Thesis Schenk

THE NATURE OF THE GRAPHIC DESIGN PROCESS WITHIN THE
COMMERCIALENVIRONMENT, WITH PARTICULAR REGARD TO THE

ROLE OF DRAWING
Pamela Margaret
Schenk
fulfilment
to CNAA in partial
A thesis suhnitted
for the degree of
of the requirements
DOCTOROF PHILOSOPHY
Institute
of Advanced Studies
MANCHESTER
POLYTECHNIC
September 1989
No portion of the work referred to in this thesis

has been submitted in support of an application
for any other degree or qualification
at this
or any other institute
of learning
ABSTRACT
THE 14MRE
MMUMM,,
OF THE (PAPHIC I)ESIGff PSS

WITH PA riaxm
R
WITHIN THE COMMERCIAL

TO THE RUM OF 1I AWIN
Pamela Margaret Schenk

This thesis describes
a study of the role of drawing in the graphic
design process within
the comnercial
Drawing usage is
environment.
that graphic designers need to
characterised
and the drawing abilities
in order to be able to use drawing more appropriately
acquire
are
The conclusions
examined.
are set out in the foam of a taxonomy.
is
While this constitutes
the major part of the study, consideration
for drawing tuition
also given to a review of current provision
on BA
is
Graphic Design courses and the place of drawing in the curriculum
discussed.
broadly
designers
A sample of
50 senior,
practising
graphic
in
levels
the
types
representing
seniority
of
major
all
of work and
the profession
for interview.
Observation
was made of
was selected
drawings
were
managerial
and executive
procedures
and designer's
design
designers,
The views of junior
and
analysed.
educators
through a postal questionnaire
students were also canvassed, primarily
and a short prograrrrne of interviews.
Conclusions include:
1)
Many of the essential tasks by which the graphic design

process is progressed are assisted by or performed
through the utilisation
of drawing.
2)
In addition
to the development of design solutions,
drawing is used by designers to perform managerial tasks
and to help them improve their design skills.
3)
The use of drawing is affected by a complex range of

factors including the nature of both the job and of the
organisation in which designers work, their role in the
design team and their individual
predilections.
4)
In order to maximise their

of
utilisation
effective
drawing, designers need to develop both a wide range of
drawing
cognitive
and
abilities
and
practical
for drawings and drawing
appropriate evaluative criteria
usage.
5)
Designers themselves can fail to realise

which they depend on drawing, dismissing
activities
as not being 'real' drawing.
(ii)
the extent to
their drawing
Aclarowle g
Its
I would like to record my particular

thanks to Dr John Langrish for
his
the research
help and encouragement throughout
unfailing
programme, and to Michael Yecmans who has given both sympathetic and
expert guidance.
I am also especially
indebted to all those designers,
educators and
students who have helped me in the collection
of data and visual
for this study, and to those whose advice has helped in the
material
to the advisors
organisation
and conduct of the research, particularly
for the study, Dr Mantz York, who has contributed
to the development
the benefit
to Tony Clayden for giving
of his
of the methodology,
and
considerable
experience of degree level graphic design education,
to Richard Tilley
without
whose experience
and support much of the
detailed
verification
of the data would not have been possible.
during
the
times
has
been
Valuable
received
various
assistance
at
fron
thesis
the
the
the
several
conduct of
preparation
of
research and
including
Polytechnic,
Manchester
members of the academic staff
of
Nigel Barron without
Derek Schofield,
Ken Pearson and, in particular,
have
been
it
not
would
whose very positive
and support
assistance
help
The professional
and considerate
possible to conclude the study.
has
Polytechnic
library
the
also
Manchester
given by the staff
of
of
been much appreciated,
of Terry Waddington
as has been the assistance
in photographing
drawings.
the original
I am very grateful to those who have allowed their drawings to act as

illustrations
thanks must go to David
in the thesis and particular
Crow, Stephen Raw, Geoffrey Winston and to all the staff of the CYB
Design Consultancy.
Gina Francis
the thesis
organisation
and Jane Preston

but
also
with
and presentation.
have helped not only with

many of the problematic
the typing
details
of
of
Finally my sincere thanks go to my husband Victor and my son Daniel,

who each, in his own way, helped me to canplete this study.
(iii)
List
of
Conb nts
Page No.
List
Tahles
(Vii)
UX)
of
Listof Figurm
T-i St
Of A
Intucti
rx iOeS
(x; ii
an
C1QPJER 1-
The Baclgxvmd and Outline
of the Study
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Prelude
1.3
Evolution
1.4
The context
1.5
Definition
to the study
U31M 2-
of the study
of the terms used in the study
The Context
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Graphic
2.3
The functional
2.4
The role
2.5
The use of drawing
2.6
The historical
and the role
QJ& M3-
of the study
and outline
12
of the Study
12
design
and the role

aspects
of drawing
12
of the practitioner
20
of drawing
in creative
in design
27
processes
33
processes
background to graphic
of drawing tuition
design
education
40
51
Methodology
3.1
Introduction
51
3.2
The pilot
52
3.3
The conduct of the research into graphic

use of drawing
3.4
The conduct of the research into drawing tuition
study
(iv)
designers'
57
69
3.5
Consultation
QR4-
73
and corroboration
Graphic Designers'
4.1
Introduction
4.2
The 'preparatory
phase' including
briefing
and collecting
reference
4.3
The use of drawing in the 'main creative

the graphic design process
4.4
The use
including
preparing
4.5
Factors
that modify
design process
4.6
Changes in the use of drawing
CHU3JER5-
74
Use of Drawing
74
drawing
in the
the procedures
of
for production
of
of
77
of
92
'production
phase',
and
cam issioning
153
the procedures
material
the use of drawing
phase'
in the graphic
187
the
The
Required
Drawing Abilities
and
Developmmt of a Taxczuny on the Use of Drawing
5.1
Introduction
5.2
The required
5.3
Evaluative
5.4
The develognent of a taxonomy on the use of drawing
CHM3 Z6-
drawing
abilities
of graphic
189
designers
200
criteria
Oanisati
The
on
in BA Level
MlitiCn
Introduction
6.2
The drawing abilities

graduates
6.3
The provision
Courses
6.4
Discussion
7.1
189
189
6.1
CHAPTM 7-
166
Drawing
and Content
of
Graphic Design Hclucatian
204
223
223
of graphic design students
of drawing
of issues
Discussion,
Ftrtur e Work
tuition
on BA Graphic
and
Design
227
246
raised
Qonclusicns
224
and
Six
stirns
for
251
251
Introduction
(v)
7.2
The nature
7.3
The role
7.4
The range
abilities
7.5
Reccmnendations for curriculum

to drawing tuition
7.6
Suggestions
design
of the graphic
of drawing
in the graphic
and develognent
for
future
251
process
of the
design
process
required
planning with
255
drawing
260
regard
263
267
work
fers
270
following
ices
(vi)
page 278
List
of Tables
Table
No.
Page
No.
Use of drawing while accepting briefing
Respondents'
material
Methods
literacy
The use of drawing
The use of specific

techniques
the main creative
phase
The use of specific

media in the procedures
main creative
phase
Specific
synthesis
The re-use and use of drawings for the purpose

evaluation
The
uses
presentation
methods
described
for
of
collecting
the development
in analysis
uses of drawing
and development
of
drawing
80
in
reference
85
visual
87
of
96
and idea generation

of
97
of
the
98
procedures
of
111
of
125
of
130
in the procedures
in
the
the
procedures
10
The uses of drawing in the procedures of production
11
Respondents' use of drawing in

according to level of seniority
design
procedures
12(a) Rating of the importance of drawing ability

and
the importance of having a broad appreciation
drawing to practising
Responses
important
abilities
is
it
to the question "Do you think
has the following
a graphic designer
drawing abilities?
174
190
graphic designers
12(b) Volunteered
descriptions
of drawing
required for the graphic design process
13
of
of
161
192
193
"
14
is
it
Responses to the question "Do you think
important
a graphic designer has the following
drawing skills? "
194
15
The required
designers
of graphic
197
16
Problems caused by a lack of drawing ability
17
Taxonomy of the uses of drawing,
drawing abilities
(vii)
types
of
199
drawing
206
produced and the drawing

graphic design process
abilities
for
required
the
18
Drawing activities
19
Succinct
terms employed to
in the taxonany
ability
20
The drawing
abilities
21
The drawing
acquire
ability
22
Rating of the importance of

