1

Summer Training Report

On

study and calculation of efficiency

of centrifugal pump p-309 .

Submitted To:
Submitted By:
Mr. U.P SINGH(H.O.D)
SAXENA
(AMM.DEPTT.)
DIPLOMA IN 2ndYEAR
Mr. R.K SRIVASTAVA(AMM. DEPTT.)
TECH. FERT.)
1

AKSHAY

(CHEM.

Mr. MANEESH S ANKHYADHAR(AMM. DEPTT.)

BUDAUN

GOVT. POLY.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Tata Chemicals Ltd., for granting me
opportunity to get exposure to industrial environment
I pay my sincere regards to Mr. U.P. SINGH(H.O.D of Ammonia Plant) for his
overwhelming support as a project guide; to Mr.R. K. SRIVASTAVA& Mr. MANEESH
SANKHYADHAR (AMM DEPTT.) for his benevolent guidance.
I would like to thank Ms. AMITA BAHETI ,Mr.RAJENDER SINGH, HR and to
Mr.AKASHDEEP GUPTA(AMM DEPTT.),Mr. SANDEEP GUPTA(F & S DEPTT.) for
taking care and making the stay pleasant at TCL, Babrala

I would also like to extend my thanks to my fellow summer trainees for giving
their support in completion of this project.

CONTENTS
Sr.
1.
2.
3.

TITLE
About TCL, Babrala
Fire & Safety
Plant Overview
Ammonia production

4.

Centrifugal pump

5.

Calculation of efficiency of P-309

6.

Bibliography.

ABOUT TATA CHEMICALS LIMITED, BABRALA

Tata Group, India's foremost business conglomerate.Tata Chemicals, by itself, is one of the
largest inorganic complexes in the world beginning to TATA Group. Its first plant, which is
also called inaugurated establishment of TATA.It isIndia's leading manufacturer and marketer
of inorganic chemicals and fertilizers, with a turnover of over Rs. 4000 crores and is part of
the Rs 65,000-crore ($14.25 billion) TCL's products and production processes are
benchmarked with the best of global touchstones, and meet the most rigorous international
specifications., Established in 1939. An ISO-9001/14001 OHSAS 18001 certified company,
TCL has a varied user industry base comprising glass, paper, textiles, food additives,
petroleum, refining, chemicals, dyes, pesticides, direct farm application etc. The products go
3

into numerous end-use applications in a variety of industries: glass, detergents, paper,

textiles, agriculture, photography, pharmaceuticals, food, tanning, rayon, pulp, paints,
building and construction, and chemicals.
Tata Chemicals is also one of India's leading manufacturers of urea and phosphatic
fertilizers. With an export presence in South and Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa,
it has set itself the objective of achieving global cost competitiveness in soda-ash. Its foray
into phosphatic fertilizers follows the merger of Hind Lever Chemicals Limited into Tata
Chemicals Limited. TCL's phosphatic fertilizer complex at Haldia in West Bengal is currently
the only manufacturing unit for DAP/NPK complexes in West Bengal. The Haldia plant has
production volumes exceeding 1.2 million tons per annum. Tata Chemicals makes urea at its
fertilizer complex in Babrala. The complex has an installed capacity of 8, 64,000 tons per
year, which constitutes nearly 12 per cent of the total urea produced by India's private sector.
Tata Chemicals is among the world's largest producers of synthetic soda ash, with the largest
domestic market share, produced at the company's integrated complex at Mithapur on the
Gujarat coast in western India.
The fertilizers, sold under the brand name 'Paras', lead the market in West Bengal,
Bihar and Jharkhand. TCL is also a pioneer and market leader in the branded, iodized salt
segment. Its salt has a purity percentage of 99.8 per cent, the highest in the country.

CREDENTIALS OF TATA CHEMICALS LIMITED BABRALA

AWARDS:

2011-12:
CII-ITC sustainability trophy 2011-12
IFA Green Leaf Award for Excellence in Safety, Health and the Environment in Fertilizer
Production 2011-12
CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre Excellence in Water Management-Within
the Fence-2011.
National Awards for Indira Gandhi ParyavaranPurskar 2011-12
Mother Teresa Award for Corporate Citizen 2011-12
CNBC Asia's India Corporate Social Responsibility Award 2011-12
Product of the Year - 2012 for Tata Swach water purifier
ICC RC Logo use award 2012
Environment Protection Award (Runner-Up) by FAI 2011-12
4

 Surakasha (Safety) Puraskar from NSCI -2011

2012-13
FAI: ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AWARD: NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER PLANT
PERFORMA FOR ENTRY 2012-13
Yes Bank Sustainability Award 2012-13
IFA Green Leaf SHE Award (Runner up) 2012-13
FE-EVI Green Business Leaders Award 2012
'Sustainability Plus' - the world's first corporate sustainability label by CII 2012
Excellence in Safety, Health and Environment by International Fertilizer Association
(1st runner up) 2012
SreshtraSurakashaPuraskar from NSCI -2012

TCL BABRALA: THE NATIONS CONCEIT

Substituting a part of the imports of Urea, TCL, Babrala is estimated to save the country
about Rs. 500 crores in foreign exchange every year and provide the farmer with
nitrogenous nutrient, which could help raise the food production by about 4 million
tonnes/year.
First major steps towards the fulfilment of a long standing TATA CHEMICALS
commitment to provide the farmer with an optimal package of agriculture inputs to safe
guard the food security of the company.
Produced more than 100% of the designated production during the first year of
commercial production.
Produced more than 8, 40,102.35 tonnes of Urea achieving a capacity of 11.3% in the
year1995-96, and produced 9, 51,764 tonnes of Nitrogenous Urea in year 1996-97.
Now produce capacity of 12, 00,000 tonnes of Urea per year, which constitutes nearly 13
per cent of the total urea produced by India's private sector.
Total production of urea at Babrala is 3500 tonnes/day and maximum of 3574 tonnes/day
till date.
Current maximum capacity is 102%.
It is the only fertilizer plant in the country to use dual feedstock: natural gas or naphtha,
or a combination of both.

MILESTONES OF TATA CHEMICALS LTD. BABRALA

Commercial Production Started on

December 21, 1994

AMMONIA UNIT
First firing of Reformer Furnace for dry out of refractory
First feed into Primary Reformer
First Carbon Dioxide for making Urea
First Ammonia production

October 12, 1994

October 20, 1994
October 23, 1994
November 14, 1994

UREA UNIT
Urea Prill Test conducted
First Prill Test conducted through Unit 2
Second Prill Test conducted through Unit 2

October 04, 1994

November 05, 1994
December 09, 1994

ISO 14001 certificate obtained in October 2000.

ISO 14001 certificate for Babrala township obtained in 2004.

COMPOSITION OF TATA CHEMICALS LTD. BABRALA

1. Ammonia Plant
Capacity: 2007.16 MTPD
Technology: HALDOR TOPSE Process, DENMARK
Plant (Single Stream) Production: 2007.16 Metric tonnes/ day of liquid Ammonia.
Plant at TCL, Babrala is the first low energy plant in the country.
Basic scheme involves the following steps:

Desulphurization.
Primary and Secondary Reforming.
Carbon Dioxide Shift.
Methanation.
Synthesis and Chilling.
Storage and supply to Urea unit

2.Urea Plant
Capacity: 3500 MTPD
Technology: SNAMPROGETTI Process, ITALY
Carbon Dioxide requirements supplied from ammonia plant.
Two urea strings have a common Prilling section.
Maximum Urea production: 3574 tonnes per day
Basic scheme involves the following steps:
Urea Synthesis
Waste Water Treatment section

S. N.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

3.Offsite and Utilities

UNIT
CAPACITY
Ammonia Storage Tank
2X5000 MT
Captive Power Plant
1X110 TPH
Cooling Tower
24000 M3/hr
D. M. Water Plant
3X450 M3
Gas Turbine Generator
2X20 MW
Heat Recovery Unit
2X90 TPH
Naptha Bulk Storage
3X6300 KL
Tank

TECHNOLOGY
M/S Kaveri Engineering
THERMAX/ L&T
M/S Paharpur Cooling Tower
TCL, Mithapur
THOMASSON, Holland
L&T
M/S TechnofabEngg. Ltd.

SALIENT FEATURES OF TATA CHEMICALS LTD.BABRALA

Location
Land Area

Fuel
Fuel Source
Consumptive water
source
Present installed
capacity
Project cost
Man power
Deployment (During
Commissioning/
Erecting phase
Beneficiary states

Babrala, District Badaun, Rajpura block, Gunnor Tehsil, Uttar

Pradesh. Approx. 160km. south-east of Delhi.
1519 acres
Plant area:1,069 acres
Township area:350 acres
Green belt: 100 acres
Natural gas (main)
Naphtha (alternate)
Natural gas supplied by GAIL (HBJ Pipeline)
Naphtha from IOCL, Mathura
Six deep bore wells.
Ammonia:2007.16 MTPD
Urea: 3500 MTPD
1532 crores
Total 7,855,128 man-hours.
Peak (month) 405,799 man-hours.
U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, M.P., Assam.

UNIQUE FEATURES OF TATA CHEMICALS LTD. BABRALA

An integrated energy network, which is the key, factor in achieving high energy
efficiency. The flexible range of the ratio of natural gas and naphtha as a fuel/
feed is a major reason for this. The current low operating energy record is
5.055 Gcal/T of Urea.
The second unique feature is common single central control room (CCR) for
ammonia, Urea to captive power and steam generation plant (CPSSGP) and other
offsite and utility plants. This provides a well coordinated and integrated control
of the entire complex from one location and on line inters plant sharing of
information. This has been found extremely beneficial especially during plant
startups and upsets.
QUALITY POLICY OF TATA CHEMICALS LTD.
To provide customer satisfaction and timely delivery of quality products.
8

Maintain good quality management systems and incorporate regular

improvements to meet our customer changing needs.
Continuously upgrade product quality by improvements in process technology.
Develop and upgrade employee skills and provide an environment for their
effective participation through teamwork to meet our customer expectations.
Take adequate care to ensure safety at the work place, environmental
preservations and to respond to the needs of the community.

FIRE AND SAFETY

FIRE CHEMISTRY: The well known Fire triangle requires the three ingredients of fire
namely fuel, oxygen and source of ignition.
A fire is a combination of fuel, oxygen and source of ignition.
Fire control could thus be carried out by either:
Cutting the supply of FUEL STARVATION.
Cutting the supply of AIR SMOTHERING.
Lowering the temperature (below the ignition pt.) COOLING.
2.1 FIRE PREVENTION:
Fire prevention can be done in three ways:
a.) Eliminate sources of ignition.
b.) Eliminate combustible substances.
c.) Eliminate air excess to combustible substances.
a.) FIRE PREVENTION THROUGH ELIMINATION OF IGNITION SOURCES:
To prevent fire the first is to remove the cause of fire. Studies made by fire insurance
company shows that majority of fires are caused by following general sources of ignition:
Electrically limited fire: Improper earthing, short circuiting, loose electrical contacts,
temporary direct connections without proper fittings, high current, over heating of electrical
equipment are among the common cause of electrically initiative fires.
Smoking ignited fire: Smoking or even carrying cigarettes/ beedies/matches/lighter etc. in
the following areas is a serious offence. All non-smoking areas should carry NO
SMOKING signboards.
Friction and over heated material: In flame proof areas, frictional fires can also be started
by the friction of moving parts of machinery which are overheated due to excess friction.
This is likely in non-lubricated and not well maintained machinery.
b.) FIRE PREVENTION
MATERIALS:

THROUGH

ELIMINATION

OF

COMBUSTIBLE
9

Waste and combustible materials: All combustible wastes and materials like waste
paper, cotton waste etc. accumulated after a job should be transported to waste bins
and is the responsibilities of the person doing the job that creates the wastes.Tins and
cans of flammable materials like paints, oils, spirit etc.: These should b handled
carefully ensuring that no undue spillages takes place during their uses and any
spillages takes place during their use and any spillage should be cleaned immediately.

Fueling of vehicle tanks: Engine should be always switched off while fueling a
vehicle. If diesel or petrol spills over during fueling, dry sand should covered over the
spill immediately till only dry sand is visible on the spilled area.

