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July 7, 1999
Introduction
This document provides a basic introduction to Power Quality Terminology.
1
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All Rights Reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Draft, subject to change.
July 7, 1999
Participants
At the time this recommended practice was completed, the Working Group on Power Quality Definitions had the
following membership:
Philip P. Barker, Co-Chair
2
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All Rights Reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Draft, subject to change.
July 7, 1999
Contents
1.
1.1
1.2
Overview ..............................................................................................................................................................4
Scope ................................................................................................................................................................4
Purpose .............................................................................................................................................................4
2.
3.
3.1
3.2
4.
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................5
Definitions and applications .............................................................................................................................5
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
July 7, 1999
1.
Overview
1.1
Scope
This Standard Glossary of Terminology encompasses the power quality terminology to be used to describe the
electrical power quality conditions and phenomena occurring on single-phase and polyphase ac power systems. As
such, it includes consistent descriptions of electromagnetic phenomena occurring on power systems. The document
also presents definitions of nominal conditions and of deviations from these nominal conditions which may
originate within the source of supply or load equipment, or from interactions between the source and the load.
In addition to the standard definitions which are to be utilized by other documents, this standard contains detailed
descriptions of the terminology which includes graphical information, as well as typical occurrence situations. This
additional information is to facilitate the introduction to the electrical quality subject and to provide detailed
applications information to assist in event categorization.
Included in this standard are definitions that range from the expected electrical system delivery quality to the
performance of equipment when receiving electrical power. Also included are definitions that cross over from the
reliability area, but are not typically associated with electrical quality.
Finally, the definitions are solely intended to characterize common electromagnetic phenomena to facilitate
communication between various sectors of the power quality community. The definitions are not intended to
represent performance standards or equipment tolerances. For example, suppliers of electricity may utilize different
thresholds for voltage supply than indicated in these definitions. Further, sensitive equipment may malfunction due
to electromagnetic phenomena not outside the thresholds described in this document and thus these definitions do
not in themselves constitute a means of achieving trouble free operation of loads and equipment.
1.2
Purpose
The purpose of this standard is to provide a concise listing of definitions to electrical power quality phenomena.
The user is provided with the classic definition format, but is also provided with a detailed instructional description
of the phenomena previously defined.
July 7, 1999
2.
2.1
Introduction
This section provides the accepted IEEE definition of each power quality term and a brief description of how it is
applied. Diagrams are used where appropriate to help clarify the application of the terms. The application
description is preceded by the accepted definition.
2.2
2.2.1
arrester discharge current
The current that flows through an arrester due to a surge. Source: [12]
The term arrester discharge current may be used to refer to a condition imposed on an arrester due to either
lightning or switching surges occurring on the power system. It may also be in reference to a standard test
waveshape which is used to characterize arrester protective levels [the amount of voltage occurring across the
arrester during a discharge]. Typically, arresters are tested with various waveshapes such as the 8/20 microsecond
IEEE standard test wave as defined in IEEE Standard 4-1992 and C62. For medium and higher voltage arresters,
these tests are usually performed at levels of 1.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 kA.
Arrester discharge currents caused by lightning will vary greatly depending location of the arrester, the power
system Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) rating and interconnection configuration, the location of the
lightning strike and many other factors. Arrester discharge currents due to lightning on typical medium voltage
distribution circuits are typically less than 30 kA. Arrester discharge currents for low voltage circuits [600 volts or
less] are usually much less than 10 kA but might occasionally be higher under unusual circumstances. Switching
surge currents are ordinarily less than one thousand amperes on distribution circuits.
2.2.2
arrester discharge voltage
The voltage that appears across the terminals of an arrester during the passage of discharge current. Source: [12]
This is the voltage due to the discharge current encountering the impedance of the device and is measured across the
terminals. If the device has series spark gaps which normally flashover as part of its operation, then it is the voltage
across the device following flashover of the gap and thus includes only the impedance voltage of the arrester current
conducting elements [e.g. the Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Metal-Oxide Varister (MOV) block materials]. Arresters
composed of Silicon Carbide have spark gaps and their performance must be defined by a sparkover voltage as well
as a discharge voltage. Figure 1 shows an example of an arrester discharge voltage, while Figure 2 shows an
ungapped and gapped voltage response.
