that with the increase of mud weight the formation fluid
is sent back down to reservoir (bull heading).
6.6.9 Slip joint
The Slip Joint is an expansion/contraction compensating tool that accommodates for changes
in string length caused by temperature and pressure changes during a drillstem test.
6.6.9.1 Operation
The Slip Joint has two distinct parts: an outer housing and a moving inner mandrel. Its rugged
design incorporates three main sections. At the top is a splined moving mandrel that allows
torque to be transmitted through the tool. Below this are two pressure chambers, one open to
tubing pressure and the other open to annulus pressure. The tool is hydraulically balanced and
insensitive to applied tubing pressures due to dynamic seals and balance chambers.
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While going in a hole, the packer is collapsed, allowing the displaced mud to rise.
After the drill stem reaches the bottom, and the necessary preparations are completed, the
packer is then set (compressed and expanded) and isolates the lower zone (desired zone) from
rest of the open hole. In other words packer provides a seal above the zone to be tested.
The bypass is closed as the tester valve is opened, here, the packer supports the hydrostatic
pressure load of the well fluid, and the isolated section is exposed through the open tester valve
to the low pressure inside the empty or nearly empty drill pipe, allowing the formation fluid to
enter and the flowing formation pressure can be measured during the flow period.
At the end of the test, the tester valve is closed, trapping any fluid above it and this makes
possible the measurement of static formations built up in-pressure (Close-in period).
After the final close-in period the bypass valve is opened in order to equalize the pressure
across the packer.
Formation fluid received during the test can be removed from the drill pipe by reverse
circulation before the pipe is removed from borehole. This reversal is performed by closing the
blowout preventers and pumping mud down the annulus; the mud then enters drill pipe through
the reversing ports, thereby displacing any formation fluids in the pipe.
Finally, the setting weight is taken off and the packer is pulled free. The fluid content of each
successive pipe section is examined when it is removed. The graphic charts are absolutely
essential to get the accurate interpretation of test result.
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6.8 Well killing
Before unsetting of packer and pulling out of drill string of DST, we perform well killing in
order to put the well in static condition.
6.8.1 Well killing procedure
First close the LPRN-tester valve by releasing the pressure in the annulus then gas pressure in
drill string is released via relief valve, during this separator valves are closed. After this pump
the mud of desired specific gravity through kill wing valve of flow head. Now open the LPRNtester valve and start bull heading of mud in order to put the formation fluid back into the
formation. After this kill wing valve is closed and rupture disc is ruptured through annulus
respectively. Now perform the reverse circulation until mud weight in and out are balanced and
check the well for a period of 20 minutes. After that flush the surface testing lines with fresh
water & disconnect upstream line of choke manifold. Now open the pipe rams and connect the
rig pump with flow head kill wing valve. Pull the string in order to unset the packer and start
direct circulation. At the end of direct circulation if the hole static then well is killed.
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can be used for injecting inhibitors or killing fluid. This method is somewhat limited in terms
of flow conditions and the protection of the tubing materials. Moreover, it is difficult to detect
leaks in the tubing or the casing, and to gather bottom-hole pressure data.
7.2.3 Single string with hydraulic isolation completion
The single string completion using hydraulic isolation and just one string is convenient when
the production layer appears to be homogeneous and a selective-zone production is not
necessary. It consists in the use of a single tubing string that is lowered into the well together
with an isolation device for the formation section to be produced, called the packer.
Where there are several production layers for one fluid, a single selective completion is used.
This system has only one tubing string and several packers that isolate the various production
levels. By using wire-line operations it is possible to open and close the valves so as to allow
production on single layers.
7.2.4 Multiple tubing string completion
The multiple tubing string completion uses, at the most, two or three tubings, isolated by
packers and producing on different levels at the same time. This solution is useful when the
reservoir presents different layers of mineralization, for example gas and oil, or different types
of oil, because it allows us to produce selectively according to necessity, while keeping
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production active on various levels at the same time. For the single tubing strings, it is always
possible to adopt a solution similar to the single selective completion, thus obtaining a multiple
selective completion. This systems drawback is the limited diameter of the tubing which in
turn reduces the flow capacity of each tubing string.