Waste disposal: All combustible waste must be regarded in such a way that can be
disposed off as such and not burnt.

c.) PREVENTION THROUGH ELIMINATION OXYGEN SUPPLY:

Smoothening: It is a process of covering the burning area with a non-combustible

substance like asbestos or fire proof blanket, wet thick cotton blanket or sand.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES:

Fires are classified according to the nature of fuel burning and fire extinguishing methods
that can be applied and the following is the fire classification under the Indian fire code.
CLASS A FIRE
CLASS B FIRE
CLASS C FIRE
CLASS D FIRE
CLASS E FIRE
CLASS A FIRE: Fires where the burning fuel is a cellulosic material such as wood,
clothing, paper etc. is called class A fire.
It can be extinguished by the water and sand. Class A fires can also be extinguished by
all the available means of extinguishing fires like foam, soda acid, dry chemical powder,
carbon dioxide etc.
CLASS B FIRE: Fires where the burning fuel is a flammable liquid Naphtha, petrol etc.
are categorised as class B fire.
Blanketing is a useful first aid fire control for B class fire. Water is forbidden as a fire
fighting means on class B fires. Foam, carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder
extinguishers are the desired means of controlling B class fires.
CLASS C FIRE: Fire involving flammable like natural gases hydrogen are classified as
class C fire.
The best means of extinguishing C type fire is by stopping the gas supply to the leaking
vessels or pipe lines if possible. This must be the intermediate and very first step. Dry
chemical powder and carbon dioxide are useful in controlling C class fire.
CLASS D FIRE: Fire involving material like magnesium, aluminium, zinc, potassium etc.
are classified as class D fire. Sand buckets are useful in most cases of metallic fires.
Special dry chemical powder also works on class D fires.
CLASS E FIRE: Fires involving electrical equipments are classified as E class fires.
Only carbon dioxide and D.C.P extinguishers are used on class E fires.
2.3 FIRE FIGHTING GADGETS AND APPLIANCES:10

a) CO2:- It contain under pressurized liquid carbon dioxide.

b) SODA ACID:- Contain a double container with sodium bicarbonate solution in
outer container and dilute sulphuric acid in the inner container. After the inner
container both react and produce a liquid of entrapped CO2.
c) FOAM:- Contain aluminous sulphate in inner container and sodium bicarbonate
in outer one. After cracking the container both reacts to produce carbon dioxide
and the foam stabilizer makes stable form of carbon dioxide.
d) DRY CHEMICAL POWDER:- It contains an inert dry chemical powder of
sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate or potassium chloride and
diammonium phosphate along with liquid carbon dioxide under pressure.
e) HALON/ BROMOCHLOROFLUORO METHANE:-Halon is in the form of a
liquid gas under pressure that is released on pressing the knob.

2.4 SAFETY PROGRAMME AT T.C.L

The company conducts regular programmes for safety measures, which not only creates
awareness about safety but also maintains it; the fire and safety department of T.C.L
organizes many programmes to motivate in this direction and to make the employees aware.
National safety day 4th march is being celebrated each year with earnestness and includes
various awareness programmes, competitions and includes various awareness programmes,
competitions etc. some of these are listed below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Training programmes on safety.

Home safety.
Use of safety equipments.
Safety quiz.
Safety slogan competition.

SAFETY PROVISIONS
1. Personal protective equipment (PPEs ): The various types of PPEs are: Helmet for head protection.
Goggles for eye protection.
Ear plugs and muff for ear protection.
Safety shoes for foot protection.
Gloves for hand protection.
Face shields foot protection.
Full body protection suits.
Hoods for head, neck, face, and, eye protection.
Safety belts or life belts or harness.
Breathing apparatus or respiratory protection equipment.
2. Fencing of machinery.
11

3. Devices for cutting of power.

4. Hoists and lifts.

Introduction
Almost everyone has smelled the sharp, penetrating odor of ammonia, NH3. As the
active product of smelling salts, the compound can quickly revive the faint of heart
and light of head. But more than a sniff of this toxic, reactive, and corrosive gas can
make one very ill indeed. It can, in fact, be fatal. Ammonia is pretty nasty stuff.
Nevertheless, it is also an extremely important bulk chemical widely used in
fertilizers, plastics, and explosives.

Physical Properties of Ammonia:

The melting and boiling points of ammonia, 77.7C and 33.5C, respectively, are
both considerably higher than the corresponding properties of its chemical cousins,
PH3 and AsH3. This failure of NH3 to follow the usual trend of decreasing melting and
boiling points with decreasing molecular weights indicates abnormally strong
intermolecular attractions. The forces involved stem from hydrogen bonding, a
consequence of the high electronegativity of nitrogen and the small size of the
hydrogen atom
Chemical Propertiesof Ammonia:
The NH3 molecule has a large dipole moment, and this is consistent with its
geometry, a trigonal pyramid.

12

The electronic arrangement in nitrogen obeys the octet rule. The four pairs of
electrons (three bonding pairs and one non-bonding lone pair) repel each other,
giving the molecule its non-planar geometry. The HNH bond angle of 107 degrees
is close to the tetrahedral angle of 109.5 degrees. Because of this, the electronic
arrangement of the valence electrons in nitrogen is described as sp 3 hybridization of
atomic orbitals.
The polarity of NH3 molecules and their ability to form hydrogen bonds explains to
some extent the high solubility of ammonia in water. However, a chemical reaction
also occurs when ammonia dissolves in water. In aqueous solution, ammonia acts
as a base, acquiring hydrogen ions from H2O to yield ammonium and hydroxide
ions.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The production of hydroxide ions when ammonia dissolves in water gives aqueous
solutions of ammonia their characteristic alkaline (basic) properties. The double
arrow in the equation indicates that equilibrium is established between dissolved
ammonia gas and ammonium ions. Not all of the dissolved ammonia reacts with
water to form ammonium ions. A substantial fraction remains in the molecular form in
solution. In other words, ammonia is a weak base. A quantitative indication of this
strength is given by its base ionization constant:
In contrast, the ammonium ion acts as a weak acid in aqueous solution because it
dissociates to form hydrogen ion and ammonia.

NH4+(aq) NH3(aq) + H+(aq)

The ammonium ion is found in many common compounds, such as ammonium
chloride, NH4Cl. Typically, ammonium salts have properties similar to the
corresponding compounds of the Group IA alkali metals.
Uses of Ammonia:
Ammonia is shipped as a liquefied gas under its own vapor pressure of 114 psig.
The oldest commercial refrigerant known and still in use today. Most extensive use is
in soil fertilization. This application is used in the form of salts, nitrates and urea.
It is the simplest stable compound of these elements and serves as a starting
13

material for the production of many commercially important nitrogen compounds.

Pure ammonia was first pre-pared by Joseph Priestley in 1774, and its exact
composition was determined by Claude-Louis Berthollet in 1785.
Ammonia is highly soluble in water, forming an alkaline solution called ammonium
hydroxide. Moreover, it becomes highly reactive when dissolved in water and readily
combines with
many chemicals. Ammonia is easily liquefied by compression or by cooling to about
-33 C (-27.4 F). In returning to the gaseous state, it absorbs substantial amounts of
heat from its surroundings (i.e., one gram of ammonia absorbs 327 calories of heat).
Because of this property, it is frequently employed as a coolant in refrigerating and
air-conditioning equipment.
The chief commercial method of producing ammonia is by the Haber-Bosch process,
which involves the direct synthesis of the compound from its constituent elements.
Ammonia from the
Haber-Bosch process is supplemented by ammonia obtained as a by-product of
coke ovens.
The major use of ammonia is as a fertilizer. It is most commonly applied directly to
the soil from tanks containing the liquefied gas. Additional quantities are converted
into ammonium nitrate,
ammonium phosphate, and other salts that also are utilized primarily in commercial
fertilizers. In the textile industry ammonia is used in the manufacture of synthetic
fibers such as nylon and rayon. In addition, it is employed in the dyeing and scouring
of cotton, wool, and silk. Ammonia serves as a catalyst in the production of Bakelite
and some other synthetic resins. More importantly, it neutralizes acidic by-products
of petroleum refining, and in the rubber industry it prevents the coagulation of raw
latex during transportation from plantation to factory. Ammonia also finds application
in both the ammonia-soda, or Solvay, process, a widely used method for producing
soda ash, and the Ostwald process, a method for converting ammonia into nitric
acid. Ammonia is used in various metallurgical processes, including the nitriding of
alloy sheets to harden their surfaces. Because ammonia can be decomposed easily
to yield hydrogen, it is a convenient
portable source of atomic hydrogen for welding. Finally, among its minor uses
inclusion in certain household cleansing agents.
14

Nitrogen Cycle:
All life requires nitrogen-compounds, e.g., proteins and nucleic acids.

Air, which is 79% nitrogen gas (N2), is the major reservoir of nitrogen.

But most organisms cannot use nitrogen in this form.

Plants must secure their nitrogen in "fixed" form, i.e., incorporated in

compounds such as:

nitrate ions (NO3)

ammonia (NH3)

urea (NH2)2CO

Animals secure their nitrogen (and all other) compounds from plants (or
animals that have fed on plants).

Four processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere:

Nitrogen fixation

Decay

Nitrification

Denitrification

Microorganisms play major roles in all four of these.

Nitrogen Fixation:

The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. To break it apart so that its atoms can
combine with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy.
15

Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere:

atmospheric fixation by lightning

biological fixation by certain microbes alone or in a symbiotic relationship

with plants

industrial fixation

Atmospheric Fixation:

The enormous energy of lightning breaks nitrogen molecules and enables their
atoms to combine with oxygen in the air forming nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in
rain, forming nitrates, which are carried to the earth.
Atmospheric nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 5 8% of the total nitrogen
fixed.
Industrial Fixation

Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600C, and with the use of a catalyst,
atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen (usually derived from natural gas or petroleum)
can be combined to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer,
but most of its is further processed to urea and ammonium nitrate (NH 4NO3).
Biological Fixation

The ability to fix nitrogen is found only in certain bacteria.

Some live in a symbiotic relationship with plants of the legume family (e.g.,
soybeans, alfalfa).

Some establish symbiotic relationships with plants other than legumes (e.g.,
alders).

Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live free in the soil.

Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are essential to maintaining the fertility of semiaquatic environments like rice paddies.

Biological nitrogen fixation requires a complex set of enzymes and a huge

expenditure of ATP.
Although the first stable product of the process is ammonia, this is quickly
incorporated into protein and other organic nitrogen compounds.
Decay:

The proteins made by plants enter and pass through food webs just as
carbohydrates do. At each trophic level, their metabolism produces organic nitrogen
16

compounds that return to the environment, chiefly in excretions. The final

beneficiaries of these materials are microorganisms of decay. They break down the
molecules in excretions and dead organisms into ammonia.
Nitrification:

Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants usually through their roots. However,
most of the ammonia produced by decay is converted into nitrates. This is
accomplished in two steps:

Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2).

Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3).

These two groups or autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria. Through their
activities (which supply them with all their energy needs), nitrogen is made available
to the roots of plants.
Many legumes, in addition to fixing atmospheric nitrogen, also perform nitrification
converting some of their organic nitrogen to nitrites and nitrates. These reach the soil
when they shed their leaves.
Denitrification:

The three processes above remove nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it
through ecosystems.
Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the atmosphere.

Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments
where conditions are anaerobic. They use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen for the
final electron acceptor in their respiration
Thus they close the nitrogen cycle.
Are the denitrifies keeping up?

Agriculture may now be responsible for one-half of the nitrogen fixation on earth
through

the use of fertilizers produced by industrial fixation

the growing of legumes like soybeans and alfalfa.

This is a remarkable influence on a natural cycle.

Are the denitrifiers keeping up the nitrogen cycle in balance? Probably not. Certainly,
there are examples of nitrogen enrichment in ecosystems. One troubling example:
the "blooms" of algae in lakes and rivers as nitrogen fertilizers leach from the soil of
17

adjacent farms (and lawns). The accumulation of dissolved nutrients in a body of

water is called eutrophication.

PLANT OVERVIEW
18

AMMONIA
Properties of ammonia
Molecular weight: 17.03 g/mol
Melting point: -78oC
Boiling point (1.013 bar): -33.5oC
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point): 1371.2 kJ/kg
Latent heat of fusion (1,013 bars, at triple point): 331.37 kJ/kg
Vapor pressure (at 21oC or 70oF): 8.88 bar
Critical point - Critical temperature: 132.4oC - Critical pressure: 112.8 bar
Gas Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21oC (70oF)): 1.411 m3/kg
Gas Ratio of Specific Heats (: Cp/Cv) (1.013 bar and 15oC (59oF)): 1.309623
Gas Solubility in water (1.013 bar and 0oC (32oF)): 862 vol/vol
Gas Auto ignition temperature: 630oC
Properties
Density (1.013 bar at Bp) (kg/m3 )
Specific heat capacity (Cp)
(kJ/kg.K)
Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
Thermal conductivity (kW/m.K)

Liquid phase
250 K 300 K 400 K
669
600
346
4.52

4.75

245
106
592
106

141
106
477
106

6.91

Vapor phase (1.013 bar )

0.86
at constant volume (cv)
0.028
at constant pressure (cp)
0.037

38 106

0.000098 Poise (0oC)

207
106

22.19 (0oC )

Uses of ammonia
Agricultural industries are the major users of ammonia, representing nearly 80% of all
ammonia produced. Ammonia is a very valuable source of nitrogen that is essential for
plant growth. It is used in the production of liquid fertilizer solutions which consist of
ammonia, ammonium nitrate, and urea and aqua ammonia.
19

 Ammonia and urea are used as a source of protein in livestock feeds for ruminating
animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
Dissociated ammonia is used in some metal treating operations as nitriding,
carbonitriding, bright annealing, furnace brazing, sintering, sodium hydride
descaling, atomic hydrogen welding and other applications where protective
atmospheres are required.
Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid; certain alkalies such as soda ash;
dyes; pharmaceuticals such as sulfa drugs, vitamins and cosmetics; synthetic textile fibers
such as nylon, rayon and acrylics; and for the manufacture of certain plastics such as
phenolics and polyurethanes.
Ammonia is used in the mining industry for extraction of metals such as copper, nickel
and molybdenum from their ores.
Ammonia is used in several areas of water and wastewater treatment, such as pH
control, in solution form to regenerate weak anion exchange resins, in conjunction with
chlorine to produce potable water and as an oxygen scavenger in boiler water treatment.
Ammonia is used in stack emission control systems to neutralize sulfur oxides from
combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, as a method of NOx control in both catalytic and
non-catalytic applications and to enhance the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators for
particulate control.
Ammonia is a widely used refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems found in the
food, beverage, petro-chemical and cold storage industries.
Ammonia is used in the rubber industry for the stabilization of natural and synthetic
latex to prevent premature coagulation.