July 7, 1999
2.0
Voltage (V pu)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0
20
40
60
80
100
Time (mS)
V
Ungapped
MOV
Gapped SiC
time
time
July 7, 1999
Volts
Vcrest
0.5Vcrest
50
1.2
time in microseconds
Figure 3 The BIL 1.2/50 test wave is intended to represent a typical lightning transient voltage and has a
virtual front time of 1.2 microseconds and decays to 50% of its crest value in 50 microseconds.
2.2.4
charge voltage
The voltage difference between the intruder and the receptor just prior to Electrostatic Discharge (ESD).
As an example, the classic case is a person walking across a carpeted area, and developing a substantial static
charge on the body as shown in Figure 4. Any device that is subsequently contacted by that person, could receive a
substantial ESD discharge on the order of 5-30 kV. The charge voltage is the potential difference between the
individual and the electronic device at the instant prior to contact with the device or prior to breakdown of the
insulating air path leading to the device.
Sensitive
Electronic Device
+
+ ++
+ +
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
15 kV potential
difference
Carpet
Figure 4 Classic example of ESD involving carpet and sensitive electronic device
2.2.5
common mode voltage
A voltage that appears between current-carrying conductors and ground. Source: [2] The noise voltage that
appears equally and in phase from each current-carrying conductor to ground. Source: [4]
Consider the case of a power circuit consisting of one or more phases, a neutral and a ground wire. It is possible for
the ungrounded current-carrying conductors to assume undesired equal and in phase potentials such that no
significant undesired voltage, would be measured between these conductors. However, a substantial undesired
voltage could exist between the ungrounded current carrying conductors and ground.
Common mode voltages may be steady state and of very long duration, noise or may be short duration transients
due to lightning and other surge phenomenon. Figure 5 displays an example of common mode voltage.
July 7, 1999
Phase A
Phase B
Building
Service
Phase C
Neutral
Ground
July 7, 1999
2.2.8
dip
See:
sag.
2.2.9
distortion factor (harmonic factor)
The ratio of the root-mean-square of the harmonic content to the root-mean-square value of the fundamental
quantity, expressed as a percent of the fundamental. Source: [8]
sum of ..........
squares of..........
amplitudes
of all ..........
harmonics
..........
..........
....
DF =
See:
100%
2.2.10 dropout
A loss of equipment operation (discrete data signals) due to noise, sag, or interruption. Source [4]
Digital circuits are much more susceptible to being altered by disturbances on the electrical distribution system
during what is called transition. This is a brief moment between one binary state and another, when the circuit
elements are virtually unclamped in either the true or false state. A disturbance occurring during the moment of
transition can either reinforce or reverse the intended signal. Figure 6 shows the transition portion of a digital series
of signals, and demonstrates the change due to a dropout.
Control Circuits
Data Transmission Path
Intended Signal
Received Signal
Mechanical
Load
July 7, 1999
refers specifically to the loss of a discrete digital signal on a communication path, the dropout voltage refers to the
voltage at which complete device operation is halted. The device does not necessary need to have a discrete
communication function, but it is not excluded.
Equipment may cease operation at the dropout voltage for a variety of reasons. Typically, the dropout voltage refers
to a low voltage condition. In the case of a voltage sag, often the dropout voltage will be accompanied by a
duration that must transpire at the sag voltage for equipment to cease operation. In many cases, where the
equipment is electronic in nature, a power supply consisting of diodes and capacitors performs an energy storage
function for the equipment. The system components will only continue operation as long as the power supply is
able to supply the internal voltage. Therefore, the dropout voltage is often a description of power supply
performance for electronic equipment.
A common tool that is used to evaluate equipment performance within a certain environment is the Computer
Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) curve. While the data shown in the curve was
specifically developed for data processing equipment, it provides some insight into the operation of equipment
supplied through a switched-mode power supply. Figure 7 shows the CBEMA curve.
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July 7, 1999
hundreds of megahertz. These fields can cause problems for power systems and devices, especially those within 1
km of the flash location.
immunity.
11
July 7, 1999
not intentioned to carry normal circuit current, but is only to carry fault current to clear a breaker in the event of a
fault.
Phase A
Phase B
Main
Service
Panel
Phase C
Figure 8 The equipment grounding conductor will connect the ground bus of the main service panel and
the equipment chassis
2.2.18 failure mode
The effect by which failure is observed. Source: [3]
This term essentially is the way, or mode, in which the equipment fails. Where some equipment may fail in a
destructive mode, where the equipment itself is destroyed, other equipment may fail by ceasing operations.
