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Abstract
Prior research has paid little attention to the careers and career models of project managers. This is troublesome for at least two reasons. First, project
managers are becoming an increasingly important category of managers and today they constitute a major part of many organizations' leadership capability.
Second, traditional literature on careers generally does not address project-based careers as a specic case in point, although this kind of career is unique in
the sense that it is based on temporary assignments and lack of formal positions. The research presented in this paper identies and explains patterns of
similarities and differences among applied career models in ten large, mature project-intensive rms in Sweden. The paper identies a number of factors that
seem to be critical for the design of career models for project managers, including the number of levels, the complexity of assignments, and the degree of
formal requirements. The paper also outlines two archetypes of career models applied by the rms under study: the competence strategy model and the
talent management model.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. APM and IPMA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Career; Career model; Project manager
1. Introduction
1.1. Project-based work, project-based careers
Already in the mid 1990s, former CEO of world electrical giant
Asea Brown Boveri (ABB) Mr. Percy Barnevik addressed the
importance of project managers to build successful project
businesses. He argued that the company was in need of more
than 350 global project managers who were able to run large-scale
projects. Barnevik stressed the fact that being a manager of such a
large endeavor is like being president of a major company or
division, and, in addition, these managers have to squarely focus
the interest of the group, and have the power to override objections
from seven national ABB companies, if it is necessary for the
project (Percy Barnevik, lecture at Linkping University, 1995,
quoted in Berggren, 1996: 135). In his analysis of ABB and its
project operations, Berggren argues that the increasing importance
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jonas.soderlund@liu.se (J. Sderlund).
0263-7863/$36.00 2012 Elsevier Ltd. APM and IPMA. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.11.010
890
the role of project manager due to high work pressure and move
into other managerial positions, despite their interest in continuing
with project management assignments (see e.g., Ricciardi, 2001).
Fifth, project management is rapidly undergoing a formal
process of professionalization through the standardization of
bodies of knowledge and certification (Morris et al., 2006), which
makes career models for project managers an interesting part of
management professionalization.
The points above indicate a need to explore in further depth the
specificities and characteristics of the project manager career, since
it might give unique insights into a particular kind of professionalization of management work and the mutual interest of laying out
career ladders in fields previously unknown to both individuals and
firms. Despite the obvious importance of project managers, there
are, as mentioned above, both problems pertaining to the
preparedness of leadership and the sustainability of leadership.
Perhaps this is the area where career models have their most
important part to play. This paper aims at increasing our
understanding of the design of formalized project manager career
models. The purpose is to describe the characteristics of formalized
project management career models in use and identify patterns of
similarities and differences across career models. We will also
suggest explanations to our observations the similarities and
differences observed among the firms, and discuss these patterns in
relation to previous research on career models in general and
careers in project-based organizations in particular. Before
presenting the empirical findings and results of this study, in the
following we will first make a comment on the definition of career
and career models applied in this paper. Then follows a note on the
changes in careers in the modern occupational world, which leads
over to a discussion on how career models in project-based
organizations can be framed and analyzed. Finally, the role and
career of project managers are discussed.
1.2. Career and career models
The concept of career is often defined as the evolving sequence
of a person's work experience over time (Arthur et al., 1989: 8).
As such, it has different meanings to people, professionally as well
as personally. Careers generally provide linkages between the inner
world of self and the outer world of society. This link, Parker
(2002) argues, is an important one because it is through their
careers that people tend to seek meaning in their work lives as well
as in their personal lives. As human beings, careers and the jobs we
carry out within them provide meaning and as Wheatley and
Kellner-Rogers (1996:63) put it, somewhat poetically: As we go
through life, we don't want to become less. We need places to
nurture our passions, places where we can become more. Work is
one of those places.
Conventional markets that used to guide careers and career
paths are, Parker (2002) argues, becoming increasingly blurred. In
recent years, research has stressed that careers often involve
moving across organizations. For instance, Baruch and Rosenstein
(1992: 478) point out that a career is a process of development of
the employee along a path of experience and jobs in one or more
organizations. Recent research has built further on this idea and
stated that careers have become more open, more diverse, and
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Table 1
Sample companies: an overview.
Company
Type of industry
Number of
employees
worldwide
ABB
Engineering
120,000
One of Sweden's largest companies, considered to be a good place to work. Generally recognized for having
good project managers and project management routines.
One of the most research-intensive organizations that has become more and more international. Considered
to be a good place to work and average in terms of project management compared to similar companies.
One of the leaders in the telecom industry. Well-known for its capabilities in systems integration and systems
engineering. The company is considered to be leading in project management.
The company has changed fundamentally in recent years, hiring more and more engineers. It is one of the
largest companies and has invested considerably in improving its project management capability.