Ammonia Manufacturing Technologies

Some well known technologies for ammonia manufacturing are:a) HaldorTopsoe Ammonia Process
b) Kellogg's Ammonia process
c) Kellogg's Advanced Ammonia Process ( KAAP-KRES )
d) Linde Ammonia Concept ( LAC )
e) Brown Purifier Ammonia Process
f) ICI's AMV Ammonia Process
g) Krupp Uhde ammonia process

At Tata Chemicals, Babrala

Different steps involved in the HALDOR TOPSOES process used at TATA CHEMICALS
Ltd are:
Desulphurization - sweetening
Naphtha - NPDU
Natural Gas & Naphtha - HDS section
Steam reforming
Pre, Primary and Secondary
Gas purification - shift conversion & CO2 removal
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MTS and LTS

GV process
Methanation
Compression
Syn gas compressor
Process air compressor
Ammonia refrigeration compressor
Ammonia synthesis
Ammonia refrigeration
Ammonia recovery
FLOW DIAGRAM OF AMMONIA PRODUCTION PROCESS

DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

Desulphurization
The desulphurization unit consists of three vessels, one containing the hydrogenation catalyst
and the other two vessels containing the H 2S absorption mass. Over the hydrogenation
catalyst the sulphur containing compounds are converted into hydrogen sulphide at a
temperature of 380-400.c.
RSH + H2 -------- RH + H2S
After the hydrogenation the process gas passes through the ZnO absorber R 202 A\B for
removal of H2S. The two absorption vessels are operates in series. Normally only the first
vessel will actually be absorbing H2S while the second vessel will function as a safeguard.
ZnO + H2S ------
ZnS+H2O
With the catalysts installed the sulphur in the raw gas will be removed down to below 0.05
ppm and shall at no time exceed 0.1 ppm by weight.
Note:- There are two states of HDS catalyst in which it is found.
1.Sulphided state: - In this case the methanation activity is nil.
2.Unsulphided state:- If the catalyst is not sulphided or only partly, there is a potential risk
of methanation in case the feed gas contains carbon oxides.

Steam reforming
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In the reforming section the gas containing the necessary compound for preparation of the
ammonia synthesis gas is produced by the catalytic reforming of a mixture of hydrocarbon
and steam and addition of air. The steam reforming of hydrocarbon can be described by the
following reactions:
CnHm + nH2O =
n CO + (n+m/2) H2-heat
CH4+H2O
=
CO + 3H2 - heat
CO + H2O
=
CO2 + H2 + heat
The steam reforming takes place in three steps:
o Adiabatic preconversion
o Primary reforming
o Secondary reforming
Adiabatic preconversion:
The hydrocarbon feed coming from the desulphurization section is mixed with steam and
pre-heated in a coil E 201 installed in the flue gas heat recovery section of the primary
reformer and taken to the adiabatic preconverter R 206 at 460-480 C. Virtually all the higher
hydrocarbons are decomposed into methane by steam reforming by means of the
preconversion catalyst. The preconverter contains RKNGR Topsoe catalyst which is a prereduced RKN catalyst especially treated for low temperature operation.
Primary reforming (H 201)
The primary reformer H 201 has a total of 300 vertically mounted tubes installed in two
radiant chambers. The process gas is flowing downwards with the gas being distributed to the
top of the tubes from a header through hairpins at a temperature of 490-520C. The gas
leaves the tubes through bottom hairpins. The temperature of the gas leaving the reformer
will be about 800C and the hydrocarbon content which is methane only will be about 9-12
mole% .
Secondary reformer
The gas from the primary reformer is passed on to the secondary reformer R 203, through a
brick lined transfer line and the gas is admitted to the pear shaped vessel through top dome
mixing chamber where it is mixed atmospheric air pre heated to 550C. In the secondary
reformer the partial combustion of process gas will give high temperature at the top of the
catalyst bed. The reforming reaction of methane will lower the temperature during passage of
the gas mixture through the catalyst bed and at the exit the temperature will be about 1000C.

Gas purification - shift conversion & CO2 removal

Shift conversion
CO + H2O CO2+ H2 + heat
The above mentioned shift conversion takes place in the converter R 204 and R 205. The
equilibrium is favored by lower temperature and more steam while the reaction rate will be
higher at higher temperatures. More steam may give an apparently lower reaction rate due
to larger total volume resulting in shorter contact time. This means that for each catalyst
there will be an optimum temperature depending on the activity and the floe rate which
will give optimum conversion. Thus the conversion is performed in two steps.
o Medium temperature CO conversion
The main part of reaction takes place here causing a temperature rise of 90-120C.
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The outlet temperature of up to 340C is fully acceptable for this catalyst being more
rugged than the low temperature shift catalyst used in the second step of shift conversion.
o Low temperature CO conversion
The low temperature shift catalyst consists of specially prepared copper, zinc and
aluminum oxide having a much higher activity which means that it can be used in the low
temperature range of 180-250C. The catalyst is les rugged and losses its activity if the
temperature exceeds 250-270C.
Carbon dioxideremoval (GV process)
Carbon dioxide is removed by absorption in the hot aqueous potassium carbonate solution
containing approx. 25 wet% potash partly converted into bicarbonate. The solution further
contains activator glycine and vanadium oxide as corrosion inhibitor. The reason for keeping
the solution hot is to increase the rate of absorption and keep the bicarbonate in solution.
Another advantage is that the temperature is approximately the same temperature in the
absorber and in the regenerator, thus it is not necessary to supply heat before the regenerator.
The gas is passed to CO 2 absorber F 303 which is a column containing stainless steel packing
material distributed in six beds. In the absorber the gas flow upward against a descending
stream of potash solution. Approximately 15% of the solution is introduced above the top bed
at 70C where as remainder is introduced at about 106C below the two top beds. Gas is
enters from bottom side just after one bed from bottom, this bed prevent the flow of H 2 from
bottom with down coming stream. The CO2 absorption occurs according to the following
reaction.
K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
2KHCO3
The rich solution leaving the absorber bottom is depressurized through the expansion turbine
TG 301which is connected to the semi lean solution pump and its feeds the top of the 1 st
regenerator F 301operating under pressure. A stream of rich solution extract from the top of F
301is depressurized through a control valve and enters the top of the 2nd regenerator F 302
working at low pressure. The regeneration is performed accordingly to the GV two pressure
level technologies which foresee that the pressure of F 301 is adjusted to obtain a temperature
increase of the solution leaving the bottom of F 301 with respect to the solution entering the
top.
The semi lean solution extracted from the intermediary tray of F 301 at 124C is flashed
across the level control valves and enters F 302, operating slightly above atmospheric
pressure. The solution is collected on the take off tray and feeds the semi lean solution pump
P 301 A/B/C/D. Lean solution transferred from bottom of F 301 at 127C is flashed across a
set of level control valves and enters the bottom of F 302 just below the semi lean solution
take off tray. The solution is collected in the bottom of F 302 to feed the lean solution pump P
302 A/B.
The semi lean solution leaving F 302 at 106C feeds the absorber F 303 by means of P
301A/B/C/D. lean solution drawn from the bottom of F 302 at 109C is cooled in the DMW
pre-heater and pumped by P 302 A/B to the top of the absorber after final cooling to 70C in
the air cooler.

Methanation
After the CO2 removal unit remaining traces of CO and CO 2 must be removed since these
compounds are poisonous to the ammonia synthesis catalyst. This is done in the methanator
and the reactions involved are the reversible of the reforming reaction:
CO + 3H2
CH4 + H2O + heat
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CO2 + 4H2
CH4 + 2H2O + heat
Low temperature, high pressure, and low steam content tend to favors the methane formation.
However within the allowable temperature range the equilibrium conditions are so favorable
that practically only the catalytic activity determines the efficiency of the Methanation. The
higher the temperature the better the efficiency but at the same time it means a shorter life
time of the catalyst. Furthermore in case of a possible break through of CO 2 to methanator,
which would result in a significant temperature rise a low inlet temperature is preferable as
this limits the temperature rise some what in connection with the lower activity. After the
methanator the gas normally contains less than 10 ppm of CO and CO 2. The temperature rise
will normally be about 15-25C.
Ammonia synthesis
The ammonia synthesis takes place in the two ammonia converters R 501 and R 502
according to the following reaction
N2 + 3H2
2NH3 + heat
However as the reaction rate is very much enhanced by high temperature the choice of
temperature is based on a comparison between the theoretical conversion and the approach to
equilibrium in a single pass over the catalyst. The result of this relationship is that there is an
optimum level for the catalyst temperature at which the maximum production is achieved. At
higher temperatures the equilibrium percentage will be too low while at lower temperature
the reaction rate will be too slow.
Make-up gas is introduced into the synthesis loop between the 2 nd cold heat exchanger E 507,
and the 2nd ammonia chiller E 508. At this point a considerable part of the ammonia produced
in the converter has been condensed. The mixture of synthesis gas and liquid ammonia passes
from the 2ndchiller to the ammonia separator B 501, in which the liquid ammonia is separated.
By the ammonia condensation in E 508 traces of impurities in the make-up gas such as H 2O
and CO2 are absorbed in the liquid ammonia phase and removed with the liquid ammonia in
the separator. Carbon dioxide in the make-up gas reacts with both gaseous and liquid
ammonia forming ammonium carbamate. The carbamate formed is dissolved in the
condensed ammonia. Carbon monoxide is only slightly soluble in ammonia and will pass
with recalculating gas to the 1st ammonia converter, where it is hydrogenated to water and
methane. As the water deactivates the ammonia synthesis catalyst the content of carbon
monoxide in the make-up gas should be kept as low as possible.
The gas leaving B 501 goes to two cold heat exchangers E 507 and E 505, in which heat
exchanger takes place with the gas coming from 1st ammonia chillerE 506, and the water
cooler E 504 respectively. After E 505 the gas is taken to the recirculation compressor and
then to the hot heat exchanger E 503. In the hot heat exchanger the gas is heated with the gas
coming from the BFW pre-heater E 502 to the inlet temperature of the 1 st ammonia converter
R 501. After R 501 the gas contains about 17.4 mole% ammonia.
The gas is cooled to about 375C in the waste heat boiler, E 501 A before going to the 2 nd
ammonia converter R 502. After R 502 the gas contains about 29.7 mole % ammonia.
A considerable part of the heat content in the gas leaving the converters is recovered in the
waste heat boilers, E 501A/B, and in the BFW pre-heater E 502. After the BFW pre-heater
the gas is cooled first in the hot heat exchanger E 503, mentioned above and then in the water
cooler E 504 where part of the ammonia content is condensed. The gas passes the 1 st cold
heat exchanger E 505, the 1st ammonia chiller E 506, the 2nd cold heat exchanger E 507, and
after addition of make-up gas the 2nd ammonia chiller E 508 and the circuit is repeated.

Compressor section
The compressor section consists of four compressors
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The process air compressor K 421

The synthesis gas/recirculation compressor K 431
The ammonia refrigeration compressor K 451
The flash ammonia compressorK 441
Process air compressor
In line with the low energy ammonia plant concept the process air compressor is envisaged to
be a high efficiency machine thereby minimizing the power requirement for compression of
process air.
During normal operation about 54000 Nm3/hr of atmospheric air is compressed up to 33
Kg/cm2g and after pre-heating added to the secondary reformer as process air. Furthermore,
provision has been made for extracting a flow of about 1500 Nm3/hr for use as instrument air
back-up. The compressor has no anti surge bypass, but instead an air flow governor vent
valve is installed at the compressor outlet. The rotating speed of the compressor is controlled
by the turbine speed governor maintaining a constant speed at the set point. At reduced load
the speed is maintained at minimum governor speed and the process air flow control is then
accomplished by using the air vent valve at the compressor discharge.
Synthesis gas/recirculation compressor
The process gas from methanation section is compressed from about 26 Kg/cm2g to 134
Kg/cm2g before introduction to the ammonia synthesis loop. The compression is carried out
by the synthesis gas/recirculation compressor K 431 envisaged to comprise three stages plus
recirculation stage.
During normal operation the inlet gas flow is about 162500 Nm3/hr at 41C and the outlet
flow is about 159900 Nm3/hr at 40C. a flow of about 1840 Nm3/hr hydrogenation gas at
min. 42Kg/cm2g is extracted.
The hydrogenation gas is added to the natural gas feed stock upstream of the desulphurization
section and before leaving the compressor section it is Desulphurised to about 41 Kg/cm2g.
The compressor is provided with anti surge bypass to ensure operation at reduced plant loads.
The recirculation serves to compensate for the pressure drop of the circulated synthesis gas in
the ammonia synthesis loop. The flow is about 539000 Nm3/hr at 131 Kg/cm2g and 36C
and the discharge pressure and temperature are about 141 Kg/cm2g and 45C respectively.
The recirculation has been provided with a bypass serving primarily as an anti surge device.
The steam turbine TK 431 driving the synthesis gas/recirculation compressor consists of two
parts. The 1st part is a back pressure turbine driven by HP steam (110 Kg/cm2g, 510C). The
2nd part is a condensing turbine driven by superheated Mp steam at 40 Kg/cm2g coming from
the back pressure part
Ammonia refrigeration compressor
The steam turbine driven ammonia refrigeration compressor K 451 is a two stage centrifugal
compressor. When the ammonia product is delivered to the urea plant, it is the only
compression facility in operation in the refrigeration circuit. Evaporated ammonia from the
2ndchiller E 508 is compressed from 1.7 Kg/cm2g to about 6.4 Kg/cm2g. The cooled
discharge flow is mixed with evaporated ammonia from the highest chiller level (including E
506, E 514 and E 509) before entering the second stage. The discharge pressure from the
second stage is about 17.7 Kg/cm2 g and the total flow is about 58 t/hr. both first and second
stage are envisaged to a provided with anti surge bypass. The condensation steam turbine TK
451 uses MP steam at 40 Kg/cm2g and 380C as driving force.
Flash ammonia compressor
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When the ammonia product is delivered to the ammonia storage the product needs to be fully
refrigerated. This is accomplished by depressurization and flashing in the flash vessel B 503.
In order to make the refrigeration compressor K 451 independent of the product destination,
all the flashed ammonia from B 503 is compressed from 0.02 Kg/cm2g to 17.7 Kg/cm2g by
means of the electric motor driven flash ammonia compressor K 441.