Properly observing the failure mode of equipment enables further clues to be gathered related to the cause of the
equipment failure. For example, when an adjustable speed drive has failed, often, the failure mode is recorded in
the system electronics, and displayed to the user. The drive may fail for a number of reasons, including low DC bus
voltage, high DC bus voltage, improper frequency, etc., where each failure mode typically will correspond to a
particular cause of failure or power quality issue.
2.2.19 flicker
Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose luminance or spectral distribution
fluctuates with time. Source [2]
See:
Flicker on a power system refers to the varying luminance of light sources under conditions of varying supply
voltage levels. Causes of voltage flicker include arc furnaces, motor starts and cycling on/off of large loads. The
human eye has the greatest sensitivity to flicker in the range of 5-10 Hertz where even a small change of about 1/2%
of nominal voltage can be perceived by the eye. Several curves are used in the industry which plot the human eye
sensitivity to flicker versus the frequency of occurrence. A curve known as the GE flicker curve is commonly used
as a guide to determine the seriousness of a flicker condition. A typical flicker voltage condition is shown in Figure
9.
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July 7, 1999
RMS
Voltage
System voltage with
flicker
% of
nominal
100
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Time (seconds)
13
July 7, 1999
System Frequency
Disturbance
Frequency
60
Hertz
50
0
10
Time (seconds)
14
July 7, 1999
A ground loop consists of a parallel path of return current exists. In Figure 11, an improper neutral-ground bond
has been made in the sub-panel. Since this panel is not a separately derived system, this bond is a violation of the
National Electrical Code, and establishes a ground loop. When a piece of equipment is operating from the subpanel, return current that should flow on the neutral conductor, instead divides, and flows on both the neutral
conductor and the conduit (the ground path in this case). The equipment grounding conductor of the end-use
equipment connects to the equipment grounding bus, which in turn connects to the panel frame, and eventually, the
conduit. Since the conduit will have an impedance, and current is flowing, the equipment grounding conductor is
subjected to a voltage. Normal operation assumes that the equipment grounding conductor is supplying a zero (or
near zero) voltage reference to the equipment. Since current is flowing on the ground path for the sub-panel,
voltage is present on the equipment grounding conductor. This voltage can and often does cause equipment failure.
An additional cause of voltage on the equipment grounding conductor due to a ground loop is noise voltage. Since
a complete loop is established from the main panel to the sub-panel (through the conduit, the improper neutralground connection, the main panel neutral-ground bond, and the neutral to the sub-panel), current can flow on this
loop within the system. This ground loop can have current induced by nearby current flows, and current flows in
the earth. This small amount of current flow causes a small amount of voltage to be formed that is non-sinusoidal,
and is a noise voltage in nature. This noise voltage can and often does cause equipment failure.
Power Conductor
Ground
Neutral
Sub-Panel
Service Neutral
Main
Breaker
Neutral Bar
Incorrect bonding jumper
between neutral & ground
Branch Circuit
Breakers
Service
Ground
Load
Subpanel Breaker
Branch Circuit
Breakers
15
July 7, 1999
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the frequency at
which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the fundamental component, usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz).
Harmonics combine with the fundamental voltage or current, and produce waveform distortion. Harmonic
distortion exists due to the nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads on the power system.
Nonlinear devices can usually be modeled as current sources that inject harmonic currents into the power system.
Voltage distortion results as these currents cause nonlinear voltage drops across the system impedance. Harmonic
distortion is a growing concern for many customers and for the overall power system due to increasing application
of power electronics equipment.
Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase
angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common to use a single quantity, termed the Total
Harmonic Distortion or the Distortion Factor, as a measure of the magnitude of harmonic distortion.
Harmonic currents result from the normal operation of nonlinear devices on the power system. Figure 12 illustrates
the waveform and harmonic spectrum for a typical adjustable speed drive input current. Current distortion levels
can be characterized by a total harmonic distortion value, as described above, but this can often be misleading. For
instance, many adjustable speed drives will exhibit high total harmonic distortion for the input current when they are
operating at very light loads. This is not a significant concern because the magnitude of harmonic current is low,
even though its relative distortion is high.