practising
graphic designers
23
Rating
of the importance of drawing
ability
students selected onto BA graphic design courses
24
'Yes' responses to the need for breadth in

for students
of drawing ability
and tuition
25
Purpose for
drawing
tuition
26
Tuition
subject
ranked most important
27
Students' views on the development of their drawing

drawing tuition
ability
and the need for further
234
28
Those responsible
drawing tuition
of
236
29
Scheduling of drawing tuition

years of courses
in 1st, 2nd and 3rd
237
30
'Yes'
response
given
methods
of teaching
what
when questioned
on
and learning
about drawing
238
31
'Yes' response to the question is or should help be

given in developing understanding of drawings
240
32
'Yes' response given when asked the question are or

be encouraged
the
to acquire
should
students
241
for
and types of drawing produced
of students
designers
drawing
and new graduates
found
difficult
drawing
221
225
to
226
to
229
in
231
aspects
231
ability
232
ranked first
233
for the planning and conduct
are or should be used
ability
describe
216
to judge drawings
33
'Yes'
response
given
when questioned
tuition
is or should be given to develop
skills/abilities
34
'Yes'
tuition
35
'Yes'
response when questioned
whether
classes are or should be organised
response when questioned

should be arranged
(viii)
whether
specific
242
on how drawing
243
specific
244
List
Of Figures
Figure
No.
Page
No.
la
Drawings from "An Introduction

to Graphic
(Bridgewater,
1987), reproduced same size
lb
"Over My Shoulder"
Drawings
fron
p61), reproduced same size
Drawings
used to record
briefing
(CYB 1989), pencil,
during
information
reproduced same size
82
Drawings produced to check understanding

of the
brief with the client
(CYB 1989), ink,
reproduced
83
Design"
21
(Games 1960,22
same size
4
Drawing produced to pass on the briefing

to the
design
team (CYB 1989), pencil,
with
reproduced
50% reduction
84
Drawings used to collect visual reference material

(CYB 1984-88), pencil,
50%
reproduced
with
reduction
88
Analysis
of visual reference material (CYB 198488), ink and pencil, reproduced with 50% reduction
89
7a - 7b
Drawings
information
used to record
visual
(Stephen Raw 1988-89), pencil,
reproduced same
size
90/1
Worksheet showing development of ideas

ink, reproduced with 75% reduction
9a
Ideas
1984),
9b
Ideas drawn in notebook (CYB 1984-88),

drawn
ink
on a C6 envelope
(CYB 1989),
(Geoffrey
Winston
101
pencil,
102
spirit
103
1988),
104
10
Early idea sheet (CYB 1984-88), pencil

marker, reproduced with 50% reduction
11
Double spread from notebook (David

ink,
reproduced with 50% reduction
12
Adaptations and revisions to drawings (David

1988), coloured ink and marker, reproduced
and
Craw
50% reduction
13
Records of ideas
Raw 1989), pencil,
for future
reproduced
(ix)
reference
same size
100
Crow
with
(Stephen
105
106
"1
14
Use of small scale drawings for early ideas

1989), ink, reproduced with 50% reduction
15
Develorcnents in canposition and form (CYB 198488), pencil and coloured marker, reproduced with
108
Drawing from photostats

for magazine design (A
carte, 1984), ink, reproduced with 50% reduction
114
(CYB
107
50% reduction
16
la
17a - 17c The development stages of a magazine spread

(Which? 1985), 17a in ink, 17b in pencil, 17c in
ink, reproduced with a 50% reduction
115/7
18
Examples of the means by which the x height

is
indicated
on page designs (CYB 1984-88),
coloured
118
19a
Indications
of text typography (CYB 1989),
( reversed)
reproduced
same
size
,
119
19b
Indications
of display typography
coloured ink, label Tan x 9an
20
Resolving
drawings
size
21
Modifications
88), pencil,
marker
(CYB 1984-88),
letterform
through
the use of
(David Crow 1988), ink, reproduced
120
many
same
121
(CYB 1984to established letterform

122
22a - 22b Freely drawn letterfonn

ink, labels 7cm x Tan
(CYB 1984-88),
coloured
123/4
23a - 23b
progressive
in presentation
drawings
refinement
(CYB 1984-88), coloured marker and gouache
135/6
24
Client presentation
1984-88), coloured
137
with 50% reduction

25a - 25b Sheets of
evaluating
with
(CYB,
drawings with revisions
marker and gouache,
reproduced
drawings produced by the

designer
his design solutions,
ink,
reproduced
138/9
50% reduction
26
Drawing produced to present a design solution to a

magazine editor (Which? 1985), coloured pencil,
reproduced with 50% reduction.
140
27
final
The
photograph,
141
design
reproduced
(X)
(Which?
solution
with 50% reduction.
1985),
28
Drawings produced for in-house presentations

1984-88),
colour ink and marker, reproduced
50% reduction
(CYB
with
142
29a
Drawing used for client

presentation
early in the
(CYB 1984-88),
progression
of a design solution
50%
pencil
and coloured marker, reproduced
with
reduction
143
29b
Drawing
used for client
presentation
a later
at
(CYB 1984-88),
stage of a design solution
coloured
ink and gouache, reproduced
with 50% reduction
144
30a - 30b
drawings imitating
Designers'
various illustrative
(CYB 1984-88), coloured marker and gouache,
styles
10an x 28cm
145/6
31a - 31b
Drawings
for
coloured ink,
147/8
32
Drawings
for client
presentation
coloured marker, reproduced with
33a - 33b
for
Drawing
implementation
ink
coloured
reduction
34
Drawing for
client
presentation
1988), marker, reproduced same size
35
Drawing produced to cannission

illustrator
with
(CYB 1989),
visual
reference material attached
ink,
36
Specification
and coloured
37a
from which artwork has been

Sheet of letterforms
cut (Stephen Raw 1987), ink, reproduced same size
37b
Artwork
size
37c
Printed
design
(Stephen
37d
(Stephen Raw 1987),

Artwork
(CYB 1984-88),
client
presentation
(CYB 1984-88),
50% reduction
the
presentation
client
showing
(CYB 1984-88),
of a design solution
50%
and marker,
with
reproduced
(Stephen
Raw
drawing (Stephen Raw 1988),

pencil
(Stephen Raw 1987),
ink,
reproduced
Raw
ink
1987),
print,
and gouache,
38a - 38b Examples of spatial

conventions that
designers
employ, ink and coloured
(xi)
same
graphic
marker,
149
150/1
152
157
158
162
163
164
165
179/80
39
Initial
ideas for the design of a logo type (David
Crow 1988), ink, reproduced with 50% reduction
181
40a
for
Drawings produced
to
client
presentation
demonstrate
the implementation
of a corporate
identity
progranine (CYB 1984-88), ink and coloured
182
40b
Drawings produced
for
to
client
presentation
demonstrate
the implementation
of a corporate
identity
programme (CYB 1984-88), ink and coloured
183

41a - 41c
Part
of
conjunction
in
a range of drawings
produced
(Open University
with
an academic
1984-86),
41a in
41b
pencil,
coloured
marker and photostats,
50% reduction
42
designers
Graphic
use
procedures of the graphic
184/6
41c in
ink,
in
with
reproduced
in
of drawing
design process
the
257
[Note :" sane of the drawings have had to be rotated in order to retain
as much of the quality
as
and to show as much of the original
possible. ]
(xii)
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I:
Interviews
and Questiannaizm
a)
Interview
Structure
Graphic Designers
b)
Questionnaire into the Attitudes

to and the provision
drawing tuition on Graphic Design courses
c)
Questionnaire
for
Graphic
provision
of drawing tuition
d)
Questionnaire
for Graphic Design
with Final Version of Folder
Appendix II :
Appendix
Main i"I.
a)
Practising
b)
Educators
c)
Students
III:
Appendix IV:
Individmls
for
Use
with
Design
Students
about
on Graphic Design courses
Students
Graphic Designers
Interviewed
or moulted
Venues for Case Study and Visits