The leader within its primary branch of industry. The company is, on the whole, considered to be a good
place to work and has grown considerably in recent years. For the past decade it has appeared regularly on
the list of most popular employers within engineering.
The company is one of the most knowledge- and engineering-intensive companies in Scandinavia. It is
well-known internationally for its ability to handle complex systems and development projects.
One of Sweden's most popular employers with a unique track record with regard to profits and development.
For the past decade it has appeared regularly on the list of most popular employers within engineering. The
company is internationally known for its project management capabilities.
A niche player within its line of business. Generally considered to be a good company, although perhaps not
as well-known as many of the other companies in the sample.
One of the leading construction companies in the world. Within construction often viewed as the best when it
comes to managing large-scale projects. The company has also a long-standing reputation as a popular employer.
A company that has changed considerably in recent years. The company is not ranked as the most popular
employer within its type of business; however, it is one of the players that invest most in human resources,
career development and training.
AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical
60,000
Ericsson
Telecom
70,000
TeliaSonera Telecom
30,000
Volvo
Transportation products
and systems
90,000
Saab
10,000
Scania
Automotive
30,000
Sandvik
High-tech, engineering
40,000
Skanska
Construction
60,000
Posten
Logistics
30,000
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Table 2
Project types and project managers.
ABB
AstraZeneca
Ericsson
TeliaSonera
Volvo
Saab
Average project
duration
250
3 months3 years
5150
35 years
5500
6 months3 years
Sandvik
10100, typically
around 20
4 months3 years
Scania
101000
26 years
50200, depends
on sub-contractors
and region
Many different kinds of
projects, ranging from 5
to 100
1 year, but
occasionally up to
3 years
Many different
lengths of projects,
ranging from
6 months to 2 years
Skanska
Posten
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Table 3
Project manager careers in ten companies: levels and requirements.
Existence of formal career
model
Saab
Yes
A company-wide career model
was developed and implemented
about four years ago. Inspired
by IPMA and PMI.
Three levels:
1. Basic
2. Senior
3. Master
Yes
There are three levels of project
management training programs,
aimed at preparing people for
project management assignments
on more complex levels.
Certification levels according to
IPMA are linked to the levels in
the career model.
Ericsson
Yes
The company has recently
developed two separate career
models for project managers.
One for development projects
within R&D and one for
business projects.
Sandvik
Yes
The studied business unit
has recently developed a
career model for project
managers.
Formalized
There is a system for
classification of projects into
three levels: 1) limited complexity,
2) complex projects with subprojects, and 3) multi-project/
program. These levels are linked
to the three levels in the career
model, but in practice this link
is hard to implement.
Formalized
Projects are classified into
complexity levels depending on
several dimensions such as
dependence on internal/external
stakeholders, organizational impact,
novelty in technology, novelty
in methods and processes applied,
level of physical dispersion, and
size. A project manager's experience
of projects on a certain complexity
level is assessed before advancement
to the next level in the career model.
ABB
Yes
Project management is one
of the key competence models
Four levels:
1. Associate project manager
2. Project manager
3. Senior project manager
4. Company senior project
manager
Not formalized
No systematic classification of
projects into complexity levels.
However. Large-scale projects and
global projects are more formalized
and typically managed by either
senior project managers or company
senior project managers.
AstraZeneca
Yes
A detailed model exists
for development project
managers
TeliaSonera
Yes
The company has recently
developed a career model
according to IPMA. The
model was intended for the
whole company, but has
not been fully implemented.
Two business units use it
actively.
Four levels:
1. Associate project manager
2. Project manager
3. Project manager director
4. Senior project management
director
Four levels:
1. Project management associates
2. Project manager
3. Senior project manager
4. Senior project director
Not formalized
No systematic classification of
projects into complexity levels.
However, global projects are in
most cases managed by project
manager directors.
Not formalized
No systematic classification of
projects into complexity levels,
but larger and more complex
projects are assigned to more
experienced project managers.
Formalized
Projects are classified as small,
medium, or large, based on budget,
size, and complexity. These project
levels are directly linked to the
three levels in the career model.
Not formalized
There are set competence
requirements concerning
project management tools and
models, as well as for leadership
skills for each level in the model.
Extensive training programs
available, but they are not formal
requirements for reaching higher
levels in the career model.
No formal certification program
implemented, the internal career
and competence models are regarded
to be enough quality assurance.
Not formalized
A formal role description which
states required experience and
competence.
There are project management
training programs, but they are not
explicitly linked to the career model.
Ongoing discussions about
certification, although no
decisions have been taken.
To some extent
Eight functional competencies
have been identified as critical,
plus three leadership competencies.
All project managers have to
attend a specific training program
ranging from basic project
management to more advanced
courses. An internal certification
framework exists.
To some extent.
Not formalized
Specific competence, leadership,
and experience requirements are
set for each level according to
IPMA. There are training programs
for project management, but these
do not explicitly correspond to the
levels in the career model.