To handle this concern for characterizing harmonic currents in a consistent fashion, IEEE 519-1992 defines another
term, the Total Demand Distortion. This term is the same as the total harmonic distortion except that the distortion
is expressed as a percent of the maximum demand load current rather than as a percent of the fundamental
component of the current. IEEE 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic current and voltage distortion levels on
distribution and transmission circuits.
PWMASD45>VSRCA -BUSA
(Type 9)
Current (A)
70
Max:
Min:
Avg:
Abs:
RMS:
CF :
FF :
50
30
10
313.907
-171.704
33.5332
313.907
64.3862
4.87537
1.92007
-10
-30
-50
40
50
60
70
80
Time (mS)
DERIVED>VSRCA -BUSA
(Type 9)(2)
Current (A)
20
Freq:
Fund:
THD :
RMSh:
RMS :
ASUM:
TIF :
IT :
15
60
19.4713
41.0054
7.98431
21.0448
37.3698
427.213
8990.61
0
0
600
1200
1800
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12 Current waveform and harmonic spectrum for an Adjustable Speed Drive input current.
2.2.25 harmonic content
The quantity obtained by subtracting the fundamental component from an alternating quantity. Source: [3]
An alternating quantity is expressed in the Fourier Series that describes the frequency components of the system.
The series is typically a series of sinusoidal functions of differing frequencies and magnitudes. The harmonic
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All Rights Reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Draft, subject to change.
16
July 7, 1999
content of the waveform is found by subtracting the fundamental component (order 1 component) from the Fourier
series components. Typically, the harmonic content is also considered to have no direct current or DC (order 0)
component.
2.2.26 immunity (to a disturbance)
The ability of a device, equipment or system to perform without degradation in the presence of an electromagnetic
disturbance. Source: [2]
Immunity refers to the opposite case of electromagnetic susceptibility. The susceptibility refers to the inability of
the device to operate in the presence of an electromagnetic disturbance.
See:
electromagnetic susceptibility.
2.2.27 impulse
A pulse that, for a given application, approximates a unit pulse. Source: [2] When used in relation to the
monitoring of power quality, it is preferred to use the term impulsive transient in place of impulse. Source: [5]
See:
See:
transient.
impulsive transient.
transient.
impulse.
Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times. These phenomena can also be
described by their spectral content. For example, a 1.2/50 microsecond 2,000 V impulsive transient rises to its peak
value of 2,000 V in 1.2 microseconds, and then decays to half its peak value in 50 microseconds. See the definition
for basic lightning impulse insulation level (BIL) for more information regarding the waveform.
2.2.29 instantaneous
A time range from 0.5-30 cycles of the power frequency when used to quantify the duration of a short duration
variation as a modifier. Source: [5]
An instantaneous variation is of the category of a short duration variation. An instantaneous variation may take the
form of an interruption (Source: [6]), sag or swell, depending upon the magnitude of the variation. Table 1 shows
the typical magnitudes of various instantaneous variations.
See:
Instantaneous Variation
0.5 cycles < x < 30 cycles
Magnitudes
Interruption
< 0.1 pu
Sag
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July 7, 1999
18
July 7, 1999
Type
Duration
instantaneous interruption
momentary interruption
temporary interruption
sustained interruption
x > 1 minute
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July 7, 1999
2.2.36 isolation
Separation of one section of a system from undesired influences of other sections. Source: [4]
Isolation often occurs in the form of shielding, however, isolation can refer to basic separation of two sections or
components by physical distance.
2.2.37 linear load
An electrical load device which, in steady state operation, presents an essentially constant load impedance to the
power source throughout the cycle of applied voltage. Source: [4]
Resistors, capacitors and non-saturable inductors are essentially linear loads. Non-linear loads include devices such
as saturable inductors and transformers, solid state switching devices like SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers),
IGBTs (Insulated gate bipolar transistors), and diodes.
2.2.38
See:
Momentary Variation
30 cycles < x < 3 seconds
Magnitudes
Interruption
< 0.1 pu
Sag
Swell
20
July 7, 1999
2.2.41
momentary interruption
2.2.46 notch
A switching (or other) disturbance of the normal power voltage waveform, lasting less than 0.5 cycles, which is
initially of opposite polarity than the waveform and is thus subtracted from the normal waveform in terms of the
peak value of the disturbance voltage. This includes complete loss of voltage for up to 0.5 cycles. Source: [5]
See also: waveform distortion.