Ammonia refrigeration
The purpose of the refrigeration circuit is to carry out various cooling tasks of the ammonia
synthesis loop. The primary task is to condense the ammonia produced in the two converters.
Other cooling tasks are cooling of make-up gas and inerts gas. The refrigeration circuit
consists of a compressor unit, a condenser, an accumulator, and a number of chillers
operating at different temperatures. Liquid ammonia evaporated at 6.4 Kg/cm2g
corresponding to a temperature of 15C. The liquid from E514 is transferred to E 508 where
it is further expanded to 1.9 Kg/cm2g corresponding to temperature of -10C.
Evaporated ammonia from the chiller is compressed by the compressor K 451. The suction
pressures correspond to the pressure in the chiller. After compression the ammonia is
condensed in E 510 A/B/C and collected in a accumulator B510.
In case the product ammonia is transferred to the storage instead of consumer, the
corresponding flash ammonia from B 510 is compressed in K 441 to the discharge pressure
of K 451.
In order not to accumulate inert gases liberated with flashing ammonia from B 503 during
ammonia to storage operation within the refrigeration circuit a small gas stream is purged
from the ammonia accumulator B 510. The main part of the ammonia in this purge stream is
condensed in the inert gas chiller E 509 by cooling to 20C and separated in B 509. The
condensed ammonia from B 509 is returned to B 510 and the let down gas from B 502 are
combined and directed to the off-gas absorber F 522 for further recover of ammonia.

Ammonia recovery
The ammonia recovery section removes and recovers the major part of the ammonia
contained in the purge gas from the synthesis loop and the off-gas from the refrigeration
section.

Purge Gas Recovery

Hydrogen is recovered from purge gas, and recycled to synthesis loop. Recovery of hydrogen
is based on the principle of cryogenic separation.
In the first step of purge gas recovery, the gas stream is cooled down, and condensed water is
separated. In the second step all the traces of ammonia and water are removed before going
for cryogenic separation. The recovered hydrogen product stream joins the second stage
suction of the synthesis gas compressor, while the residual gas stream goes to the reformer
fuel.

Moisture removal section:

In this section, the exchanger (water cooler) separator combine removes moisture from the
incoming purge gas. It is necessary, as the moisture has a tendency to clog the cryogenic
section.
Purification section:
Traces of ammonia and water are removed in this section, so as to avoid freezing of these
substances in the cryogenic section. The purge gas is purified in one of two adsorbers. The
two adsorbers remain in line or under regeneration alternately. Each adsorber contains one
26

bed of activated alumina (at the bottom) and one bed of molecular sieves (at the top).
Alumina is for adsorbing water, while molecular sieve adsorbs traces of ammonia.
Cryogenic separation section:
Hydrogen is separated from a mixture of hydrogen, nitrogen, argon and methane, at a
cryogenic temperature (-190C), where other gases except hydrogen liquefy. Nitrogen is also
partially recovered, as it is not fully condensed at this temperature. The low temperature is
created by reduction of pressure of the gas stream from about 75 kg/cm 2g to 3kg/ cm2g. The
incoming gas stream exchanges heat with outgoing cold gases (the product hydrogen stream
and the residual gases) before being depressurized.
The purity of hydrogen obtained is above 90%.

Absorption
Purge gas from the synthesis loop is introduced at the bottom part of the absorber F 523,
where it is washed in the countercurrent with water introduced at the top of the absorber. The
purified off-gas leaving the absorber contains about 0.1 mole% ammonia. F 523 is operated
at 75 Kg/cm2g, there by facilitating the possible future installation of a PGR unit.
The combined stream of let-down gas and inert vent gas from refrigeration section is
introduced at the bottom of the absorber F 522 where it is washed with water. The purified
off-gas contains about 0.1 mole% ammonia. The purified off-gases from F 522 and F 523 are
directed to the fuel system of the primary reformer H 201, thus reducing the fuel requirement
from external source.

Distillation
The ammonia water solution leaving F 522 is pumped by LP circulation pump P 521 A/B,
through the rich/lean solution exchanger E 523 A/B, where rich solution is pre-heated to
163C and then into distillation column F 521. The absorber F 523 is added on the discharge
side of P 521 A/B.
The necessary heat for distillation is provided from the re-boiler E 521, where heat is
liberated by condensing MP steam. From re-boiler lean solution is returned to the two
absorbers after passing the rich/lean solution exchanger E 523 A/B, and the lean solution
cooler E 524. For return to the top of F 523 pumping by the HP circulation pump P 522 A/B
is required. The distillation is carried out at a pressure of 25 Kg/cm2g and the temperature of
the gaseous ammonia leaving the top of the column is about 60C. This means that the water
content in ammonia liquid is returned to the distillation column as reflux. The rest of the
liquid ammonia is sent to the let-down vessel B 502.

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Ammonia Manufacturing Process

(Detailed Description Of Operation)

Naphtha Pre-desulfurization:
In the pre-desulfurization process, the organic sulfur compounds are removed from naphtha, by
catalytic conversion to hydrogen sulfide, which is separated from naphtha by distillation. The
hydrogenation and stripping process is designed to handle a maximum 2500 wt. ppm sulfur in
naphtha feed, which is brought down to below 10ppm. The pre-desulfurization step does not yield
sufficiently low concentration of sulfur to prevent poisoning of steam reforming catalyst, so a final
desulfurization must also be performed.

The first hydrogenator R101 is loaded with 15.75 m 3 of TK 550 catalyst.

It is a cobalt molybdenum catalyst of HTAS manufacture. On the top of the catalyst
there is a 200mm layer of ceramic balls on a stainless steel wire mesh. The
bottom layer below the catalyst is a 200mm layer of -1/2
ceramic balls.
TK 550 catalyses the following reactions:
RSH + H2
R1SSR2 + 3H2
R1SR2 + 2H2

RH + H2S
R1H + R2H + 2H2S
R1H + R2H + H2S

(CH)4S + 4H2

C4H10 + H2S

COS + H2

CO + H2S

Where R is a radical of hydrocarbon.

Besides these reactions, the catalyst also hydrogenates olefins to saturated
hydrocarbons.

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During start-up, when CO and CO2 are present in the hydrogenation gas, the
following reactions will take place.
CO2 + H2

CO + H2O

CO2 + H2S

COS + H2O

and in case of a high CO concentration, Boudouardsdismutation can take place.

2 CO

CO2 + C

In this way, carbon in the form of soot can deposit on the catalyst. The catalyst has
however little activity, for methanation even at low sulfur levels.
The Boudouard reaction and also the methanation reaction do not take place when
the catalyst is in sulfided state. But, Boudouard carbon may still be formed in the
feed heating system and deposit in the inlet layer of the catalyst.
The recommended operating temperature for the catalyst is about 380C. At
temperature below 330C a poor hydrogenation will result and at temperatures
above 400C, the tendency for coking and polymerization on the catalyst increases.
Hydrogen should always be present in the feed, however operation for a few
minutes without hydrogen in the feed does not harm the catalyst. But, prolonged
exposure of the catalyst in this way will result in coking.
The catalyst is delivered in the oxidized state and the most active state of the
catalyst is obtained when it is sulfided.
In the sulfided state the catalyst is pyriphoric and must not be exposed to air at
temperature above 70C.
The coking of feed heating system and hydrogenation catalyst will increase, when
gum is formed, an in order to limit this tendency in the feed, a preventive stripping of
dissolved oxygen is performed by means of a small amount of hydrogen.
TK 550 must not be exposed to hydrogen only, as reduction, which takes places
then, will cause a loss of activity for the catalyst.
The following process steps are followed.
1. Oxygen removal from raw naphtha in the deaerator (F101) by stripping with
hydrogen rich gas (introduced through 01FV102), in order to prevent gum
29

formation in the feed heating system. Deaerated naphtha is transferred by means

of the raw naphtha charge pumps P101A/B.
2. Hydrogenating gas is added to naphtha (through 01FV107) and the mixture is
heated and evaporated in feed effluent exchangers (E101A/B/C/D).
3. After further heating in direct fired heater (H101), the mixture is sent to HDS
reactor (R101), where hydrogenation of sulfur compounds takes place.
4. The reaction mixture is cooled (in E101A/B/C/D and E102) and hydrogenating
gas is separated from naphtha (in B101). A small quantity of gas is purged (by
01PV130) to avoid build up of inerts. Rest of the gases is recycled to the recycle
compressor (K101).
5. Hydrogen sulfide is removed by stripping (in F102) and the pre-desulfurized
naphtha is cooled, depressurized and sent for storage.

Feedstock for reforming section

Natural gas for feed and fuel

In normal conditions natural gas is delivered at the battery limit at 40kg/cm 2g and
30C. The process conditions for the incoming natural gas are controlled and
measured by 02PC01, 02AT01, 02TI01, and 02FI01 (pressure, density, temperature
and flow respectively).
Fuel gas pre-heat and depressurization:
The natural gas part of the fuel for the primary reformer is passed through the fuel
gas pre-heater E219 after getting depressurized through 02PC02 from 39 kg/cm 2g to
4 kg/cm2g. Pre-heating of the fuel gas is done to avoid hydrate formation at low
temperature (below 20C) due to depressurization.
30

The heating medium is low pressure (2.8 kg/cm 2g, 141C) condensing steam.
Natural gas feed pre-heating:
Before entering the desulfurization section, the hydrocarbon feed is preheated in two pre-heating coils
E204B and E204A, installed in the flue gas heat recovery section H202.
In E204B, the natural gas part of the process feed is pre-heated, and after addition of recycle gas and
naphtha part of the process feed further pre-heating takes place in E204A.
The gas stream at the outlet of E204A has a temperature of 380C, which is controlled by 02TC17
acting in split range on the bypass valve of 02TV17A of E204B (0-50%) and on the bypass valve
02TV17B of E204A (50-100%).
Recycle hydrogen (73 mol %) is added downstream of E204B in order to avoid carbamate formation.
The required flow is 0.05 Nm 3 of H2/kg of natural gas. This flow is controlled by 02FC10. The source
of recycle gas for normal operation is first stage discharge of K431. In case of a trip, it may be
supplied from synthesis loop, or inlet or outlet of CO 2 absorber.

Process naphtha evaporation and super-heating:

The pre-desulfurized naphtha is supplied from sweet naphtha bulk storage tank to sweet naphtha day
tank (64T-12), from where it is pumped to the evaporation and desulfurization sections by the sweet
naphtha feed pumps 64P12A/B. The flow is controlled by 02FC03.
After the flow control valve the recycle hydrogen gas is added through 02FC723 to the liquid naphtha.
Recycle gas flow is maitained at the rate of 0.2 Nm 3 of H2/kg of naphtha. The mixture is sent to E215A
or E215B for evaporation and super-heating of naphtha (up to 220C at 38 kg/cm 2g). The heating
medium is medium pressure condensing steam, the flow of which is controlled by 02HC111. A knock
out drum B204 is installed to prevent liquid carry over from E215A/B.
In case evaporation of process naphtha turns out to be difficult, a further reduction of partial pressure
of the heavier components of naphtha may be attempted by adding some of the natural gas process
feed upstream of E215A/B through 02FC721. The evaporated naphtha from B204 is mixed with
natural gas and sent to E204A, where it is heated upto 380C, controlled by 02TC17.
Desulfurization:
Desulfurization takes place in two steps. In the first step, organic sulfur is converted into hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) in the HDS reactor (R201). Organic sulfur content is thus reduced to less than 0.05 ppm.
In the second step the
H2S is absorbed in two ZnO absorbers (R202A/B) connected in series.
The natural gas/ naphtha stream mixed with hydrogenation gas from E204A (at about 380C) passes
through R201, R202A/B to get desulfurized.
Following reasons can lead to insufficient desulfurization.
1. Too low temperature in hydrogenator.
2. Too low recycle gas flow.
3. The catalyst (TK251) has lost its activity.

Following reasons can lead to insufficient absorption.