Design Consultancy
b)
Educational
Establishments
(xiii)
of
the
to be Conducted
Groups
a)
Practising
This
it
is essentially
looks at aspects
about designerly
study
also
of educational
but,
practice
for
preparation
in addition,
this
practice.
The main emphasis of the work is an investigation

of the ways in which
practising
the phases of the
graphic designers
use drawing in all
design process.
has also been given to the
However, consideration
of drawing
role
implications
tuition
on BA Graphic
being the ultimate
object
Design courses,
of this
such curriculum
analysis.
The main intention

of the study has been to form a basis on which the
use of drawing can be characterised
and the required drawing abilities
by undertaking
of graphic designers
a detailed
may be established,
investigation
of drawing
of the role
in a wide range of graphic
design
the
about
of these abilities
on graphic design courses and begins to
may be
practice
a theoretical
approach from which educational
However,
activities.
development
develop
the
study
issues
raises
also
considered.
The intention
core
curriculum,
to
that
complexity
appraisal
it
has
of educational
a hitherto
and categorisation
grounding
a slavish
practice;
intrinsic
in the professional
intellectual
been to provide
recaffnend
is the use of drawing
also
the
or
as a basis
values
only
has at no point
a fonmla
either
emulation
of
to the graphic
camnercial
that
not
design process
but
to indicate
rather
for
largely
and
specificity
unrecognised
work of graphic designers and that an
would improve
of these particularities
on which
educational
practice
be
must
based.
Therefore,
the main aims of the study
follows:
be
as
summarised
can
1.
To study the ways in which professional

drawing
2.
To identify
graphic
designers
use
kinds of drawing that

and characterise the different
design
the
are used in the various activities
process
graphic
of
-1-
3.
To identify
required by graphic
the activities
of the
the range of drawing abilities

designers to enable them to engage in all
study is to provide a basis for

the re-evaluation
in degree level
of the provision
of drawing tuition
the
the following
graphic design education,
aims have also influenced
Given that
the ultimate
goal
the
of
study: 4.
if
To consider
there
any ways in
are
UK degree
which
level
graphic design education may not be providing

adequate tuition
identified
for the develognent of the various drawing abilities
under 3
5.
To make suggestions
respect to drawing
the results
The
essentially
about
effort
a four
professional
practices
drawing
of
rather
than
practice
within
broad
necessity,
the
design
graphic
the
Every
and
orientations
major
year period.
The use of
profession.
in a wide range of designerly

activity
Over two hundred drawings have been collected
questionnaires
graphic
interviews
many
and
design
with
more
have
have been obtained

courses
design
been supplemented
with
over the period
in
the
educators
been
from over
UK,
and a
the
50% of
short
and questionnaires
many useful
Canpleted
seen.
discussions
series
with
with
and
issues
practice.
and educational
all
scope
raising
quantitative,
investigate
in
has been observed
analysed,
students
been,
therefore
has been made to
working
for
tuition
qualitative,
both
in curriculum
planning with
based
design
on
students
graphic
improvements
of the study
has
study
for
over
and
postal
degree
of
level
formal
students
colleagues
has
and
of the research.
A conscious decision was made to limit

the scope of the study to
That is to say, the
graphic designers with broadly-based experience.
sample has not included certain specialists
who could, taking the
broadest definition
of graphic design, be included in the profession,
ie illustrators,
typographers or artphotographers,
calligraphers,
-2-
1.
have not been included

workers
as such in
designers whose work extends in these directions
concentrated
on
those
practitioners
the
although
The study has
sample,
have.
who are
for
responsible
the
in
involved
management and conduct of design solutions
all
who
and
are
the phases of the graphic design process,
although because of their
in the organisation
position
of their
or the particular
orientation
involvement
these
work, their
may not be equally
spread throughout
The educational
investigating
areas of
phases.
(graphic
of the study were similarly
aspects
educational
design
than
students)
rather
illustration
students,
etc. )
typography,
At an early stage
drawing
abilities
in the research
of
specialists
programme it
designers
graphic
and understand drawings and the

Therefore,
commission drawn images.
development
The thesis
describes
conducted
over a four
why the
In
study
Chapter
the development
year period.
the
study
is
the
to
capacity
the
the
capacity
to
conceptualise
for,
and the
of
1 explains
Chapter
its
in
placed
project
a research
and outlines
was undertaken
that
need
drawing
as practical
as well
of, such cognitive

has also been considered.
generalists
(advertising,
was apparent
included
appreciate
and
at
aimed
provision
aimed at
evolution
the
abilities
that
was
in more detail
and conduct.
relevant
of
context
is
research
methodology
and
drawing
in
the
in Chapter 3.
The findings
of
use
explained
made on
all the aspects of the graphic design process are presented in chapter
designer's
4, and the various factors
use of
that influence
a graphic
knowledge,
established
drawing
identified.
abilities
of graphic
they employ for
the
In Chapter
5 findings
designers,
together
of a taxonomy that
into
graphic
designers'
for
drawing
6.
tuition
Chapter
the main issues
sets
7 presents
raised
with
Current
design
the conclusions
and presents
-3-
drawing
the evaluative
together
out the conclusions
use of drawing.
on BA graphic
the
about the required
are described,
use of drawing,
their
construction
Chapter
of
is
future
the
provision
considered
of the study,
sane ideas for
with
of the study
educational
courses
criteria
in
discusses
work.
CHAPTER1
The Backgromd and outLfne of the Study

1.1
In
Introduction
this
chapter
described,
and the link

is
provision
methodology
are all
1.2
background
the
to
for
and motives
between professional
practice
the
study
are
and educational
The evolution
of the research program e,, the
is
broad
the
in
the
set
study
which
and
context
clarified.
employed,
outlined.
Prelude
In order
important
to
to the study
the
of this
study
it
is
structure
to note that, although there has been same shift
of emphasis
has
for
the
in the focus of observation,
the original
study
motivation
appreciate
underlying
for
is
to
influence.
That
a
concern
to
while
say,
continued
exert an
design
level
in
the development
drawing
BA
tuition
graphic
of
in
the
stage
the
early
an
at
education
study,
prompted
originally
research
programme
characterise
before
Nevertheless,
the
basis
became apparent
it
drawing
for
activity
educational
the initial
that
it
was
essential
to
designers
graphic
of practising
be
considered.
could
practice
drawing
improve
to
try
to
namely
objective,
has
demands
light
in
the
the
practice,
provision
of professional
of
developed
the
influence,
to
system
and
continued
exert a considerable
fully
is
drawing
designers'
to categorise
which
activity,
graphic
intention
described
in Chapter 5, has been devised with the ultimate
of providing
a basis from which
drawing tuition
may be considered.
suggestions
for
the
planning
of
Over a period of several years, the author's experience in teaching

both drawing and design to BA graphic design students led to a growing
it
Frequently,
tuition.
the
drawing
concern about
role and nature of
during drawing
was found that apparent improvements in drawing ability
classes
drawing
the
were not consistently
with
matched
during design-based tasks and projects.
-4-
use of
students'
Discussion with
in
colleagues
there
BA courses,
of
and role of drawing

way drawing abilities
professional
the
tuition.
tuition
to
importance
in
the
as to
the
drawing
of
consensus
any agreement on
for
in preparation
be developed
became clear
was
that
area
the planning
and
conflict
and
of
on which many academics
but on which no underlying
opinions
although
Nor was there
often
an
Drawing was found to be a topic
expressed strong
be agreed.
that,
confirm
was no general
should
it
In fact,
practice.
drawing
conduct
of
disagreement.
in
there
nature
the
tended
belief
a firm
remained
curriculum
institutions
other
could
principles
fron industrial
ex-students
and students
returning
placement provided further
examples of confusion and dissatisfaction.
Many expressed a lack of confidence
drawing abilities
in their
when
Discussions
with
found
faced with working in a ccn nercial
had
that
They
environment.
they were not quick enough, nor accurate enough. Moreover, they found
it very difficult
ideas.
to carmunicate their
Camnents fran employers
of graduates
deficiencies
also
directly
in drawing
or
ability
Therefore,
before
formally
areas
concern
had
of
requirements
place
of
of other
drawing
on
indirectly
referred
lines.
along similar
embarking
been
already
subjects
the
on this
identified.
It
The
was
agreement about the content

progranms,
drawing ability
and when students'
of applicants
because of a lack of drawing ability
it was difficult
best ways to help them.
effects
various
study,
were seen to present
curriculum.
of drawing
the
to
of
specific
conflicting
a challenge to the
to reach
difficult
or on the required
work was impaired
to decide
on the
These areas of concern may be sunnarised as follows: a)
Concern
curriculum
b)
about
the
place
of
drawing
tuition
in
overall
planning
Confusion about the content