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July 7, 1999
A notch is an occurrence within the sinusoidal voltage that has a duration of less than or equal to 0.5 cycles. The
notch, however, is not a short duration variation or a transient, but typically refers to a steady state phenomena,
occurring in each cycle of a waveform in a similar manner for a period of time that is much greater than one minute.
If a phenomena that has the characteristics of a notch occurs for only one cycle, it is termed an impulsive transient.
Figure 14 shows a waveform with a notch.
1 minute or
longer
Voltage
Overvoltage
Peak Magnitude
Time
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July 7, 1999
The classic definition for power factor involves a phase shift. In a power factor case, often, the current is lagging
the voltage. The lagging term refers to the phase shift of the current with respect to the voltage. A phase shift is
simply a time delay. In other words, the peak of the current sine wave arrives shortly after (a time delay) the peak
of the voltage sine wave. Figure 16 shows a phase shift that may occur on a typical power system with current
lagging the voltage.
A point of view of an equipment designer or manufacturer might be that power quality is a perfect sinusoidal wave,
with no variations in the voltage, and no noise present on the grounding system. A point of view of an electrical
utility engineer might be that power quality is simply voltage availability or outage minutes. Finally, a point of
view of an end-user, is that power quality or quality power is simply the power that works for whatever
equipment the end-user is applying. While each hypothetical point of view has a clear difference, it is clear that
none is properly focused.
An environment where the equipment designer or manufacturer clearly states the equipment needs, and the
electrical utility engineer indicates the system delivery characteristics, and the end-user then predicts and
understands the equipment operational disturbances that will likely be encountered on a yearly basis is a better
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All Rights Reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Draft, subject to change.
23
July 7, 1999
scenario. This allows a cost justification to be performed by the end-user to either improve equipment operation by
installing additional components or improve the electrical supply system through installation of additional, or
alteration of existing components.
2.2.52 pulse
An abrupt variation of short duration of an electrical quantity followed by a rapid return to the initial value. Source:
[5]
See also: waveform distortion.
2.2.53 sag
A decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycle to
1 min. Typical values are 0.1 to 0.9 pu. Source: [5]
To give a numerical value to sag, the recommended usage is a sag to 20%, which means that the line voltage is
reduced down to 20% of the normal value, not reduced by 20%. Using the preposition of (as in a sag of 20%,
or implied by a 20% sag) is deprecated. A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for
durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. Typical values are between 0.1 pu and 0.9 pu.
Terminology used to describe the magnitude of a voltage sag is often confusing. A 20% sag can refer to a sag
which results in a voltage of 0.8 pu, or 0.2 pu. This Recommended Practice will indicate the remaining voltage
throughout. Just as an unspecified voltage designation is accepted to mean line to line potential, so an unspecified
sag magnitude will refer to the remaining voltage. For example, an 80% sag refers to a disturbance which resulted
in a voltage of 0.8 pu. Where possible, also specify the nominal, or base, voltage level.
Voltage (%)
Voltage sags are usually associated with system faults but can also be caused by switching of heavy loads or starting
of large motors. Figure 17 shows a typical voltage sag that can be associated with a single line-to-ground (SLG)
fault. Also, a fault on a parallel feeder circuit will result in a voltage drop at the substation bus which affects all of
the other feeders until the fault is cleared. Typical fault clearing times range from three to thirty cycles, depending
on the fault current magnitude and the type of overcurrent detection and interruption.
Voltage (%)
RMS Variation
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.05
25
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Time (Seconds)
0.3
0.35
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
50
75
100
125
Time (mSeconds)
150
175
200
24
July 7, 1999
system. If the current magnitude is large relative to the system available fault current, the resulting voltage sag can
be significant. Figure 18 illustrates the effect of a large motor starting.
Voltage (%)
RMS Variation
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Time (Seconds)
25
July 7, 1999
See:
transient.
26
Voltage (%)
July 7, 1999
Voltage (%)
RMS Variation
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
0
0.05
25
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Time (Seconds)
0.3
0.35
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
50
75
100
125
Time (mSeconds)
150
175
200
2.2.61
temporary interruption
See:
interruption, temporary.