1. R202A/B beds are loaded with sulfur.
2. Water vapor is present in the feed gas, which gives an unfavorable equilibrium.
The hydro-desulfurization catalyst must be in the sulfided state. It must pick up sulfur corresponding
to 5-7% of its weight, from the feed gases in order to be fully active. It must be supplied in a presulfided state (at least partialllY), if; it has to handle a feedstock containing sufficient amount of CO 2
and hydrogen. It is necessary to suppress the methanation reaction, which may be favored by the
unsulfided catalyst.
In a very low sulfur environment, sulfur will tend to strip off the from the HDS catalyst.

31

Mixing of desulfurized hydrocarbon feed and process steam:

Desulfurized hydrocarbon is mixed with process steam, before final preheating in the waste heat
recovery section. The hydrocarbon flow is controlled by 02FC12 and the steam flow is controlled by
02FC19.

The process condition for the steam is of 39kg/cm 2g pressure and 380C
temperature. Steam flow is maintained keep steam/carbon (S/C) ratio at 3.2.
Process feed preheat:
The process feed containing the hydrocarbons, recycle gas and the process steam is preheated in
E201, situated in the flue gas heat recovery section.

The inlet temperature is about 360C and the outlet temperature is 465C.
E201 has been rearranged from counter-current to co-current as per mixed feed
(natural gas and naphtha) design. The pre-heated process feed goes to adiabatic
pre-reformer (R206)

Reforming section
Adiabatic pre-converter:
The adiabatic pre-converter (R206) consists of a refractory lined pressure shell
containing 26.9m3 RKNGR catalyst which is a pre-reduced RKN type catalyst
specially treated for low temperature operation. Here, all higher hydrocarbons are
decomposed into hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methane. The
outlet temperature of R206 for normal mixed operation is expected to be about
445C. The endothermic reforming reactions are followed by equilibration of the
exothermic methanation and shift reactions. When feedstock is natural gas, the
overall process is endothermic. For heavier feedstock such as naphtha the process
is normally exothermic. The higher the inlet temperature and S/C ratio, the more
dominant will the endothermic reactions be. A pressure drop of 0.5 kg/cm 2 across the
reactor is foreseen. The effluent stream from R206 goes to primary reformer.
Primary reformer construction:
The reformer furnace is divided into two chambers. The chambers are placed side by side in a duplex
arrangement and function as one unit.

32

The two chambers have a common flue gas channel and a flue gas heat recovery
section. Each furnace chamber contains 150 vertically mounted high alloy Cr-Ni
steel (manurite 36X) tubes filled with catalyst. In total, 300 tubes contain 6.8m 3
RKNR on top of 27.3m3 R-67-7H reforming catalyst. The vertical tubes are mounted
in a single row along the centre line of each chamber. The heated length of the tubes
is 12000mm and OD/ID is 134/109.8mm.
The process gas flows downwards with the gas being distributed to the top of the
tubes from a header through the inlet hairpins. After passing the catalyst, the gas
leaves the tubes through bottom hairpins and enters a refractory lined collector
through high alloy intermediary hot collectors.
The tubes are heated by 432 forced draught radiant wall burners located in each
side wall of the furnace chambers and arranged in 6 horizontal rows to provide easy
control of a uniform temperature profile along the length of the catalyst tubes. The
flue gas outlet comprises a common flue gas collector mounted between two
radiation chambers. The flue gas outlet temperature is approximately 1000C. All hot
parts of the reformer are insulated by ceramic materials to reduce heat loss to a
minimum.
Combustion air supply:
The combustion air to the primary reformer burners is supplied by the blower K202.
The differential pressure across the blower is about 0.05 kg/cm 2. Downstream the
blower, the air is pre-heated to about 295C in the pre-heater E205 situated in the
flue gas heat recovery section. The pressure at the down stream of E205 is
controlled by 02PC11, acting on the guide vanes of the blower K202. Air supply
should be at least 5% excess to the stoichiometric requirement.
Fuel gas control:
The fuel system of primary reformer is designed to operate on the following fuels:

a) Natural gas
b) Natural gas in admixture with lean gases
c) Vaporized naphtha
d) Vaporized naphtha in admixture with lean gases

33

The lean gases originates from purified off-gas (mainly purge gas)from ammonia
recovery section, surplus synthesis gas and tail gases from purge gas
recovery(PGR) and naphtha pre-desulfurization unit(NPDU).
The natural gas fuel flow is controlled by 02FC32 compensating for the deficit in
fuel gas. The off gas flow is controlled by 02PC29 which along with 02FC31 are
connected to the low selector 02FY31/C. The surplus synthesis gas fuel is controlled
by 02FC33. Tail gases from PGR and NPDU are controlled by 07FIC208 and
01FIC155,respectively. In case, the fuel header pressure decreases to a value equal
to the set point of 02PC23, it will take over the fuel control and maintain the fuel
header pressure.
For charging vaporized naphtha as fuel tracing steam has to be in line through 02PC21 and 02PC21A
to heat up the fuel pipings. Raw naphtha from bulk storage is supplied to day tank 64T13, from
where it is pumped (by P13A/B) to vaporizer E214. The pressure of the vaporized naphtha is
controlled by 02PC22 acting at the inlet of E214. E214 is heated by medium pressure condensing
steam the flow of which is controlled by 02HC157. A knock out drum B205 is installed to prevent liquid
naphtha being carried over to fuel header. The temperature of the vaporized naphtha at the outlet of
B205 is kept above 180C. Steam is charged into E217 through 02TC48 to heat up lean gases so that
cold gases on mixing with naphtha vapor do not result in condensation of naphtha. Natural gas fuel is
also routed through E217 by 02FC740. The temperature at the outlet of E217 is 180C.

Primary reforming:
The pre-reformed gases from R206 enter the primary reformer tubes through inlet
hairpin and passes through the catalyst in the tubes. Temperature of the gas rises
mainly through radiation up to about 800C, strongly favoring the endothermic
reforming reactions. The reformed process gas containing about 11.3 mole % (dry
basis) of methane passes through outlet hairpin and enters the hot collectors (six in
number). From the hot collectors the process gas enters a common cold collector
and the transfer line to secondary reformer.
The heat transferred to the catalyst tubes makes up about 55% of the total heat input. The remaining
part of the heat (except heat losses) leaves the combustion chamber with the flue gases as sensible
heat. The reformer tubes are designed for a temperature of 910.6C, any excess of which causes a
decrease in the lifetime of the tubes.
Flue gas heat recovery section:
The flue gas heat recovery section comprises nine coils located in the following sequence.
E201
process feed pre-heater
E202A
process air pre-heater
E203A
HP steam super-heater
E203B
HP steam super-heater
E203C
HP steam super-heater
E204A
feedstock (natural gas/ naphtha) pre-heater
E202B
process air pre-heater
E204B
feedstock(natural gas) pre-heater
E205
combustion air pre-heater

34

The flue gas flow is cooled from about 985C to 150C and emitted through stack X201.

The flue gas pressure at the inlet of the heat recovery section is controlled by
02PC19 acting on the guide vane of the flue gas fan K201. During normal operation
this pressure (reformer draught) is about 5mmWC. The pressure at the suction of
K201 is about 200mmWC.
Secondary reforming:
The secondary reforming including mixing and combustion of the primary reformed
gas with process air, takes place in the secondary reformer R203.The process gas
(31 kg/cm2g, 795C) enters the secondary reformer at the top, where it is mixed with
process air (31 kg/cm2g, 540C). The mixing of oxygen in air and process gas results
in combustion, raising the temperature to 1200C. When this gas mixture passes
through the catalyst bed containing 39m 3 of RKS-2-7H catalyst the temperature
decreases to about 990C, due to endothermic reforming reaction, which results in
methane content in the gas stream reduced to 0.3%. The air flow is determined by
the desired hydrogen to nitrogen ratio in the synthesis loop, which should be close to
3:1.
Owing to high temperature inside the secondary reformer the internal parts have
been insulated. The insulation thickness is 300mm and this reduces the heat losses
and the skin temperature of the shell reduces to 160C (design 350C). Defects in
insulation may cause the skin temperature to exceed design, with possible damage
to the shell. In order to warn of this factor, the shell is coated with thermosensitive
paint, which changes color irreversibly with the increase in the skin temperature, in
the range given below.
Original color: Green
Green color : Up to 200C
Blue color

: 200-315C

White color : 315-500C

Apart from secondary reformer other pipings with internal insulation like transfer line,
cold collector are also coated with thermosensitive paint.
Process air compression and pre-heat:
Process air leaving the final stage of the air compressor K421 is pre-heated in two pre-heater coils
E202A/B, placed in the waste heat recovery section up to about 540C. The air flow is controlled by

35

02FC26, which acts on the speed governor of the turbine driving the compressor K421. The outlet
temperature of E202A is controlled by 02HC15 acting on the bypass of E202B.

Process gas cooling and HP steam production:

The reformed process gas leaving the secondary reformer, R203 is cooled in three
heat exchangers, arranged in series, recovering heat by HP steam generation (in
E206A/B) and HP steam super-heating (in E207).
The two waste heat boilers are of the fire tube and gravity water circulation type and
produce 120kg/cm2g (324C) saturated steam from preheated boiler feed water sent
to the high pressure steam drum B201. The steam drum is common to E206A/B and
Synthesis loop boiler E501A/B
Process gas from R203 is cooled in E206A from 987C to a temperature in the
range of 575-635C, depending
02FE41 on the fouling condition of the boiler tubes. The gas
then enters HP steam super-heater E207, provided with a
06FE02

Bypass. The controller 02TC50 controls the temperature of super-heated steam

acting on the gas side bypass of E207. Process gas is cooled in E207 to the range
of 400-450C. After mixing, with hot bypass flow the gas from E207, enters E206B
and cooled to 330-340C.

HP steam to E207

The high-pressure steam production takes place in the shell side of E206A/B. They
BFW from P601A/B/C

are connected with B201 by a number of risers and down-comers. The boiler feed
water fed to the steam drum has a temperature of about 295C. The level controller
of B201 02LC41, is part of a three element boiler feed water control loop.

06FC02

02FY41

02LC41

The calculation block 02FY41, receives a process value from 02FE41(steam flow)
and out put from 02LC41. The output from 02FY41 serves as a set point to BFW flow
controller 06FC02.
36

The steam drum pressure is controlled by 02PC30, acting on 02PV30 placed in the
HP steam pipe down stream the steam drum. The waste heat boilers and the steam
drum have been provided with four blow-down valves to prevent accumulation of dirt
and sludge. The steam drum has one continuously working blow-down valve, which
is anticipated to blow down 1% of the boiler feed water entering the steam drum. The
boiler blow down is sent to the blow down vessel B602.resulting in saturated LP
steam and condensate, which is added to cooling water return header at E309
cooling water outlet line. The boiler feed water and steam quality should be treated
with great care, as an inferior quality of BFW will cause scaling on the boiler tube
bundles, and high silica content in steam will result in deposits on the blades of
various turbines, etc.

HP steam super-heating:
The HP steam super-heating takes place in two steps. First, in E207 by cooling of process gas, where
it is heated up to 390C. Then, in E203A/B/C by cooling of reformer flue gas, where it is heated up to
515C. To maintain the steam temperature within limit quench water injection controller 02TC52 has
been provided at the inlet of E203A. If it is not able to control the temperature another quench
controller 02FC27 comes into action which is provided at the inlet of E203B.

CO conversion section
Medium temperature CO conversion:
Before entering the MT CO converter R204, the process gas is cooled down to 200220C by preheating boiler feed water in E209A/B/C. This temperature is controlled
by 02TC64, which acts on a three way valve distributing the BFW between preheaters E209 and E210. The steam to dry gas ratio at the inlet of R204 is 0.53 and
the pressure is about 29kg/cm2g. The dew point of the gas at this point is about
181C. The MT CO converter contains 124m 3 of catalyst. The outlet temperature is
in the range 290-310C, and the corresponding CO content is 1.11%(end of the run).
Low temperature CO conversion:
The gas leaving MT CO converter is cooled in the boiler feed pre-heater E210A/B, to
the desired inlet temperature of the LT CO converter R205. This temperature is 18537

200C depending on start or end of the run conditions, and is controlled by 02TC76
acting on process gas bypass of E210. The dew point of the process gas at this point
is 168C. The LT CO converter contains 118 m3 of LK821 catalyst. The outlet
temperature is 190-205C and the corresponding CO slip is 0.23 mole%(end of the
run). The converter is provided with a full size bypass, which is operated during startup and shut down. The process gas from R205 is further cooled to about 160C by
pre-heating BFW in E211A/B. The performance of this exchanger is controlled by
02TC91, acting on BFW bypass flow rate.
BFW pre-heating:
Part of the sensible heat and the latent heat of condensation is used for pre-heating
the high pressure boiler feed water. The BFW pumps P601A/B/C raises the pressure
of BFW to 130kg/cm2g as available at the inlet of E211A/B. The temperature of BFW
at this point is 122C. The major part of the BFW passes through E211A/B tubes,
remaining part is bypassed controlled by 02TC91. The outlet temperature in normal
operation is in the range of 165-175C, which ensures that the process gas inlet
temperature of R204 and R205 are well above the dew point of the gas at respective
points.
About 35% of the BFW flow are led to E209A/B/C and the rest is routed through
E210A/B, controlled by 02TC64. The BFW temperature at E209A/B/C outlet is
295C and the water goes directly to steam drum from this point.
The temperature at E210A/B outlet is 233C. The BFW is further preheated in E502
before being sent to B201.