drawing tuition
-5-
and range of specific
syllabus
in
c)
Unresolved establishment
to drawing ability
d)
Uncertainty
about how to direct

draughtsmanship
Therefore
for recruitment
of criteria
with regard
for
remedial tuition
inadequate
there
that
was
a
gradual
conventional
realisation
,
approaches to drawing tuition
on BA Graphic Design courses were not
entirely
adequate for fostering
appropriate
uses of drawing in the
practice
of
undertake
a formal
1.3
design
graphic
disciplines
research
and a decision
was made to
programme.
Evoluti cn and outline
of the study
based on this
hypothesis
initial
that drawing tuition
on BA
graphic design courses was inadequate in that it did not entirely
meet
the requirements
the initial
aims of the
of professional
practice,
Thus,
study
were mainly
that
abilities
concerned
graphic
with
design
investigating
the
and exploring
other possible
approaches
degree level graphic design courses.
professional
drawing
to
practice
for
for
require
will
students
drawing
of
range
tuition
11
A pilot
study
in a series
gained
educators
of trial
it
and students,
fundamental
nature
literature
well
theoretical
the
fully
perform
Fran
the
practitioners,
with
of
became apparent
that
the
has hitherto
not
to
allow
framework
for
focus
of
attention
the
way
graphic
been sufficiently
of
construction
commensurate with
of
the
study
the needs of
was changed to
use drawing.
but,
more
an extensive
of the ways in which practising
and exploration
their
of a
an enquiry
results
in practice
articulated
that
findings
preliminary
students.
main
investigation
designers
or
also
the
conducted
became evident
and intellectual
degree level
Hence,
it
use drawing
explored
interviews
was required.
search,
designers
and through
was undertaken,
use
in
of
order
became to
The main objective
drawing and the drawing activities
not
to
lose
-6-
sight
of
the
original
an
graphic
characterise
that
they
motives
for
the
has also been given to the curriculum

research,
consideration
implications
The revised
of the findings.
aims of the study are
described in the Introduction.
Thus,
as stated
above,
described in more detail
in
early
the
in Chapter
pilot
(which
stage
study
is
3.2. ),
the need for a

Other important developments
3, Section
major change of emphasis was identified.

also stem fron this period,
when a number of methods of collecting
information
were evaluated and many consultations
with key individuals
took place.
A decision
research
was made to conduct a two-part
aspects of
and educational
The variables
that can influence
graphic
a professional
use of drawing were identified,
as were various key issues
served as a basis for both structured
and focused interview
the
study.
designer's
that
both the professional
to consider
prograrme
later
programmes and for
sane of the findings.
co-ordinating
four
year
interviews
A series
was conducted
of 50 structured
designers
the major orientations
practising
representing
all
levels of seniority
in their
in the profession,
and representing
with
The two
investigations
were
conducted
together
over
period.
or place
of employment a wide
In addition,
conducted
of 20 more informal
a series
interviews
these
number of
designers,
junior
with
organisation
was revisited
jobs
particular
and the
observation
of
the
and
drawings
relating
The investigation
but
courses
conducted with
of
progress,
analysis
mode
organisations.
interviews
was
A
personnel.
of
a cross-section
This
as the major case study.
so that the long-term progress of
the
gradual
of
evolution
Part of the case study
attendance
'job
bags'
of
at client
(folders
the
involved
and in-house
of
designers'
to the progression
jobs or projects).
of individual
based
mainly on a postal
practice
was
design
to
BA
graphic
several visits
of educational
questionnaire
and
in
work
meetings,
effects
could be studied.
itself
organisation
regularly
marketing
with
conducted
selected
focused
but
and 3 with
were
in one organisation
personnel
of design
cross-section
and
also
short
educators
included
programme
of
and students.
-7-
interviews
and
questionnaires
1.4
The context
With
the
of the study
growing
through
appreciation
design,
increasingly
means for
exploring
the
of
greater
development
the
potential
for
emphasis
is
wealth
being
placed on
and business
professional
of
creation
in student
designers.
Exploration
skills
role
of
of the central
drawing in the graphic designer's
including
life,
not
professional
but
involved
directly
in design and innovation
only the activities
those
involved
design
of vital
management, is therefore
importance
in terms of the student
designer
a realistic
achieving
It is also becaning more
professional
approach to the use of drawing.
to use and commission drawings must be
apparent that the ability
also
in
a professional
as part of the range of business skills
designer requires.
How, therefore,
catty nication
may a study of these
fit
into the broad context of art
practical
and cognitive
abilities
considered
and design
In
studies?
it
general,
is
aspects
is well
drawing
systems.
of
hitherto
of
an
in
the
fully
individual's
in
of
the
ways
of
working
designerly,
specifically
'code'
for
relevant
in
to
capacity
they
that
The role
clarified.
due consideration
investigation
of its part
functional
of
consideration
activities
varied
requires
particularly
the
drawing
the
to
and
of
study
as an approach
the part played by the drawing activities
However,
been
developnent
say that
to
established
designers
graphic
not
true
any study of
the development
of
in
the
also
creatively
work
design
of
and an
practice
is
literacy
visual
designers.
The growing
and
achieving
understanding
function
has
drawing
graphic
and the
perform
of
drawing
appreciation
that
are
a visual
as
verbal
language',
to the numerical
or 'problem-solving
equivalent
'codes' of other problem solving
disciplines
must also to
taken
into
develogTent
Moreover, consideration
account.
for drawing tuition
of the provision
is
courses
educational
relevant
in
practice.
present
study,
Chapter
2.
particularly
All
that
it
these
aids
issues
in the review
-8-
of
the
be
historical
on graphic
of
understanding
have been addressed
of relevant
or
previous
design
current
in
this
work in
"
1.5
Definition
Semantic
of the terns
issues
influenced
have
used in the study

some difficulties
caused
the approach to the research.
of the academic
found to employ
the
nor of
broadly
respective
spheres.
Indeed,
commercial
environment
consulted
their
even within
field
work within
environments
terminology,
agreed
part
of the
devoted
to
the
was
have
part,
the representatives
Neither
commercial
in
and,
were
cn
the
identification
and
of ter inology in carmon use among graphic designers.

This is discussed fully
in Chapter 5.
The problem has been further
in the literature
compounded by the vocabulary
which tends to be
classification
to particular
paradigms or disciplines,
or even to individual
limited
Hence, only
be made of research
authors.
use could
in
that would not allow for a checking of understanding
methodologies
specific
Thus,
respondents.
efficient
way of
although
collecting
locations,
geographical
its
was used as an
a postal
questionnaire
data from respondents
in
spread
limited
was consequently
efficacy
widely
and the
had to be restricted.
scope of questions
During
the
the pilot
study much thought was given to whether the use of
for
terns 'drawing'
the
term
was most appropriate
as a general
being
activities
use of
terms
investigated.
'rough'
like
but in that
profession,
Consideration
'visual'
or
was also
terms have rather
these
be in
known to
because
it
the
full
was likely
potential
respondents.
but a useful
choice,
providing
an early
range
to
insight
under
have a broadly
In the
the
activities
of
event
initial
into
it
reaction
of
the
use
in
the
not
only
one that
and
consideration,
equivalent
proved
to
connotations
specific
the decision was made
they were rejected

for this purpose.
Eventually
to use the generic terns 'drawing'
because it was the
encanpassed
given
meaning
only
respondents
to
all
an effective
frequently
key attitudes.
Care has been taken in presenting the findings to distinguish,

where
between the act of drawing itself
appropriate,
and the products of
drawing.
The term 'drawing activity'
has been used as a general term
to refer to the act of drawing and the term 'drawing produced' (along
with more specific
examples of graphic design nomenclature) for the
-9-
of drawing
products
The
activity.
'graphic
term
designer'
sense described
restricted
in
process,
but not to specialists
The tern
'process'
directed
to
design
the
process
been
the
Introduction,
to
the
slightly
to
refer
those
is used in the sense of a series

achievement
of
an appropriate
of actions
broadly
The graphic
result.
described
is
as comprising a series of phases, rather

broad
terms
to emphasise that it is linear
in
very
only
loops.
these phases various
Within
many feedback
than stages,
and includes
'procedures'
or courses of action can be identified.
is used to denote a piece of work, a specific
carried
in
employed
in all the phases of the graphic design