2.2.62 tolerance
The allowable variation from a nominal value.
2.2.63 total harmonic distortion
This term has come into common usage to define either voltage or current distortion factor. Source: [8]
See:
distortion factor.
harmonic (component).
2.2.64 transient
Pertaining to or designating a phenomenon or a quantity which varies between two consecutive steady states during
a time interval that is short compared to the time scale of interest. A transient can be a unidirectional impulse of
either polarity or a damped oscillatory wave with the first peak occurring in either polarity. Source: [2]
Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into two categories, impulsive and oscillatory. These terms reflect the
waveshape of a current or voltage transient. An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All Rights Reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Draft, subject to change.
27
July 7, 1999
steady state condition of voltage, current, or both, that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or
negative). Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times. These phenomena can also
be described by their spectral content. For example, a 1.2/50 s 2000-V impulsive transient rises to its peak value
of 2000 V in 1.2 s, then decays to half its peak value in 50 s.
The most common cause of impulsive transients is lightning. Figure 21 illustrates a typical current impulsive
transient caused by lightning. Table 4 defines the spectral content and the duration of impulsive transients.
Impulsive Transients
Spectral Content
Duration
Nanosecond
5 ns rise
< 50 ns
Microsecond
1 s rise
50 ns 1 ms
Millisecond
0.1 ms rise
> 1 ms
28
July 7, 1999
defined in Table 5 are high, medium, and low frequency. The frequency ranges for these classifications are chosen
to coincide with common types of power system oscillatory transient phenomena.
Oscillatory Transient
Spectral Content
Duration
Voltage Magnitude
Low Frequency
x < 5 kHz
0.3 50 ms
0 4 pu
Medium Frequency
20 s
0 8 pu
High Frequency
5 s
0 4 pu
Current (A)
5000
2500
-2500
-5000
-7500
8
10
12
14
Time (mS)
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July 7, 1999
A transient with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz, and a duration from 0.3 ms to 50 ms, is considered
a low frequency transient.
This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on subtransmission and distribution systems and is caused by
many types of events, primarily capacitor bank energization. The resulting voltage waveshape is very familiar to
power system engineers and can be readily classified using the attributes discussed so far. Capacitor bank
energization typically results in an oscillatory voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 and 900 Hz.
The transient has a peak magnitude that can approach 2.0 pu, but is typically 1.3 - 1.5 pu lasting between 0.5 and 3
cycles depending on the system damping (see Figure 23).
34.5 kV Bus Voltage
Capacitor Switching Transient
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Vol
tag
- 0.5
e
(V
- 1.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
- 1.5
Voltage (V)
400000
200000
-200000
-400000
-600000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Time (mS)
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July 7, 1999
Undervoltages are the result of the events which are the reverse of the events that cause overvoltages. A load
switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an undervoltage until voltage regulation equipment on the
system can bring the voltage back to within tolerances. Overloaded circuits can result in undervoltages also.
The term brownout is sometimes used to describe sustained periods of low power-frequency voltage initiated as a
specific dispatch strategy to reduce power delivery. The type of disturbance described by brownout is basically the
same as that described by the term undervoltage defined here. Because there is no formal definition for the term
brownout, and because the term is not as clear as the term undervoltage when trying to characterize a disturbance,
the term brownout should be avoided in future power quality activities in order to avoid confusion.
2.2.66 voltage change
A variation of the rms or peak value of a voltage between two consecutive levels sustained for definite but
unspecified durations. Source: [2]
2.2.67
voltage dip
See:
sag.
Voltage (V pu)
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0
50
100
150
200
Time (mS)
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July 7, 1999
Arc furnaces are the most common cause of voltage fluctuations on the transmission and distribution system. The
voltage signal is defined by its rms magnitude expressed as a percent of the fundamental. Lighting flicker is
measured with respect to the sensitivity of the human eye. An example of a voltage waveform which produces
flicker is shown in Figure 25.
Voltage fluctuations generally appear as a modulation of the fundamental frequency (similar to amplitude
modulation of an am radio signal). Therefore, it is easiest to define a magnitude for the voltage fluctuation as the
rms magnitude of the modulation signal. This can be obtained by demodulating the waveform to remove the
fundamental frequency and then measuring the magnitude of the modulation components. Typically, magnitudes as
low as 0.5% can result in perceptible light flicker if the frequencies are in the range of 6 8 Hz.