Carbondioxideremoval section
Carbondioxide absorption:
The shifted process gas contains about 19 mole% of CO 2 (dry basis). This content is
reduced to 0.1 mole% by absorption in hot potassium carbonate (HPC) solution. The
CO2 rich solution is regenerated, by stripping off CO2 and then recirculated.
Before absorption of CO2, the process gas is cooled to 122C from about 160C in
the vetrocokereboilers E302A/B and E305, providing part of the heat required for
regeneration of the HPC or GV solution. The process condensate thus formed is
collected in a separator B303.
38

The process gas is introduced in the bottom of the vetrocoke absorber (F303) and
CO2 is removed by passing the packed beds in counter-current with the activated
HPC solution. About 85% of the solution (at 109C) is introduced above the lower
three beds, and rest is cooled to 70C in the DMW pre-heater E307 and split stream
cooler E303and introduced at the top of the column. The bulk of the CO 2 is removed
in the lower part of the column. The residual clean up takes place in the top two
beds, where the smaller and colder part of the solution is added and the gas is
cooled to 70C, thus decreasing the partial pressure of CO 2. The process gas exiting
F303 top passes through a separator B304 before passing into the methanation
section. The level in the bottom of F303 is controlled by 03LC24.
Depressurization of HPC solution:
Before introduction to the top of the first regenerator (F301), the loaded HPC solution
at 116C is depressurized from 28kg/cm2g to 10.7kg/cm2g. Normally, the main part of
the solution is depressurized by the hydraulic turbineTG301, while a small part is of it
depressurized through the level control valve 03LV24A/B, to take care of the
fluctuations in the solution flow. In case TG301 trips, 03LV24A/B opens to take care
of the full solution flow. The power recovered by TG301 supplies part of the power
required to drive the pump P301A. Rest of the power is supplied by an electric
motor. The motor takes up the full load the pump in case of a trip of TG301.
66
Stripping of CO2 and regeneration of HPC solution:
The CO2 rich HPC solution enters the first regenerator F301, operating at
1.05Kg/cm2g, controlled by 03PC03. The solution passes through the packed beds in
the column in counter-current to steam, which comes from the bottom. Steam strips
off the CO2, and a mixture of steam and CO2 leaves F301 from the top. The top
temperature is about 108C.
Major part of the solution is extracted at the higher levels of the regenerator, before
reaching the bottom. About 40% of the solution is extracted below the first bed and
expanded through 03FV01 before entering the second regenerator F302. About 45%
of the solution is drawn from the bottom of the fourth bed and enters F302 through
03LV07A/B. The strongly regenerated (lean) solution from the bottom of F301 goes
to the bottom of F302 through 03LV09A/B. The steam generated from the flashing of
39

lean and semi-lean solutions is used for stripping the rich solution fed to top of F302.
The regeneration input of F301 comes from following sources.
1) In E302A/B by process gas cooling.
2) In the LP reboiler E305 by process gas cooling (suction part of the ejector X301)
and direct steam (motive part of ejector X301).
3) In steam fired reboiler E301 by LP steam condensation.
The operating pressure for F302 is 0.1 kg/cm 2g and the top temperature is
maintained at 100C. The pressure of F302 is normally controlled by the anti-surge
controller of CO2 blower K301. In case of surplus CO2 production, the pressure may
be controlled by 03PC33 and 03PC31 acting on the vent valves 03PV33A/B (on the
main CO2 header) and 03PV31(on K301 suction).
Circulation of HPC solution:
For circulation of HPC solution two pump groups are installed.
Semi-lean solution pumps: P301A/B/C/D
Lean solution pumps:

P302A/B

Out of four semi-lean solution pumps normally two (including P301A) are in line and
the rest on standby. Out of P302A/B one stays in line and the other on standby. The
semi-lean solution flow is controlled by 03FC22, and lean solution flow is controlled
by 03FC21. The semi-lean and lean solutions are drawn from two take-off trays at
the bottom of F302. The level of semi-lean and the lean take-off trays are controlled
by 03LC07 and 03LC09, respectively.
In order to avoid accumulation of impurities, it is necessary to filtrate the HPC. A
continuous flow of 5% of total circulation is taken from the suction of P302 A/B or
bottom of F301 and passed through a mechanical filter A301A by pump P304. Part
of this also passes through an activated carbon filter A302. Two mechanical filters
A301B and A301C are provided in the upstream and down stream of A302. This
filtered stream goes back to either P302 suction or F301 bottom.
A small side stream of cold lean solution (cooled in E315 to 40C) is treated in
aeration tank T305. This flow is about 0.5-1% of total circulation flow and controlled
by 03FC61. The purpose of aeration is to maintain the proper pentavalent to total
vanadium ratio, so that the protective passivation layer in the equipment surfaces
remains intact. The solution from T305 is pumped back to P302A/B suction by
P308A/B
40

Regenerator overhead cooling and separation:

The steam CO2 mixture leaves the first regenerator F301 at about 108C. This
mixture is first cooled in DMW pre-heater E306 to 95C. The condensate formed is
separated in B305 and totally recycled to CO2 removal unit through pumps P309A/B.
The gas stream from F302 is cooled in E309A/B by cooling water. The condensate is
collected in B302, which also receives condensate from B301. Part of the
condensate from B302 is pumped by P303A/B to the suction of P302 through
03FV33. The surplus condensate goes to the process condensate stripping section
through 03LV31 controlled by the level controller 03LC31. The overhead of B301
goes to K301 suction. The discharge of the blower K301 mixes with the B305
overheads and the final cooling of the acid gas from both takes place in E308A/B,
where the gas is cooled to 40C by cooling water. The condensate is collected in
B301 and sent to B302 through 03LV34 controlled by level controller 03LC34.
The CO2 gas saturated with water vapor and containing minor amount of hydrogen
and nitrogen is sent to the battery limit for consumption in urea plant.
The strength of HPC solution:
The normal composition of fresh solution is;
K2CO3

220-240 g/l expressed as K2O

Glycine

15-20 g/l

Vanadium 5 g/l expressed as V2O5 .

Carbonation index (ratio of CO2 equivalent to alkali equivalent) is a measure to the
ability of absorption of CO2 by the solution.
During normal operation, the carbonation indices are about
1.13 for lean solution
1.31 for semi-lean solution
1.7 for rich solution
Methanation
The process gas after CO2 removal section still contains about 0.1% CO 2 and 0.29% CO (on dry
basis). As the carbon oxides are poisonous to ammonia synthesis catalyst, they are converted into
methane in the methanator R311, by using hydrogen.
The inlet temperature of the methanator depends on catalyst activity and has to be increased as the
catalyst ages. The methanator inlet temperature (about 320C in end of run conditions) is obtained by
cooling in the exit gas in the gas/gas exchanger E311A/B and, if required, by heating part of the inlet

41

gas in the trim heater E208. The inlet temperature is controlled by 03TC78, acting on the exit gas side
bypass of E311A/B. The methanator exit gas at 342C (end of the run condition) enters the shell side
of E311A/B, where it is cooled to about 91C. It is then further cooled to 41C in E312 by cooling
water before going to the make-up synthesis gas compressor suction.
The synthesis gas at the methanator exit contains about 10ppm CO+ CO 2 content.

Compressors
Natural gas compressor:
The natural gas booster compressor (K411) was installed to take care of low natural gas supply
pressure. This is supplied by M/s Atlas Copco (USA). This is a single stage compressor, with
overhung open type impeller, designed to boost up the pressure of natural gas from 30.22 bar a to
39.26 bar a. It is driven by an electric motor of 800KW.
The natural gas from battery limit comes to the suction of the compressor through a separator B315.
The flow through the compressor and the discharge pressure is controlled by an inlet flow controller
FCV305, and a recycle (anti-surge) flow controller PCV360. A cooler E355 is provided in the recycle
line. A local PLC panel is provided a display screen and key-board for start-up, shut down, monitoring
and control.
The seal system of the compressor is a combination of dry face seal and labyrinth seal. To save the
dry face seal from contamination by liquid from process gas clean buffer gas is provided from
compressor discharge through a filter X110. Nitrogen buffer gas is used to ensure that process gas
does not contaminate the gearbox.
The oil system contains a lube oil console, one main and one auxiliary oil pump (both positive
displacement type), oil cooler and oil filter.
Process air compressor:
The purpose of process air compressor (K421) is to raise the pressure of atmospheric air to 33-34 kg/
cm2g to introduce it to the secondary reformer. It is a four stage centrifugal compressor, provided with
inter-stage coolers E421, E422, E423, and inter-stage separators B421, B422, B423. Separators are
provided with level controllers. The compressor consists of HP (2MCL456) and LP (2MCL1006)
barrels and is supplied by BHEL.
The compressor is driven by an extraction cum condensing steam turbine, also supplied by BHEL.
The high-pressure steam inlet conditions are 110 kg/cm 2g and 510C. Low-pressure extraction is
taken out at 3.5 kg/cm2g and 190C. Turbine is provided with a vacuum condenser E402, where
vacuum is created with the help of ejector, for which motive fluid is low-pressure steam. The heat of
condensation is removed by cooling water. The condenser is provided with condensate transfer
pumps P402A/B and level controller.
The compressed air flow to R203 is controlled by 02FC26, which acts on the speed governor of the
turbine TK421. The anti-surge flow control is through the open to air bleed valve 04FV101, located at
4th stage discharge. A low capacity bleed off valve 04PV101 is provided for controlling pressure during
start-up. An inter-stage bleed valve 04HV103 is provided between second and third stages to
maintain sufficient flow through the first two stages during start-up.
The lube oil system comprises of the lube oil console T421, two lube oil pumps P421A/B
(centrifugal), and emergency oil pump P422(centrifugal), an overhead lube oil tank T422 (for safe shut
down), lube oil coolers E426A/B and oil filters A421A/B. The lube oil header pressure is controlled by
PCV146 and the temperature is controlled by 04TC117, acting on the bypass of E426A/B. An oil
accumulator B 427 is provided to take care of sudden jerk in oil pressure during auto changeover of
oil pumps. The lube oil also works as the control oil and trip oil for the speed governor of the turbine. A
centrifuge X421 is attached to the oil console for purifying the oil from moisture and other impurities.
.
Synthesis gas compressor:
The process gas from methanation section is compressed from about 26 kg/cm 2g to 134 kg/cm2g
before introduction to ammonia synthesis loop in the first three stages synthesis gas compressor
K431. It is provided with inter-stage coolers E431, E432, E433, and inter-stage separators B431,
B432, B433. The fourth or recirculator stage serves to compensate for the pressure drop of the

42

circulated gas in the synthesis loop (from 131 to 141 kg/ cm 2g). The compressor consists of HP and
LP barrels (2BCL 408+2BCL508) and is supplied by BHEL.
The compressor is driven by an extraction cum condensing steam turbine, also supplied by BHEL.
The high-pressure steam inlet conditions are 110 kg/cm 2g and 510C. Medium-pressure extraction is
taken out at 40 kg/cm 2g and 385C. Turbine is provided with a vacuum condenser E401, where
vacuum is created with the help of ejector, for which motive fluid is low-pressure steam. The heat of
condensation is removed by cooling water. The condenser is provided with condensate transfer
pumps P401A/B and level controller.
The speed of the turbine is governed by 03PC77, which controls the suction pressure of the makeup synthesis gas from methanator. The antisurge flow control for the make up stages is through
04FV604. The recirculator is also provided with a recycle valve 04HV610. The recycle line is provided
with a cooler E435. Another recycle valve 04HV602 is provided between the second and the first
stages for start up purpose.
The lube oil system comprises of the lube oil console T431, two lube oil pumps P431A/B
(centrifugal), and emergency oil pump P432 (centrifugal), an overhead lube oil tank T439 (for safe
shut down), lube oil coolers E436A/B and oil filters A431A/B. The lube oil header pressure is
controlled by PCV676 and the temperature is controlled by 04TC696, acting on the bypass of
E436A/B. An oil accumulator B437 is provided to take care of sudden jerk in oil pressure during auto
changeover of oil pumps. The lube oil also works as the control oil and trip oil for the speed governor
of the turbine.
Synthesis gas being a hazardous gas; K431 is provided with a seal oil system, which consists of
seal oil pumps P433A/B, seal oil filters A433A/B, seal oil overhead tanks B438A/B, sour oil traps
B461A/B, B462A/B, degassifier tanks T432 and T433, and the oil mist separator B464. The seal oil
overhead tanks and the sour oil traps are provided with level controllers.
The discharge pressure of seal oil pump is controlled by PCV696. A centrifuge X431 is attached to the
oil console for purifying the oil from moisture and other impurities.
Ammonia refrigeration compressor:
The purpose of ammonia refrigeration compressor K451 is to compress the ammonia vapors from the
chillers in the ammonia synthesis and refrigeration loops, which helps in liquefying product ammonia.
Ammonia vapor from second ammonia chiller E508 (at 1.8 kg/cm 2g), after passing through separator
B505, is compressed in the first stage of K451, and cooled in E451. The cooled discharge is mixed
with the vapors from E506, E514, E509 (at 6 kg/cm 2g), pass through separator B506 and compressed
in the second stage of K451. The discharge of the second stage goes to the condensers E510A/B/C,
cooled by cooling water. The second stage discharge pressure depends on the cooling water
temperature (13-17 kg/cm2g). This is a centrifugal compressor (2MCL458) supplied by BHEL.
The compressor is driven by a steam turbine, also supplied by BHEL. The medium-pressure steam
inlet conditions are 39kg/cm2g and 380C. Turbine is provided with a vacuum condenser E403, where
vacuum is created with the help of ejector, for which motive fluid is low-pressure steam. The heat of
condensation is removed by cooling water. The condenser is provided with condensate transfer
pumps P403A/B and level controller.
The speed of the turbine is governed by 05PC41, which controls the pressure in chiller E508. Two
antisurge control valves 04FV202 and 04FV207 are provided for the two stages.
The lube oil system comprises of the lube oil console T451, two lube oil pumps P451A/B (gear type),
and emergency oil pump P452 (centrifugal), an overhead lube oil tank T453 (for safe shut down), lube
oil coolers E452A/B and oil filters A451A/B. The lube oil header pressure is controlled by PCV255 and
the temperature is controlled by 04TC227, acting on the bypass of E452A/B. An oil accumulator B451
is provided to take care of sudden jerk in oil pressure during auto changeover of oil pumps. The lube
oil also works as the control oil and trip oil for the speed governor of the turbine. The governor oil
pressure is controlled by PCV237. The lube oil also works as seal oil, the seal to reference gas
differential pressure is controlled by PDCV243. The pump discharge pressure is controlled by
PDCV238. A centrifuge X451 is attached to the oil console for purifying the oil from moisture and
other impurities.
.
Flash ammonia compressor:
This is a screw type compressor supplied by M/s Howden Compressors (UK), driven by an 1840KW
electrical motor. The purpose of this machine 9K441) is to bring down product ammonia pressure and
temperature to atmospheric level when it is to be sent to the atmospheric storage facility. The flash
vapor from the flash vessel B503 come to B504 and from it goes to K441 suction. The discharge of