like illustrators
or typographers.
who are involved
practitioners
has
out,
generally
forming
part
'task'
The term
to
undertaking
of a procedure
within
be
the design
process.
Generally
agreed
Fror example,
terminology
terms
such
is
for
specific
collection
as ' briefing'
,'
'synthesis',
'evaluation',
'analysis',
material',
'carnissioning',
'specification'
have generally
available
and
'art-work'
procedures.
of reference
'presentation',
have been found
to
agreed meanings.
are categorised under the headings 'Managerial',

is used
The terns 'Managerial'
and 'Self-Development'.
'Executive'
is
have broadly organisational
intentions.
Designerly
'Executive'
tasks
when tasks
used to denote those tasks that are instrumental in the develognent of
design solutions.
describes those tasks
The term 'Self-Developnent'
that
designers
individual
engage in
to bring
in
improvements
about
their
an
abilities.
The terns 'orientation'
type
has been used to describe the particular
is engaged, that is whether it is, for
of job in which the designer
has been
The term 'job'
example, packaging or magazine design, etc.
used
in
specific
the
way generally
design problem.
accepted
10
-
in
the
profession
to
mean a
The terms
types
of
'cognitive'
drawing
and
ability.
intellectual
conceptual
and
appropriate
use of drawing
'practical'
The teen
abilities
in the design
to appreciate
also includes the ability
imagery, whereas the term 'practical'
abilities
technical
are used to denote different

'cognitive'
is used to denote
like
and
the
process.
awareness
'Cognitive'
and judge the quality

is
fluidity
manipulative
skills,
canpetence in the use of specific
used for
the
the
ability
of drawn
more evident
and
and media handling,
equipment,
etc.
- 11 -
of
(I
P1ER 2
'Ibe OQltext of the study

2.1
Introduction
As explained
in Chapter
related
topics,
process,
drawing
the
1, this
the
namely
drawing
is
study
use
concerned with a number of

drawing in the graphic
design
of
abilities
designers
graphic
to
require
use
effectively,
these abilities
and the means of developing
BA level
within
graphic design education.
In the present
chapter
is
consideration
to the
background
issues
given
the
on which
investigation
is based and areas of established
knowledge relevant
to
these topics
Initially,
are examined.
in
graphic
designers
drawing
in the graphic
sane
previous
examined,
drawing
2.2,
Section
discussed
are
design
studies
and in
on
Section
in creative
the
2.4
the
one of its
drawing
of
significant
that
stated
meaning but difficult
ideas,
drawing
of
discuss
the
are
role
2.5 deals
together
2.3
of
with
with
the
the use of drawing as a

2.6, the historical
Section
drawing
alternative
tuition
on graphic
approaches
are discussed,
insofar
to
design
current
art
as they relate
study.
who has
needs,
In Section
and with
in
Finally,
development
in defining
'visual
use of
processes,
Graphic design and the role of the practiti,
The difficulty
about
design
of
for
and same proposals
and design educational
provision
2.2
the
of
Section
are considered.
courses
to the present
of
accounts
that
caranentaries
processes
language.
and various
responsibilities
process are considered.

the functional
aspects
speculation
about the nature
'designer codes' that include
problem-solving
background to
wide-ranging
the
graphic
discipline
theorists
the
and practitioners,
'expression
"graphic
to pin
down. '
relationships
words,
design
aer
- providing
It
and pictures.
12
-
Nevertheless,
is noted
by
Paul Rand (1985),

design"
is
essentially
rich
it
in
is
meaning to a mass of unrelated

job to select
is the designer's
this material
and fit
(1982) indicates,
it
decades that
'
it
interesting.
As Ashwin
and
make
is only in the course of the last two to three
teen "graphic
design"
has replaced the expression
the
together
"cannercial
art" but, in spite of being in caption usage,

seen to have 'a stable or permanent meaning. '
it
cannot be
Rawson's (1987) definition
of graphic design is of 'the arrangement Of

flat
layouts
[other]
images
host
of text
and/or
of
and
a
.....
for printing
products
(1980) is similarly
processes'
and Topalian
"design
pragmatic with his description
design,
of "two dimensional"
for print"
"communications design".
the
or, more globally,
Therefore,
of the graphic
role
of
arrangements
designer
of
for
responsibility
may be said to involve

and imagery
as part
words
the
expression
meaning
of
the manipulation
or her
of his
through
visual
relationships.
In
the
19th
adaptation
of
there
and experiment,
intellect,
one "graphic
hand or
1983) and it
importance
during,
Century
was only
of the
graphic
which
graphic
recent
years.
during
individual
cannunication
'welter
was rarely
if
designer"
at
the early
years
designer
in
was established.
the
innovation,
invention,
of
ever
the
of this
one controlling
(Ashwin,
centre'
century
designers
cane into contact has continued

In 1973, Hofuran (1973) noted that:
the
of pieces
co-ordination
The range
that
of
work
with
to grow over
Whereas a few years ago the activities

of the graphic
designer were mainly restricted
to the creation
of posters,
his work has now
advertisements,
packaging,
signs,
etc.,
expanded to embrace virtually
every field
of representation
(p38)
and design.
While Goslett
(1978) includes:
typography
book,
magazine and newspaper,
stationery,
annual reports,
type faces etc.
Lettering,
catalogues,
Publicity
booklets,
calligraphy.
materialadvertisements,
folders,
TV and
posters,
covers, point of sale, 'stamps etc.
film graphics,
trade marks, symbols, packaging, photography'
(p42)
within
the range of work that
graphic
13
-
designers
can be engaged on.
Therefore,
it
graphic
may be said that

designers
are required
varied,
not
in
only
their
ccnnunication.
With
the
evolution
terms
to
types
tackle
that
problems
of
have becane increasingly
design
scale
and format
design
consultancy,
of
the
of
the
but
in
the nature
and the
of
additional
problems has
services they offer,

a less piecemeal approach to graphic
developed.
As Steers (1987) points out, 'The first
concept
generation
hold up.
is
the simple, linear problem-solving
It
does
not
model
....
increasingly
is a complex blend of
that design activity
recognised
logical,
designer,
The
pragmatic and intuitive
graphic
approaches'.
therefore,
that work on
to provide
not only required
solutions
their own terms, that take into account the technical
of
requirements
but also that
production
methods and consider
costing
requirements,
relate
is
to less
Cross [N]
clearly
(1984),
to disciplines
in reviewing
like
visual
quantifiable
urban,
contexts.
or sociological
the emergence of systematic
and industrial
engineering
architectural,
approaches
design,
task concanitant
in the designer's
cites increasing
complexity
to
the
technological
reduce
with increasing
requirement
change and
design
designer error as generally
The
influences.
graphic
prevailing
discipline
has similarly
by developing
about not
but
also
only
by the
sophisticated
varied
diet
engaged in
ordinated
been subject
demands
ccmnunication
of visual
a set
service
of
technology
a
of
(Craig,
society
ccwplexity,
1974;
tasks
to their
1980)
Dalley,
increasingly
to
an increasingly
and subject
The graphic designer
interrelated
brought
utilising
systems
imagery.
tailored
to growing
offering
needs (Olivs,
may therefore
their
clients
be
a co-
1985).
There are also graphic designers working on problems with a particular

design who are , as a
like in packaging or editorial
orientation
(Bridgewater,
to
result,
subject
more specific
sets of constraints
be
1987). The nature of these specialist
course
of
must
orientations
taken into
account when considering

graphic designers.
Some commentators have described
the range of responsibilities
the graphic designer's
14
-
of
role as being
'What he has to say - the content of his

(Guyatt, 1977), or as
thought up by sanebody else'
work - is usually
'such as book
Rawson (1987) indicates
in areas of specialisation
totally
directed
design,
the
material.
'
by others,
designer's
graphic
Games (1960) describes
is
task
the role
to
"package"
existing
as one of a co-ordinator:
let
designer
the
the
of
man
me
call
graphic
middle
...
his
behalf
He informs
the public
communications.
of
on
[The] three
factors,
client.....
subject
vital
patron,
audience, are all determined for him by the man paying the
(p3)
bill.
and, as Black (1983) has concluded, a 'designer without
impotent as an actor declaiming to an empty theatre. '
However,
for
both
Guyatt
(1977)
designing
can redeem a graphic
motivated
to interact
with
and
designer's
Games (1960)
a client
the
is as
process
of
provided he or she is
of the job and not just
work,
the given material
to act upon it.