Certification programs have been
launched according to IPMA and
PMI (in some units).
(continued on next page)
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Table 3 (continued)
Existence of formal career
model
Skanska
Yes
The company has a wellestablished career model
for project managers.
Four levels:
1. Project manager Level 1
2. Project manager Level 2
3. Project manager Level 3
4. Project manager Level 4
Not formalized
The projects are not classified
in levels that explicitly correspond
with the levels of project management.
Projects are assessed primarily based
on their size in terms of budget, and
project managers are assigned based
on level of experience and availability.
Posten
To some extent
There is no formal career
model, although there are
positions called project
manager and senior project
manager within the
organizational structure. In the
past, a lot of attention was
been paid to the senior project
managers, including a formal
organization, certification
programs and training programs.
Volvo Aero
No
No formalized career model
with multiple levels.
However, there is a
formalized unit with senior
project managers on permanent
positions to manage strategic,
company-wide projects.
No systematic classification of
projects into complexity levels, but
larger and more complex projects
are assigned to more experienced
project managers.
Scania
No
Top management has decided
not to implement a formal
career model, but has instead
emphasized the importance
of moving across assignments
as line manager and project
manager.
To some extent
A 1-week training module in
which all project managers must
participate once a year.
Besides that, there are other
available training programs, but
they do not explicitly correspond
to the project management career
model.
Requirements in terms of
experience from project work
and production manager. The
company is very project-intensive
so most management tasks and
education involve a great deal of
project management.
There is a basic training program
in project management, which is
highly recommended for project
managers, project members and
other stakeholders.
Formal requirements only set for
those that have permanent
positions as project manager or
senior project manager.
More than 25 project managers
have taken some kind of
certificate either the PMI or
the IPMA.
A comprehensive four-step
training program in 1) being
a project member, 2) tools and
methods for junior project
managers, 3) project management
in larger projects, and 4) advanced
project management for the
most experienced. Individual
development plans are in place
to secure the development of
project managers. Certification
programs have been discussed
and are considered to be
important to further develop
project managers.
There is a role description with
recommended requirements for
project managers.
There are also internal training
programs for project management,
but these are not formal requirements
for taking on project management
assignments.
Certification is not considered
important at the moment.
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levels are not linked to the project classification; the career model
is not integrated in the process of assigning project managers.
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we also know that the role of the project manager was formalized in
several companies and industries, in particular aerospace and
defense, as early as in the 1950s (Gaddis, 1959). The associations
of project management have worked hard to formalize the role of
the project manager and to professionalize the discipline of
project management. For many years, their efforts had little impact
on career models in firms but today their certification frameworks
have become integral parts in many companies' efforts to promote
the role of the project manager. In that respect, there is a tight
linkage between professionalization attempts of management and
the institutionalization of career models.
Thus, contrary to conventional orthodoxy, the explorative
study presented here sheds some new light on the notion of the
boundaryless career and its connection to organizations in the
project-based economy. Generally, careers in such context
are presented as those that move across organizations to a
greater extent than elsewhere. In that respect, the increasing
projectification would be assumed to promote the existence of
boundaryless careers. However, the findings reported here
indicate that there is another side to this development. Our
findings reveal significant efforts on behalf of the firms to
bound careers, to specify career steps and formal requirements
to make sure that project managers stay with the firm. In that
respect, the firms follow a well-known principle of investing in
resources that are highly important to their competitiveness.
As said by Heimer (1984: 306):
When an organization is interested in developing the abilities
of a group of people and in retaining them as these skills
increase, it will create hierarchies, job descriptions, and training
programs; it will pay attention to educational qualications and
experience; and it will collect and disseminate information
about these people. (Heimer, 1984: 306).
In that respect, the need to formalize career models seems to be
greater in situations when uncertainties and fluidity abound. One
might therefore argue that the flattening of organizations and
elimination of managerial layers actually work to promote the
institutionalization of management careers at least in the
domain that relates to their project activities. As recent research
has emphasized, careers have become more open, diverse, less
structured and possible to control by the employer (Baruch, 2004).
However, the investments made by the studied organizations
indicate that their attempts to control and design formalized career
models are increasing, although perhaps the possibility of actually
controlling them diminishes. One sign of the latter is the tendency
to adopt external guidelines for the design of career models and
that companies seek verification from external associations to gain
legitimacy for their activities. At the same time, some firms report
the inherent problems associated with such developments.
Aligning too much with external bodies involves the risk of
making their project managers more mobile.
There is another important peculiarity with the project manager
career not immediately seen in other areas of management. This
has to do with the possibilities of arranging for career tournaments
(Rosenbaum, 1979). In functional and hierarchical careers, there is
normally a set limit for the possibility of moving upwards.
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