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7.3.6 Side pocket mandrels
The side pocket mandrels are special devices that present a chamber parallel to the flow
chamber, in which it is possible to fix devices and connect the annulus to the inside of the string
without occupying the flow diameter. Their main utility is that of providing seats for gas-lift
valves, but they can also be put to a different use: as a means for circulating fluids, and as an
emergency device for well killing. In this case, a valve is installed, which will only open if
there is major external pressure on the tubing, thus allowing the entrance of a fluid.
7.3.7 Expansion joints
One very important element is the expansion joint, usually referred to as the travel joint. These
joints absorb the motion of the production tubing which is due to variations in pressure and
temperature. A travel joint is composed of two concentric tubes fitting into one another, and
hydraulic seal units, which are placed in the internal tube to isolate the annulus between the
two elements during the joint excursion. Travel joints are usually installed above the uppermost
packer, to contain the tubing motion which is otherwise difficult to compensate.
7.3.8 Landing nipples
The landing nipples are thick stub pipes, turned on the inside to create blocking profiles and
landing seats. These joints serve to provide landing seats for flow control devices. Other joints
are used to land removable safety valves. In this case the landing nipples can differ from the
standard joints by presenting a hydraulic control line.
7.3.9 Wellhead couplings
The production string is connected to the wellhead by means of a series of elements that form
the wellhead completion. These are the tubing spool, the tubing hanger, and the Christmas tree.
The tubing spool serves to hold up the production string and to connect, at the bottom, the
casing heads and, at the top, the Christmas tree. The tubing spool includes two lateral openings
that allow annulus control between production tubing and production casing.
The tubing hanger is needed to support the tubing and to establish the annulus seal. The annulus
is positioned in the tubing spool, and the production tubing is screwed on to it. An external
gasket guarantees the seal between the production casing and the tubing. The Christmas tree is
located above the tubing spool. Its function is to consent production regulation, and to create
safe conditions for workover operations inside the well. The Christmas tree is composed of two
main gate valves, called the master valves, which enable the well to be closed. Above these a
crossover connection is installed. Wing valves, which are fixed to the lateral flanges, are used
both for production and for possible workover jobs in the well. On the upper flange there is yet
another valve, similar to a master valve, and a crowning flange that is used to install the
workover equipment without having to stop the flow. The absolute pressure gauge is installed
on the crowning flange in correspondence with the wellhead.
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packer, back pressure valve is installed and at the same time ram blowout preventer is nipple
down. After this Christmas tree is rig up in order to make the well ready for acid job.
Landing nipple is used as a secondary pressure holding device if the ball fails to sit in shear
subs seat. Landing nipple holds the pressure as well as provides seal through plug.
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7.5.5 Acid
Acid is used to react with formation so that it can clear the perforations by dissolve the particles
in order to facilitate the well to flow at its maximum potential.
7.5.6 Surfactant base KCL brine
It is used for pre and post flush. It contains potassium chloride, surfactant and water.
7.5.7 Potassium chloride
Potassium chloride is used to avoid damage and swelling otherwise blockage will be produced
which ultimately leads to decrease in production.
7.5.8 KCL brine for displacement and trickling
KCL brine is used for wash out of fluids used in pre and post flush. In addition to that it is used
to remove the tiny particles in the well for cleaning purposes. KCL brine consists of Potassium
chloride and water.
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resistivity simultaneously. The two measurements have differing depth of investigation are
called deep resistivity (Rd) and shallow resistivity (Rs).
8.2.1.1 Theory
DLL consist of a current emitting center electrode positioned between guard electrodes. A
known current is passed through the current electrode with a return electrode at the surface.
Simultaneously a potential is applied to the focused electrode to keep zero potential difference
between guard and center electrode thereby the current is focused into the formation. Thus the
potential difference produced is equivalent to the formation resistivity. The lateral log current
path is basically a series circuit consisting of the drilling fluid, Mud cake, flushed zone, invaded
zone and the virgin zone, with the largest voltage drop occurring over the highest resistance
zone. The total amount of current emanating from an electrode must flow through any medium
that encompasses the electrode. The depth of investigation of a lateral log is defined as the
depth at which 50% of the total measured voltage is dropped.