He must feel able to give it the stamp of his own authority
him
individuality,
without
which
and
sanething
creating
it with his personality
and
By investing
could never be.
is
than
deeper
he
it
significance
outlook
can give
a
the
involvement
Personal
of
possible
otherwise....
designer,
his belief
in what he is doing, is to my mind of
At this
paramount importance.
stage he stands at the
frontier
between man and man. (Games op. cit. p4)
designer
to
individual
the
of
designers
those
belief
that
even
an even greater extent, expressing a
in
design
even
who explore the solution
experimental,
of
problems
'[They]
the
irrational
important
celebrate
ways, make
contributions.
Black (1983) stresses
the contribution
unpredictability
of man' and thus, enrich the shared visual
of the profession.
vocabulary
Thus, a passive or partially

felt response, a simplistic
manipulation
of given elements is not enough. '[The] designer's task is to restate
the problem' (Rand, 1985).
However, this restatement needs to take
(1980),
in
Dailey
terms
to
to
the
place
appropriate
media. According
'what
is
him
for
graphic design is 'the making of the possible'
and
and
possible changes according to the state of techniques of printing
15
-
and the
reproduction,
designer.
'
Part
these
or
economic
on the
placed
constraints
in
for many designers
constraints
currently
are
who
to work as part of a team, and as
canes from the requirement
their
the team a designer
may be
responsibility
within
of
practice
part
social
of
to
required
take
on managerial
a designer
In
responsibilities.
the
reviewing
the meaning of the

responsibilities,
(C. N. A. A., 1984) and a general
terms used in the profession
particular
lack of definition
of these responsibilities
poses problems.
role
of
'design
The teen
with
such
first
management',
(1966),
by Farr
coined
has now
it was
cane to have rather wide terms of reference,

although initially
used to describe
within
activities
range of managerial
a specific
by
Braidwood
definitions
the
canpanies. The application
suggested
of
(1987),
namely
cannunicating
call
this
that
with
job
'when a minority
of a manager's time is spent
the designers for whose work he is responsible,
we
"managing
function
design";
of a
when a majority
designers
we use the
supervising
managers time is spent

"design management"',
disregards
specialist
term
practising
designer's
described
generally
as
best
being
and are
management (Gorb,
although
understand
in
which
'
skills.
basis
'some
for
choice
design
not
trained
1986).
designers
to
have
Similarly,
make good
Black
(1983)
understanding
and co-operation
can harness design skills
to further
thinking,
'like
an attitude
16
-
in
professions
profession
they
an
design
because
managers
don't.
the
so that
bring
are
being
leadership
for
easy relationship
(1985) car lairs
Olins
discusses
for
designerly
the
can do. Most, however,

have been educated infrequently
However,
Indeed,
managers.
what design
they
involve the control

projects
designs'
"production"
the
of
as
do not regard designers
as being
among
exceptional
'to
abandon their
unprepared
roles'
of
'design
of their acceptance that

of the design process
as well
(Topalian,
1984), some theorists
the
aspects
managerial
role.
In spite
necessarily
the
with
that
they
The disciplines
management
'a
establish
out
need to
business
executives
let
and
our cacmon purpose'
business.
permeate
of mind',
Clearly
designers
in managerial
practising
to function
are required
but the nature of these roles and specifically,
for the purpose
roles
of
this
tasks
the
study,
is
not
approaches
of drawing
role
by the
addressed
to its
tuition
in
the performance
theorists;
nor
of a discipline
as part
of managerial
are more appropriate

that would bring out
management skills.
How then may the day-to-day
working practices
of the graphic designer
be assessed within
the context of the complexity
that can
and variety
be found to exist within
he
the graphic design profession?
Certainly
or she should not be thought of merely as a 'go-between,
carrying
a
his
to a customer' or 'a juggler,
demonstrating
message fron a client
by manipulating
ingredients
in
skills
space'
various
a given
(Bridgewater,
1987).
The role
Graphic
of
of the graphic designer can be seen to be varied and canplex.

design problems are wide-ranging,
the manipulation
requiring
words
and
formats,
sequential
of
images
these
needs to
business
to develop
work,
or
design
design
across
their
role
to take
for
development
of design
his
context
wider
A designer
methods.
may need
of
In sate cases
be
aspects
Essentially,
responsibilities.
yet
of
orientations
extend beyond the executive
may
solution
a set of
co-ordinate
the
or media, developing
to
technical
understanding
or her own individual
solutions,
the
or
to
production
responsibility
to bring
unitary
the
particular
be able
of formats
the relevant
in managerial
requirement
in
in
Frequently
requirements.
broadly-based
may also
designer's
graphic
be considered
a range
or
for
and specify
responsibilities
media.
may have to
specialised
their
time-based
range of skills
conversely,
requisite
dimensions,
three
or
and cannunication
a specialist
solutions
two
or in
problems
client's
in
seen
to
capacity
to do this
within
include
of
the
the
to bear on the
the
relevant
constraints.
Let us now consider the use of drawing in this canplex role.
(1977) indicates
that central
to this role is the designer's
to think
in visual
terms.
17
-
Guyatt
capacity
Clearly
helps the wheels of industry
go
a designer....
is that
But what is more significant
round.
and particular
he is able to do this through his response and sensitivity
to the world around him......
This in a designer,
can
trigger
level of ideas and understanding,
off the innaterial
him and his work.
This is his hall-mark
enriching
and his
talent,
that the look of things "turn him on", be
peculiar
they man-made or natural,
and this enables him to talk their
language and understand them.
(p8)
Unfortunately,
drawing
which
is
used to
language of visual
support
things'
look
to
when one starts

they
the
for
examples
designer
in
this
'talking
to find.
are very difficult
way in
the
of
the
Examples
through the many

of graphic design in production
are widely available
books and journals
but examples of the
that deal with the subject,
Although
preparatory
seen.
stages of these solutions
are very rarely
is generally
the complexity
of design procedures and problem solving
clearly
discussed
do
for
not,
manuals
even specialist
in
drawing
the
all
of
use
analysis
of
an
and illustrated,
the most part,
try
the activities
in which graphic
to present
designers
engage.
Games (1960) writes;

keeping
For many years I have made a practice
all
of
final
to
the
a
of
progressive
making
sketches which go
for
design.
Occasionally
they leave their
an
portfolio
like
hidden
fron
lectures,
but
view
airing
remain
at
mostly
like
the
design,
final
the bulk of an iceberg,
the
while
peak, is displayed for all to see. (p8)
is the purpose of this

of designerly activity.
It
bulk
this
the
to
of
explore
study
'iceberg'
define
the
found
to
design
of graphic
activity
are often
operations of graphic designers by a linear model of the graphic
design process.
For example, Garland (1966), provides a map of a
'Typical sequence in production of printed matter' which, although
arranged to indicate
consists
stages or phases of developnent,
Descriptions
descriptions
'specifying'
and
procedures,
design
the
In a few sources descriptions
graphic
of
process are given where the types of drawings characteristically
by a name, eg 'preliminary
produced at each stage are indicated
essentially
of
'ccmnissioning'.
of
18
-
eg
'roughs',
sketch',
uses descriptions
comprehensive'
(1956)
Ballinger
in
(1973)
'comprehensives'
(Barker,
1959).
Cabibi
and
'the
the rough or visual',
of 'thumbnail
sketches',
'mechanical
and
copy',
and the
camera-ready
or
terms
'making
of
purposes, '
However,
his
cam rough
more
art
descriptions
in
detail.
to
drawing
is
those
techniques
texts
Even here,
explored.
specifically
the
that
rarely
are
activities
in
only
drawing
teaching
of drawing
utilisation
is
It
in
for
roughs
artwork'
'
of
may be used
which
presentation
the final
and 'preparing
complete
or preparing
required for printing.
the process
through
progress
sketches,
'procuring
these
considered
dedicated
a designer's
'preparing
conferring',
mechanical
describes
purpose
and
few exceptions,
layouts
planning
with
for
example the depiction

of the use of drawing for
(Donahue, 1978), presentation,
techniques
and production
specification
(Lewis, 1978; Twyford,
tend to be the main uses of drawing exemplified
1981; Kemnitzer,
if
Indeed,
design
they
little
1980).
provide
at
Disciplines
typography
rarely
their
instruction
with
invariably
used for
that
Croy,
1972;
to
specific
receive
acquisition
of
specific
for
such as preparing
ideas.
the
of
a detailed
1959; Ballinger,
drawing
account
thereby
abilities
'presentations
of
drawing
skills
is focused
Where attention
rough,
of visualising
19
-
like
design,
example, gives explicit