43

K441 goes to E510A/B/C for condensation. The discharge pressure depends on cooling water
temperature.
The flow control is facilitated by a slide valve (from 10-30%) and a recycle valve 04PCV404 (above
30% slide valve opening). A logic unit takes care of the loading and unloading of K441, as per the
pressure requirement in B503.
The separator B441 also acts as the lube oil reservoir. The oil system also contains oil pumps
P441A/B (screw type), oil cooler E442, oil filters A441A/B.
The oil supply pressure and temperature are maintained by 04PC413 and 04TC413, respectively.

Ammonia synthesis
Addition of Makeup gas:
The make up gas from methanation section is added to the synthesis loop through the compressor
K431. The quantity of the make up gas is adjusted as per the desired ammonia production. The
content of inert gases methane and argon are kept as low as possible. Normally the argon and
methane contents in the make up gas are 0.31 and 0.72% respectively. Owing to the addition of
hydrogen rich gas from the PGRU, the hydrogen to nitrogen ratio in the make up gas is maintained at
about 2.85. This will ensure the stoichiometric ratio of 3.0 at the inlet of ammonia synthesis converter
R501. A small change in the H 2 to N2 ratio in the make up gas causes much greater change in the
ratio in the loop.
The make up gas is cooled to about 15-20C in the make up gas chiller, the condensed moisture is
separated in B507. This gas saturated with water vapor is mixed with the circulating synthesis gas
and ammonia mixture at the upstream of the second ammonia chiller E508. The water and traces of
CO2 are absorbed in the liquid ammonia present and condensed in E508. The liquid ammonia is
separated in B501. Thus the water and CO 2 are prevented from passing through the catalyst bed of
converters R501 and R502. But traces of CO still remains, which cannot be removed. In the design
2ppm of CO has been anticipated in the circulating gas. If the CO content in the make up gas
exceeds 10 ppm, the synthesis loop cannot be operated for a long time.
First ammonia synthesis converter:
The inlet temperature in the first ammonia converter is controlled by 05TC11 (cold shot) and 05TC03
(bypass of the BFW pre-heater E502). The main inlet valve 05HV 01 should always allow at least
10% of the normal flow to cool the converter shell by flowing through the annular space between the
internals and the pressure shell. The design temperature of pressure shell is 370C. The inlet
temperature of the converter first bed is maintained at about 360-380C and the anticipated second
bed temperature is about 365-390C. The second bed outlet temperature is about 440C. These
temperatures are governed by catalyst activity and a very low inlet temperature will make the reaction
unstable. With fresh active catalyst the hot spot temperature is about 500C.
Second ammonia synthesis converter:
The inlet temperature of the second converter R502 is controlled by 05TC36 acting on the bypass of
first waste heat boiler E501A. It is maintained in the range of 370-385C, according to the catalyst
activity. The outlet temperature of R502 is kept in the range of 415-430C. The exit gas is cooled in
second waste heat boiler E501B. The design temperature of the pressure shell, out let piping and
E501B is 450C.

44

Gas composition in the loop:

The intended hydrogen/ nitrogen ratio in the synthesis loop is 3.0. It depends on the hydrogen/
nitrogen ratio in the make up gas from methanator and the amount of hydrogen recovered from
PGRU.
At design conditions the inert level at R501 inlet should be 8 mole%. As methane and argon present
in the make up gas does not take part in the ammonia synthesis reaction they keep on accumulating.
Their presence reduces the partial pressure of reactants and affects the ammonia production rate. A
minor part of the inerts get dissolved in the liquefied product ammonia and removed from the loop.
But bulk of the inerts is removed from the loop by purging some of the circulating gas through the flow
control valve 05FV42 located down stream of second cold exchanger E507. The purge gas is sent to
ammonia recovery section and the ammonia free purge gas is sent to purge gas recovery unit
(PGRU).
Variation in the ammonia concentration at converter inlet has a considerable effect on the synthesis
reaction rate. A decrease in the ammonia concentration in the R501 inlet increases the reaction rate.
The ammonia concentration depends on the gas temperature out of the second ammonia chiller E508
and on the loop pressure. The shell side temperature of E508 is about 10C. The gas side outlet
temperature of E508 is about 7C.
Synthesis loop circulation rate and pressure:
An optimum circulation rate in the loop is maintained to keep the catalyst temperatures constant and
at desired values. The synthesis loop is designed to operate at 134 and 141 kg/cm 2g at the make up
and recirculation discharge side of K431. The mechanical design is 155 kg/cm 2g for the entire
synthesis loop. Operating pressure and circulation depends on the catalyst activity.
Ammonia condensation and separation:
Condensation of product ammonia starts in water cooler E504 after cooling in E503 with the R501
inlet gas, and continues in the first cold heat exchanger E505, first ammonia chiller E506, second cold
heat exchanger E507 and second ammonia chiller E508. The liquid is collected in B501, provided with
level controller 05LC42. The liquid ammonia depressurized through 05LV42 to about 25 kg/cm 2g and
transferred to letdown vessel B502. During pressure release major part of the dissolved gases is
released as letdown gas. The letdown gas is sent to ammonia recovery is sent to ammonia recovery
along with inert vent gas from B509. The liquid ammonia from B502 is sent to E513 for pre-heating up
to 28C before being delivered to battery limit for consumption in urea plant. The letdown gases are
released from B502 through the pressure control valve 05PV51. B502 is provided with two level
control valves 05LV52A and 05LV52B, operating in splitting range. Normally, 05LV52B is in line.
05LV52A comes into operation, when ammonia is sent to atmospheric storage, through flash vessel
B503 and transfer pump P501A/B.

Refrigeration loop:
The refrigeration loop comprises of E506, E514, E509 operating at 6.4 kg/cm 2g and E508 operating at
1.9 kg/cm2g. The vapors generated in the shell side of these chillers are compressed by the two
stages of K451 and finally condensed in E510A/B/C. The condenaste is collected in B510 and
circulated back to chillers through level control valves 05LV31, 05LV137, and 05LV41. E509 is loaded,
when ammonia is transferred to storage and vapors and inerts from B503 enter the refrigeration loop
through K441 or the new modification line between B503 and B504. The pressure in the separator
B509 which separates ammonia from inert gases of the refrigeration loop is controlled by 05PC62.
The knock out drums B504, B505, B506 are provided to prevent liquid entrainment from chillers to
K451/ K441.

Ammonia recovery
Ammonia absorption:
The purge gas from synthesis loop is washed in the in the absorber F523at about 75 kg/cm 2g
controlled by 05PC72. The absorber bottom level is controlled by 05LC72. The flow of lean wash

45

water is controlled in such away that there is low residual ammonia content (about 0.1%) in the
washed purge gas. The lean solution pumped to F523 by the Hp circulation pump P522A/B.
The gases vented from B502 and B509 are washed in F522 at about 16.8 kg/cm 2g, controlled by
02PC29. The level in absorber bottom is controlled by 05LC73. The level control valve 05LV73 is
situated at the discharge of LP circulation pump P521A/B, which circulates the wash solution to the
distillation column F521. The flow rate of lean solution to F522 is controlled by 05FC72. The residual
ammonia in the exit gas is maintained at 0.1 mole%.
Ammonia distillation:
The distillation column F521 is equipped with 20valve trays with the feed being introduced in the tray
no. 12. The column is provided with a reboiler E521 heated with de-super-heated MP steam and a
water-cooled ammonia condenser E522 for condensing the overheads. The over head condensate
(about 99% pure ammonia) is partly returned to the column as reflux and partly sent to B502 as
product. The bottom product of F521/E521 is contains 0.1% of ammonia, which is cooled in E523A/B
by the incoming feed stream from 225C to 110C. The lean solution (bottom product) is finally
cooled in watercooler E524 to 41C.
The dissolved gases in the feed are vented through the pressure controller 05PC82. The operating
pressure of F521 should higher than that of B502 so that liquid ammonia can be transferred to B502.
The temperature controller 05TC99 acting on the ammonia product line determines the amount of
reflux and maintains the temperature at the middle of the column corresponding the location of the
thermocouple 05TE99. This temperature may be in the range of 70-150C depending on the location
of thermocouple.
The steam flow to E521 is controlled by 05FC82. A line connecting the vapor line of E521 and the
steam line has been provided (with a valve) to maintain the water content (indicated by E521 shell
side level) in the system, by adding steam on discontinuous basis.

Process condensate recovery and BFW preparation:

The process condensate stripping section treats the condensate collected from B303, B311 and
B302. The B302 condensate is fed through the pumps P303A/B. The impurities present in the
condensates are ammonia, methanol, CO 2 and potassium (K+). The amount of impurities widely
depending on the operating conditions, catalyst conditions etc. The stripped condensate contains
typically 5ppm of ammonia, 10ppm of CO2, 5 ppm of methanol and 1ppm of K+. The stripping agent is
de-super-heated LP steam the flow of which is controlled by 06FC21. Stripping steam is also
generated by flashing of MP condensate from E214, E215, E217, E4, E105 etc.
A significant part of CO2 is stripped off in F602 at a low steam to condensate ratio in preference to
ammonia. The stripped gases (mainly CO 2), with part of the steam routed through F602 is vented
through an orifice at the top of F602.
The partly stripped condensate from F602 passes down through the main stripper F601 where is it
introduced in the 20th tray, from where the stripping steam for F602 is taken out. Remaining volatile
compound are removed in F601. The overhead vapors from F601 are partially condensed in the
DMW pre-heater E604. The resulting condensate is recycled to F601 through pumps P602A/B from
the separator B603. The vapors from B603 concentrated with volatile impurities are condensed in
E605 (cooled by cooling water). The condensate is accumulated in the separator B604 operating at
atmospheric pressure. The liquid from B604 is transferred to the process steam line of reformer
through pumps P603A/B. The operating pressure (2.3 kg/cm 2g) of the stripper is controlled by
06PC23 manipulating the DMW flow through E604. The controller 06FC22 controls the flow of the
volatiles from B603 to E605.
The stripped condensate is cooled in a series of exchangers E601 (by incoming condensate), E602
(by DMW) and E603 (by cooling water and cooled to 50C, before being sent to DMW plant.
Pre-heating and deaeration of demineralized water (DMW):
Pre-heating of DMW takes place in a series of exchangers E602, E306, E307, and E604 to raise the
temperature from 40C to 110C. The flow rate of cold DMW is governed by the demand of BFW in
ammonia plant as well as the demand for export of pre-heated DMW outside ammonia plant. The
distribution of DMW to exchangers is determined by following controllers:
06TC27, 06PC23 and 03TC25.

46

The normal set point of these controllers are 110C, 2.3 kg/cm 2g and 80-95C respectively.
The pre-heated DMW is sent to deaerator B601, where most of the dissolved oxygen is stripped off
by LP steam. The DMW is introduced from the top of the bed and the steam from the bottom of the
bed. The level in the hold up tank below the deaerator, is controlled by 06LC301 acting on the
incoming DMW.
BFW preparation:
Deaerated DMW is used as feed water for the waste heat boiler. The operating conditions in the
deaerator are 1 kg/cm2g and 120C. The pressure is controlled by 06PC301 acting on the stripping
steam. The boiler feed water (BFW) is pumped to the steam drum B201 through pumps P601A/B/C
(with two of them in line). The BFW is treated with hydrazine, ammmonia, and phosphate to maintain
the desired quality. Dozing pumps P606A/B, P605A/B and P604A/B are installed to add these
chemicals to BFW. Hydrazine is dozed in the deaerator itself to minimize the oxygen content.
Ammonia is also dozed to the deaerator to maintain a pH level higher than 7. Phosphate is added in
the steam drum to separate out silica content.
The BFW is pre-heated to 295C from a temperature of 120C in a series of exchangers E211, E210,
E209 and E502, before being sent to steam drum.
Medium pressure condensate from steam traps are collected in B605 resulting in saturated LP steam
and condensate. The condensate is sent to atmospheric vessel B606 through level control valve
06LV311. In B606 LP condensate is also collected in B606. The level in B606 is controlled by
06LC309, acting on the discharge of pumps P607A/B. The condensate is sent to deaerator B601
through P607A/B.