8.2.2 Micro spherically focused log
Current from a measure electrode is forced into the flushed zone by guard electrodes to the
return electrode. The current to the measure electrode is measured as is the voltage with respect
to the ground.
The MLL is a single tool contains an arm with the pad attached. The central electrode is the
measure electrode. The eight other electrodes are guard electrodes.
8.2.3 Induction logging
Induction tools are based on principles of electromagnetic induction. A magnetic field is
generated by an AC electrical current flowing in a continuous loop/transmitter coil. The
magnetic field from the transmitter coil induces ground loop currents in the formation. These
ground current loops will in turn have an associated alternating magnetic field which will
induce a voltage in the receiver coil, the magnitude of which is proportional to the formation
conductivity.
1. It works in oil based muds and air filled holes where latero tool fails.
2. Tool accuracy is excellent for formations having low to moderate resistivity (up to 100
ohm-m).
3. The Dual Induction Latero (DIL) tool records three resistivity curves having different
depths of investigation.
Applications of resistivity logs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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sonic log has the shallowest investigation. Neutron and density logs are affected by a little
deeper region, depending somewhat on the porosity, but generally within the flushed zone.
8.3.1 Neutron porosity log
In neutron log we use a chemical source such as Americium Beryllium/Neutron bulb which
provides the emission of neutrons as continuous source of energy of about 4.5 MeV/14 Mev.
When neutron collides with nucleus of the atoms in the formation the neutron losses its energy
and excites the nucleus of the atoms in the formation. When the exited nucleus returns back to
its normal state, it emits Gamma ray characteristic to the atom. The analysis of the - ray
spectrum identifies the composition of the elements in the formation viz. C, H, Cl, O etc. when
the energy of the neutron reduces to thermal level and collides with Hydrogen atom its energy
reduces to 0.025eV, also the neutrons are captured emitting gamma ray. Thus the uncaptured
neutron reaching the detector is a measure of Hydrogen index of the formation.
8.3.1.1 Advantages
1. Determination of Porosity.
2. Lithology identification
3. Water saturation.
4. Gas detection.
5. Location & Monitoring of gas / oil and water / oil contacts.
6. Correlation with open hole resistivity logs.
7. Shale indicator.
8.3.2 Density log
The density measures formation bulk density and photo electric absorption index of the
lithologic column penetrated. The b density depends on fluid density and matrix density in
porous formation, and Pe depends on atomic number used to determine the lithology of
formation. To measure b and Pe gamma rays are directed to the formation. The detectors
measure the gamma ray flux resulting from scattering and absorption effect of the formation.
The higher the formation density, the lower the gamma ray intensity at the detectors.
8.3.2.1 Tool configuration
The density utilizes
1. A Cesium 137 gamma ray source
2. Two sodium iodide scintillation detectors
3. Small Cesium 137 source near the detectors
All of which are mounted on an articulated pad.
The SS detectors count rates associated with Compton scattering used only in the determination
of bulk density because it is covered by cadmium shield which absorbs all gamma rays of
energy less than 140 KeV. The LS detector count rate depends on Compton scattering and
photoelectric effect used to determine both b and Pe. The LS detector is covered by beryllium
shield absorbs rays of energy less than 160 KeV.
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8.4 Gamma ray log
The standard gamma ray tool contains no source and it responds only to gamma ray emission
from the down-hole environment. Potassium (K40), Uranium (U238), Thorium (32) are the
main radioactive materials. The main types detectors are Geiger Muller detector or
Scintillation Counters with NaI, CsI or BGO crystals (Photomultiplier, to measure incident
gamma radiation.). The detector is unshielded and will thus accept radiation from any direction.
8.4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Application
The gamma ray is particularly useful for defining shale beds when sp curve is rounded.
It is used as a quantitative indicator of shale content.
Detection and evaluation of radioactive minerals.
Delineation of non-radioactive minerals including coal beds.
Correlation in cased hole operations.
The gamma ray log used in connection with radioactive tracer operation.
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