2.2.70 voltage imbalance (unbalance), polyphase systems
The maximum deviation among the three phases from the average three-phase voltage divided by the average threephase voltage. The ratio of the negative or zero sequence component to the positive sequence component, usually
expressed as a percentage. Source: [3]
Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as the ratio of the negative or zero sequence component to the positive
sequence component. The negative or zero sequence voltages in a power system generally result from unbalanced
loads causing negative or zero sequence currents to flow. Figure 26 shows an example of a one-week trend of
imbalance measured at one point on a residential feeder.
Imbalance can be estimated as the maximum deviation from the average of the three phase voltages or currents,
divided by the average of the three phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent. In equation form:
maximum
deviation
from
average
voltage
....................
..........
..........
..........
..........
................
average voltage
For example, with phase-to-phase voltage readings of 230, 232, and 225, the average is 229. The maximum
deviation from the average among the three readings is 4. The percent imbalance is 100 * 4/229 = 1.7%.
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V0/V1
V2/V1
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Sat
Sun
Mon
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a voltage variation (e.g. Sag, Swell, or Interruption) and possibly a modifier indicating the duration of the variation
(e.g., Instantaneous, Momentary or Temporary). Source: [5]
The short duration variation is the general category of events that last for a time period that is greater than 0.5
cycles, but less than or equal to 1 minute. It is not to be confused with steady state changes in the waveform such as
harmonics, notching or noise, which can have a duration within the range of a short duration variation, but typically
repeat for each cycle of the sinusoidal waveform.
Short duration variations are almost always caused by fault conditions, such as the energization of large loads that
require starting current that is a multiple of the operating current (motors), or conditions such as loose connections
in the current carrying circuit conductors. In addition, while most short duration variations are described as voltage
variations in nature, current variations can also fall into the short duration variation as well. Figure 27 shows the
time frame of the types of short duration variations.
See:
instantaneous.
interruption, momentary.
interruption, temporary.
momentary.
sag.
swell.
DC Offset
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All Rights Reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Draft, subject to change.
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July 7, 1999
DC offset is the presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset. This phenomenon
can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or due to the effect of half-wave rectification. Incandescent
light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist of diodes that reduce the rms voltage supplied to the light bulb by
half-wave rectification. Direct current in alternating current networks can be detrimental due to an increase in
transformer saturation, additional stressing of insulation and other adverse effects.
Interharmonics are voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the frequency
at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz) are called interharmonics. They can appear
as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum.
Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage classes. The main sources of interharmonic waveform
distortion are static frequency converters, cyclo-converters, induction motors and arcing devices. Power line carrier
signals can also be considered as interharmonics.
The effects of interharmonics are not well known, but have been shown to affect power line carrier signaling, and
induce visual flicker in display devices such as CRTs. The IEC [1] places background noise phenomenon in the
interharmonic category. This document discusses noise separately as a distinct electromagnetic phenomenon later
in this section.
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power electronics devices when
current is commutated from one phase to another.
Voltage notching represents a special case that falls between transients and harmonic distortion. Since notching
occurs continuously (steady state), it can be characterized through the harmonic spectrum of the affected voltage.
However, the frequency components associated with notching can be quite high and may not be readily
characterized with measurement equipment normally used for harmonic analysis.
Three-phase converters that produce continuous dc current are the most important cause of voltage notching (Figure
28). The notches occur when the current commutates from one phase to another. During this period, there is a
momentary short circuit between two phases. The severity of the notch at any point in the system is determined by
the source inductance and the isolating inductance between the converter and the point being monitored. Notching
is described in detail in IEEE 519-1992.
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July 7, 1999
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz superimposed
upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines.
Noise in power systems can be caused by power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipment, loads with
solid-state rectifiers, and switching power supplies. Noise problems are often exacerbated by improper grounding.
Basically, noise consists of any unwanted distortion of the power signal that cannot be classified as harmonic
distortion or transients.
The frequency range and magnitude level of noise depend on the source which produces the noise and the system
characteristics. A typical magnitude of noise is less than one percent of the voltage magnitude. Noise disturbs
electronic devices such as microcomputer and programmable controllers. The problem can be mitigated by using
filters, isolation transformers, and some line conditioners.
36