deal
does
but
not
artwork,
activities
1956).
they
Dailey,
attention,
drawing
the prerequisite
(1980),
concepts,
most
if
1974;
Craig,
of the production
any detail
Dailey
drawing,
of
graphic
initial
exploring
concepts
(Mulvey, 1969; Hofuran, 1973).
descriptions
profession
(Barker,
design
specific
use
methods,
of visualising
basic
among
in
on techniques
described
are
Descriptions
production.
exploring
nor
the
discuss
the problems
the
1966;
that
that
is not as important.
roughs'
on
and production
implying
perhaps
reference
(Garland,
all
1988).
1987; Mulhern,
books and manuals about graphic

it soon becomes apparent that
while in other
they
balanced introductions
to the discipline,
information
it
mention
for
'key'
the various
are consulted,
respects
give
1983; Bridgewater,
free
drawing
is neither
is
It
for
skills
is
that
illustrated
generally
the
on
only
advertising
can be found
On the rare
found
the
and are
thereby
drawing
images
accanpanying
illustrations
1(a)),
where descriptions
occasions
not
of drawing
are
original
are to be
activity
clearly
specially
designer's
drawings
produced
(see
Fig.
of the ways in which

design
Thus,
the
actually
can be
used.
process
in progression.
Games
made to seem systematic
and linear
is
creating
artificially
(1960)
provides
rare
activity.
(See Fig.
Therefore,
it
impressions
erroneous
examples
of
drawing
designer's
graphic
1(b). )
may be said that,

although many of the publications
dedicated
to the description
give clear
of graphic design practice
indication
in the
designer
of the tasks that
performs
a graphic
development of design solutions,
to
they either pay cursory attention
the use of drawing, or they 'stage'
its use.
An investigative
approach
of
view
the
of
addition,
while
drawing
of specific
2.3
The fimctir
One of
the
reference
that
of the drawing
these
of
to
designers'
although
in
these
general
works
use of
drawing
of drawing
itself.
above,
stated
is
for
limited,
represented
in
can be found in a wide variety

(1968),
Rawson
Hotter
sources,
and Strauss
of
reference
20
-
as
is well
of drawing
cross-section
Although,
of drawing
of both contemporary and historical

(1969), Ashwin (1982), Lambert (1984)
excellent
have evolved
that
techniques
functions.
graphic
about the nature
an
the development
of
of this study is the consideration
design
in the graphic
drawing performs
of the functional
aspects
the literature
devoted to the nature
represent
In
these generally
concentrate
phases of the graphic design process.
discussion
Caentary
been attempted.
elements
and the nature
specific
the point
7 aspects of drawing
functions
performance
hitherto
of
and techniques,
of the later
important
various
process
the
the
fron
are numerous manuals supporting
skills
on the requirements
depiction
inaccurate
practice
exploring
has not
practitioner
there
a rather
different
to
the
(1987)
and Felker
approaches,
designer's
and
use of
"=,
,
'If-4r"
N
..
3
.
/_
/, Cy-
Figure
la:
fron
"An
Drawings
to
Graphic
Introduction
(Bridgewater,
1987), reproduced same size
21
-
Design"
r
S
\'
'.
l
f
.
_.
'
'
, ",
%/
LCJJI
cam:
'!
i
I
"ILL,
r;
1.
"L
1.
"
16
j
I,
_
"
J. it 'J4i
',
e"P"
%+d.
sir!,
ja
li.
I"
_t
,:
'
_"", ". %
"{.
'
"
i.
.v..
_ ' ? 'Y;
"r=fir"
fw
y*.
"'"'.
'
^l"
i. '
,CRY
ANA -.
"+f'
"ji
.,, 1
tt
t,
19
.
I.
__
1,
le,
Figure 1b:
,, ,
".
".
".
."
"Over
Drawings fron
My Shoulder"
22
-
(Games 1960 p61),
drawing
the functional
canparison to that of artists,
aspects of drawing both in the development and production
of visual
For example, Strauss devotes a chapter
solutions
are well represented.
to 'Function',
Drawing' and Lambert one
Rutter one to 'The Functional
to
is
limited
'Drawing
The link
for
in
Utility'.
between
or application
has been adopted
technique
appropriate
historians
and theorists
drawings
in their
(1981)
and
as
to
an approach
(1975)
Watrous
it
an
the
of
categorisation
(1982), Baynes and Pugh
Saxton
analytical
studies.
(1984)
Lambert
of
provide
examples
that
are based on technique
related
categorisation
Rawson (1969),
technical
and the development of

by some educationalists,
function
(1977)
and Goldstein
systems
of
to function.
on
concentrate
is
the executive
of production
strategies
that specifically
interest
Drawing manuals, such
Van Sommers (1984).
(1972),
(1969),
(1951),
Nicolaides
those
Blake
Gettings
as
of
aspects,
(1974),
Hogarth
(1982),
while
Rawson (1983)
generally
matter,
Raynes
(1983),
and Wright
which
functions
(1970)
and
Mendelowitz
(1967),
rather
than
on specific
techniques,
of
or illustrators.
drawing.
However,
disciplines,
specific
of Laseau (1975), Ching (1979),
to
and Crowe and Laseau

technique
function
very
in
and although
investigated
thorough
drawing
the
in
the
with
only
procedures
texts
work
explore
the
relationship
it
although
a concern
to technique
(1982),
function
between
link
of
on drawing
eg those
architecture,
particularly
Laseau (1980), Kirby Lockard
literature,
the
eg Probyn
with
and
the
does not always
is
well represented,
nevertheless
has not been
designers
by graphic
use of drawing
detail,
that made by architects
has been subject
to
evaluation.
Descriptions
relation
and its
deal
of
'applications'
drawing
some specialised
Therefore,
effectively.
of drawings
predaninate
(1984),
but
Goodman
treatments
manuals,
on
concentrate
and
on technique,
concentrate
Sane drawing
than
related
Porter
to different
of function
be better
termed
may, in fact,
rather
artists
(1982),
discussion
confining
subject
(1979),
Oliver
to
of
historical
the
particular
can play.
developaent
functions
Baynes (1984
of
the
emphasise
[a]) describes
23
-
drawing
techniques
important
how the
role
in
that
18th Century
saw the development

part
the
of
to catalogue,
attempts
and the
natural
drawing
of a wide range of objective

quantify
He also
man-made world.
and thus
techniques
as
the
understand
the
indicates
profound
development
drawing
in
the
of
use of
when,
'Drawings became one of the ways in which the
"concepts",
the
They were the portable
change could be brought about.
instructions,
through which designers and managers
easily transmitted
the production
controlled
process. ' Booker (1979) and Baynes and Pugh
the
effects
of
industrialisation,
(1981)
detailed,
provide
developments
of
descriptive'
in
intriguing
together
historical
engineering
drawing.
1795 provides,
books in
a variety
the
in
history
'ad hoc'
of
masons and woodworkers,
which had been in use among

his principles
of descriptive
techniques
and applying
many rote techniques were replaced with