Purge Gas Recovery unit

Feed preparation:
The purge gas from the ammonia recovery section is introduced at 75 kg/cm 2g and 55C. 07FIC201
controls the inlet flow to PGRU. The feed gas is cooled in E 3 to 40C. The condensed water is
collected in B3.
The gas leaving B3 flows to two adsorbers R1 and R2. Each of them are filled with two adsorbent
beds of activated alumina (at the bottom for adsorbing water) and molecular sieves (at the top for
adsorbing ammonia).
R1 and R2 come in line one after another in cycles. When one is in line, the other is on regeneration.
The gas at the outlet of R1/R2 contains less than one ppm of water or ammonia. A filter F1 prevents
any adsorbent dust from being carried away. The regeneration of the adsorbers is carried out by
heating part of the fuel gas (controlled by 07FIC323) from the cryogenic section and allowing it to flow
through the adsorber bed. The regeneration heater E4 is supplied with de-heated MP steam. The
temperature is controlled by 07TIC326. The set point is kept 220C. During cooling step the
regeneration gas bypasses E4, and the moisture content is separated in B4.
Each adsorber operates automatically in a cycle in the following steps.
1. Isolation with pressure (30seconds)
2. Depressurization (40minutes)
3. Blowing (30seconds)
4. Begin heating (30seconds)
5. Heating (3 hours)
6. Cooling (3.5 hours)
7. Isolation (30seconds)
8. Pressurization (40minutes)
9. Parallel and change over
Hydrogen recovery:
The purified purge gas is again cooled in E5 to 40C, before entering the cryogenic section. This gas
is cooled in a special aluminum exchanger (E1 and E2) to -184C. At this temperature heavier

47

components in the purge gas liquefy and the gaseous phase contains 91.3% pure hydrogen. The
separation of gas and liquid takes place in B1. The gaseous stream flows back to E2 and warmed to
38C and delivered at a pressure of 70.5 kg/cm 2g. The Product pressure and flow are controlled by
07PIC318 and 07FIC319.
Fuel gas production:
The level in B1 is controlled by 07lLIC409 acting on the throttling valve 07LV409. The pressure is
reduced to 4.5kg/cm2g. The depressurized liquid is vaporized in B2 and warmed up in E1. To vaporize
the liquid to right temperature level a small part of the hydrogen is leaving B1 is diverted to the
residual stream through the expansion valve 07TV410 controlled by 07TIC410. Another expansion
valve 07HV411 is provided for start up purpose. The warm fuel gas is sent to reformer fuel circuit at 4
kg/cm2g. The pressure and flow are controlled by 07PIC322 and 07FIC322.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.
Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric workabsorbing turbomachinery.Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the
conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow.
The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor. The fluid
enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the
impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from
where it exits.
Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical pumping. The
reverse function of the centrifugal pump is a water turbine converting potential
energy of water pressure into mechanical rotational energy.
HOW IT WORKS :General explanation: Like most pumps, a centrifugal pump
converts rotational energy, often from a motor, to energy in a moving fluid. A portion
of the energy goes into kinetic energy of the fluid. Fluid enters axially through eye of
the casing, is caught up in the impeller blades, and is whirled tangentially and
radially outward until it leaves through all circumferential parts of the impeller into the
diffuser part of the casing. The fluid gains both velocity and pressure while passing
through the impeller. The doughnut-shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing
decelerates the flow and further increases the pressure .

Vertical centrifugal pumps

Vertical centrifugal pumps are also referred to as cantilever pumps. They utilize a
unique shaft and bearing support configuration that allows the volute to hang in the
sump while the bearings are outside the sump. This style of pump uses no stuffing
box to seal the shaft but instead utilizes a "throttle bushing". A common application
for this style of pump is in a parts washer.

48

79

Multistage centrifugal pumps

Multistage centrifugal pump

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a multistage centrifugal
pump. The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts.
For higher pressures at the outlet, impellers can be connected in series. For higher
flow output, impellers can be connected parallel.
A common application of the multistage centrifugal pump is the boiler feedwater
pump. For example, a 350 MW unit would require two feedpumps in parallel. Each
feedpump is a multistage centrifugal pump producing 150 l/s at 21 MPa.
All energy transferred to the fluid is derived from the mechanical energy driving the
impeller. This can be measured at isentropiccompression, resulting in a slight
temperature increase (in addition to the pressure increase).

Problems of centrifugal pumps.

These are some difficulties faced in centrifugal pumps

Cavitationthe net positive suction head (NPSH) of the system is too low
for the selected pump

Wear of the impellercan be worsened by suspended solids

Corrosion inside the pump caused by the fluid properties

Overheating due to low flow

Leakage along rotating shaft

Lack of primecentrifugal pumps must be filled (with the fluid to be

pumped) in order to operate

Surge
- Heart Of Pump
- Consist Of Vanes, Shrouds & eye
49

-Liquid Enters Into Eye, Rotate in The Impeller & Comes Out At Outer Periphery With High
Velocity.
-Classified : As Per Construction
*Closed, semi open, open
-As per flow Inside
* Radial , mixed, axial

# Closed Impeller
-Shrouds on both sides of impeller
-Used In Pumps Handling Clear Liquids

#open impeller
-Does not have shroud on any side
-Used in pumps handling viscous and abrasive liquids

#Semi open impeller

-Shroud on one side of impeller

#CASING:
-Houses the rotating and guides the fluid from inlet to outlet.
-Inlet/outlet nozzles
-Pressure part
-Should be designed as to minimize the loss of kinetic head through eddy formation.
-Generally two types of casing:
a)Volute casing
b)Diffusion casing

#Volute casing:
-Spiral type
-Cross section of flow stream gradually increases towards the discharge end.

#Diffusion casing:
-Impeller is surrounded by a guide wheel, consisting of no. of stationary vanes which
provides outlet with increasing c/s towards periphery water .
-Angle of guide vane at inlet should coincide with angle of impeller at outlet .
# Casings may also be distinguished as:
(a) Horizontally split:
-Generally for low pressure service
-Brgs. on both side of impeller
(b) Vertically split:
-Split vertically perpendicular to shaft axis.
-High temp. and pressure service .
(c) Barrel type;
-Must be open from one side to install & repair .

SHAFT:
- Main rotating part on which all rotating elements are mounted.
- Transmits torque and in turn, power from prime mover to impeller .
- Connected to driver with the help of coupling or belts or G/box.
- Should have sufficient strength so that it can withstand various loads coming on it.

STUFFING BOX:
50

-Main fn. is to arrest the leakage ( i. e. ) the system used to prevent leakage is fitted in this
box.
- Gland packing /Mech seal.

BEARING HOUSING:
-houses the brg. for pump & gives support to rotor assembly.
- Provides space for lube. oil for brgs. & very often a cooling jacket also.

BEARINGS:
-Supports rotating shaft.
- Different types: According to their function - Radial and thrust
According to design requirements of thrust and radial loads friction and anti-friction
-Various types used in c:entrifugal pump:
Ball brg.
- both radial & axial load
Roller brg.
- radial load in much higher capacity
Sleeve brg. - high loads
Tilted pad
- high thrust loads or heavy duty pump

SLEEVES:
- Protects the shaft from direct corrosion , erosion or wear .
- Rotating member along with shaft .

DEFLECTORS:
- Used in brg. hsg. & is mounted on main pump shaft
- To prevent brg oil to come out from chamber along the shaft due to rotation
- Rotating member

WEARING RING:
- For best eff. , stator &rotor clearances must be close , otherwise , back flow of
pumped liquid will be there from high pressure zone to low pressure zone.
- For this , separate rings are fitted both on impeller mating dia& in the casing to
safe guard the major parts of pump.
- Diff. of 50 BHN min. between the rings.

LANTERN RINGS:
- Prevents air leakage into the pump when the pump is operating below atm.
pressure
- Prevent leakage of fluid being pumped
- Cools & lubricate the packing.

51

TERMS RELATED TO CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

#CAPACITY
# PUMP HEAD
# POWER INPUT TO PUMP
# SPECIFIC SPEED
# SYSTEM HEAD
# PIPING HEAD
# CHARACTERSTICS CURVES
# CAVITATION
# NPSH reqd.
# NPSH available

NPSH required
# THE NPSH - NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD, IS A STATEMENT OF MINIMUM
SUCTION CONDITIONS REQUIRED TO PREVENT CAVITATION OF A PUMP.
# CENTRIFUGAL PUMP NWILL ONLY OPERATE SATISFACTORILY IF THERE IS NO
BUILD OF PRESSURE WITHIN THE PUMP.
# IT IS DETERMINED BY TEST & USUALLY STATED BY MANUFACTURER OF
PUMP.

NPSH available
# THE AVAILABLE NPSH AT INTALLATION MUST BE AT LEAST EQUAL TO THE
REQUIRED NPSH IF CAVITATION IS TO BE PREVENTED
# NPSH SHOULD BE MORE THAN NPSHR BY 0.5M MIN.

CHARACTERSTICES CURVES OF CENTRIFUGAL

PUMP
THESE ARE THE CURVES PLOTTED FROM THE RESULTS OF A NUMBER OF
EXPERIMENTS ON THE PUMP, WHILE RUNNING IT AT ITS DESIGN SPEED.
THE CURVES SHOWS THE RELATION BETWEEN EFFICIENCY, BRAKE
HORSE POWER , HEAD AND THE DISCHARGE.

52

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP EFFICIENCY :

Centrifugal Pump Efficiency Calculation Centrifugal pump efficiency is the
ratio of Hydraulic power delivered by the pump to the brake horsepower
supplied to the pump.
Hydraulic Power (Power Output from Pump):
Centrifugal Pump consumes energy to develop the discharge pressure and to
deliver flow. Therefore Hydraulic Horsepower of the Pump depends on these
two parameters.
Power Output from Pump = (P2 P1) * Q
P2: Pump Discharge pressure in N/m2
P1: Pump suction pressure in N/m2
Q: Flow delivered by pump in m3/s
Brake Horse Power (Power Input to Pump):
This is the power given to the pump through Electric Motor. Power output from
the electric driver is calculated by the formula
Power Input to Pump = 1.732 * V * I * PF * Motor Efficiency
V: Measured Voltage of Motor in Volt
I: Measured Current of Motor in Ampere
PF: Power Factor Motor
Efficiency May be considered as design efficiency or may be obtained from
Motor efficiency calculation data through tests Coupling Efficiency is obtained
from Supplier Manual Centrifugal pump efficiency equation Centrifugal
pump efficiency = Power Output from Pump/ Power Input to Pump * 100
Centrifugal Pump Efficiency and Discharge Temperature Actual Power
required in pump can also be derived from Heat balance across the pump.
Difference in Heat flow Outlet and Heat flow inlet is the actual power required
for the pump. This indicates the fall in centrifugal pump efficiency increases the
temperature of liquid at the pump discharge.
Factors Influencing Centrifugal Pump Efficiency
53

1. In Recirculation lines Minimum Thermal flow is maintained to avoid

Cavitation during low flow operation of the pump. This will also result in
lowering the efficiency.
2. Internal Surface Roughness. Smooth surface finish in pump internals gives
high efficiency
3. Increase in Wear Ring Clearances decreases the efficiency of Centrifugal
pump. Wear rings are used reduce clearance between Pump impeller and Pump
casing
4. Increase in viscosity decreases the pump efficiency
5. Mechanical losses in Couplings, Bearings, Packingsetc will decrease the
efficiency
6. Impeller Trimming will also decrease efficiency.
CALCULATION:
PUMP P-309
LIQUID HANDELED: CONDENSATE WATER +CARBON DI OXIDE
SP.GRAVITY: 0.973
SUCTION PRESSURE:2.2 KG\CM2
DISCHARGE PRESSURE:8.0 KG\CM2
HEAD :59.6 M
NPSH(R):1.8 M
NPSH(A):14 M
VISCOSITY:0.4 CP
IMPELLER DIA:209 MM(FINAL TRIM DIA)
IMPELLER DESIGN:CLOSED
RATED:11.51 KW
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE:63 KG\CM2
MOTOR : 3 PHASE
MOTOR EFFICIENCY:85%
VOLTAGE:415 VOLTS
POWER:11 KW
CTR VALUE : 50
FLC(FULL LOAD CURRENT):20 AMP
RPM:2900
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE = P2 P1
=8-2.2=5.8 KG\CM2
OR
= 5.8*9.8*10000=568400 N\M2
(P)=H**g
H=P\g
=568400\973*9.8
=59.6 M
Actual current=50*22\100 = 11 Amp
Pump input power:3*v*i*cos*(motor)
=3*415*11*0.80*0.87
54

= 5846.9w
Mass Flow Rate:19 ton\hr
=19000\3600
=5.27 kg\sec
Pump efficiency:
=pump output\pump input
=m*H*g\pump input
=(19000\3600)*59.6*9.8\5846.9
= 52%
DESIGNED EFFICIENCY:56.5%

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) AMMONIA MANUAL
2) MCCABE & SMITH (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING)
3) PERRYS HANDBOOK

55