Baynes and Pugh (1981) also provide a systematic
categories
Designer's
of
Presentation
and Maintenance
each type of drawing
production
techniques
current
describes
practice
the
to
in
suit
having
developed
its
computer
interrelationship
CAD systems and the different
particular
aided
to
Technical
and
styling,
namely
use,
Drawings,
Illustrations
a particular
purpose.
vehicle
of
characterisation
Production
Drawings
methods.
generalised
according
Drawings,
Project
(pp14-15),
of
drawing
engineering
Drawings,
the
most
By bringing
drawing'.
geanetry,
the
'one of
terms,
technical
of
origin
and
'Geometrie
Monge's
Gaspard
Booker's
the
of
accounts
range of
In his
review
Tovey
(1989)
merits of sketching
and relative
types of drawing produced through
and
each
method.
is
designerly
To some degree or other all artistic
activity
and
'Drawing is one of the
associated with the production of drawings.
fundamentals perhaps even the basis - of all creative work. It is the
direct way to make a conceived form, a vision visible.
A thought
takes a material form, an idea becanes ca iunicable. ' (Wirth 1976).
However, for the purpose of this study, it is important to consider to
in the ways in which
what extent there are fundamental differences
artists
and designers use drawing and in the range of techniques that
they both employ.
Blake
(1951),
in the preface
of his
24
-
influential
book 'The art
and
craft of drawing', is at pains to call attention to what he believes

is 'the fundamental homogeneity of artistic
expression' through the
dichotany'
'the
false
terms
act of
what she
between the fine and applied arts,
Dondis (1973) discusses the
relationship
of aesthetic and functional criteria.
drawing.
in
Again,
"applied"
art without
art should be functional
and "fine"
influences
This snobbish attitude
on
utility.
many artists
both sides
an atmosphere of
of the fence and creates
(p6)
alienation
and confusion.
In
designers,
cannon with
through
have
artists
Simpson (1987)
drawing.
recognises
is
that drawing 'for my purpose
stating
....
from observation,
information
three-dimensional
dimensional
important
'
surface.
paper,
.....
from observation,
Berger
(1979) claims
in
front
together
Raynes
into
directly
marks on a two
is the most
down
be
to
is
to
on
put
able
requirement
the observed shapes. '
for
'artists
drawing
act of drawing
that
forces
the artist
him,
again;
conduct
in
specificity
translating,
'[looking]
(1982)
that
of
this
to
The first
thing
the actual
For
tasks
specific
or
to
dissect
if
he is
in
it
his
fran
drawing
It
is discovery....
is
to look at the object

it
to
put
eye and
mind's
him
to
forces
that
memory,
own mind, to discover the content of his cam store of past

' For Bailey (1982) 'the draftsman is a phenanenologist.
observations.
is
'
Drawing
how
things
He seeks routes for the interrogation
are.
of
dredge his
'a
',
direct
or as
experience.
visual
means of actualising
'drawings
Berger believes
record of one's
an autobiographical
are
'
Drawing
discovery
imagined.
must,
or
of an event - seen, remembered
be seen to have more than a problem-solving
therefore,
or a
capacity,
seen as
representational
function,
of
'it
experience;
recognise
articulation
casts
as drawing....
take
the artist
'reality'
into
is
Drawing
of experience;
Many camnentators,
for
if,
the
...
it
view
...
therefore
beccmes an embodiment
to
form
that
came
we
a
to
the
means
a
not only
it
beccmes experience.
that
the
disciplines
' (Bailey,
1982).
of Design
and
require
a very different
use of drawing from each other.
Lloyd Jones (1984) makes the distinction
between using drawing for
like
depiction
for
designing,
that
when artists
and
pointing
out
Fine
Art
25
-
Leonardo,
fell
'started
to design
depiction'
different
Raphael and Michelangelo
into
another
convention
(1970) concludes
As Arnheim
making.
of
the human body as a contraption

it
represented
as a tool. '
Corbusier's
travel
beautiful.
They are
According
notes
Laseau
and
'are
that
picture
inventor...
by a fellow
Crowe
drawings
as
from
'he saw every part
of Leonardo
designed
instantly
they
(1984)
in
not
of
and
describe
themselves
notes, not intended to impress or entertain'.

Washburn (1983), artist's
the
drawings do not exhibit
to
same adherence to a system of 'generalised

designers
because they have been subject
to
methods'
as
different
those
systems
of
and
influences.
cultural
Kirby
(1982)
Lockard
describes
function
the
of
designerly
drawing
thus;
drawing
Design drawings represent
a
at
successive attempts
The
congruence between the design problem and its solution.
drawings themselves are not the congruence, but are simply
the
transparencies
through
representative
real
which
the
judged.
The importance
congruence
of
can be
transparency
of design drawings cannot be overemphasised.
(p30)
However,
(1984)
Lambert
quotes
artist
Henry Moore in
making
an
is a means of finding
your way
tryouts
about things,
and
and a way of experiencing
certain
....
Ashwin (1982) describes
the various
attempts',
ways in which
and
to working
information,
painters
make use of drawing from gathering
equally
definition.
the
4b
pragmatic
drawings
and
that
recognised
as for
squaring
drawing
designers
and ,
up
'Drawing
(pp158-163).
Therefore,
has a range of functions,

(1968)
indicates,
Rutter
as
for
it
artists
must
be
as well
Attempts have frequently

been made to break down drawings
into clearly
defined categories,
but any such attempt is
bound to be somewhat arbitrary.
The frontiers
are almost
always blurred and the outward appearance of a drawing is
often no clear guide to its original purpose. (p30)
However,
different
it
must equally
for
of techniques
also
be
be realised
the two types

that
different.
that
this
range of functions
is
the range
and, therefore,
designers need to develop will,
by the same token,
to
drawing
The adaptability
activity
of
of practitioners
26
-
is a vital
circumstance
aspect of its
describes
drawings in Leonardo da Vinci's
example of a 'mind in ferment,
rather
than a way to impress
Thus,
it
technique
designer's,
but that
range of techniques
be different.
It
drawings
concept of
drawing activity
and drawing
abilities
is
intention
the
not
linked
'function'
the
use of drawing
their
book as a marvellous
discovery
of
as a means
note
people'.
other
can be seen that

is relevant
to the
usefulness.
drawings
using
(1980)
Laseau
both
of
artists'
and
differs,
and therefore,
they must develop
that
of
this
study
to
the
will
look
to
at
fron
the point of view of their

commmicative,
expressive,
interpretive
even inventive
qualities,
other than that these qualities
function.
to judge drawings from
Further there is no intention
affect
the
point
of
rendition,
the
process
that
abilities
2.4
study
functions
various
of
than
other
However,
design
view
their
aesthetic
that
these
will
drawing
that
and the
is
closely
found
developnent
for
are required
these
The role of drawing in creative
the
link
quality
qualities
investigate
also
in
skilfulness
function.
affect
or
to
those
of
perform
drawing
between
in
the
the
graphic
techniques
and
functions.
pmcesses
is
between the use of drawing and the fostering
creativity
of
to
this
background
forms
the
important
well-established
of
and
part
an
to creative
In his review of the literature
aids
study.
structured
on
.
is part
behaviour Rickards (1980) expresses the view that 'creativity
process'.
of the design process and design is part of the creative
The link
difficulties
Certainly
distinguish
interest
psychologists
designers.
features
It
attempt
in
action.
to
separate
and
Similarly,
in
and creative
processes
'confusion
arises because of the different
(Rickards,
includes
1985),
groups'
which
and educationalists
Although,
to creative
as Rogers
activity
viewpoints
those
of
managers and
as well as professional
(1970) points
out, there are cannon
wherever
it
occurs.
at this point, reviewing theories on the nature of the

process insofar as they are relevant to the graphic design
is worth,
creative
any
design
the literature,
of
in
arise
27
-
is
to consider
also important
between
drawing
activity
It
process.
relationship
maintenance
and a group level,

of a creative
recognisable
illumination,
-
'the
issues
of the
fostering
and
both at an individual
to the development
of drawing
in which they may work.
climate
it
the
and
in designers,
and the contribution
(1965)
As Kneller
Helmholtz,
behaviour
of creative
the broader
since Wallas'
of the ideas of
analysis
has been widely held 'that the creative process has four
incubation,
known as preparation,
phases,
generally
insight'
to which Kneller adds 'first
and verification',
indicates,
apprehension
an idea
of
a problem to be
'the
though
creative
even
Whether
these phases......
be realised
to
solved. '
or
However, as Kneller
acknowledges,
be sliced
into
cycle can with rough justice
it should be so sliced
is another matter',
and he cites Harrison and
Gough to present the argument that 'the various processes involved in
to
that it is unrealistic
creation
are so complex and so interfused
freeze
them into
creativity
sequence. '
seen 'holistically',
In
a single
be
should
support
of
the
that
view
(1985)
Rickards
cites
MacKinnon:
It is misleading
to refer to the creative
process as though
be
it
terns
The
were a single
should
unitary
process.
thought of as no more than a convenient summary label for a
and
complex set of cognitive
processes,
and motivational
in perceiving,
emotional
processes too, that are involved
imagining,
thinking,
remembering,
planning,
appreciating,
deciding,
(p36)
and the like.
What are termed
also
relevant
years
that....
visualisation
intuitive
developed
by
to
this
the
present
right
theories
'it
study.
side
of
the
of
creative
has been }mown for

brain
has
are
activity
control
many
over
in
assists
and
spatial
and
conceptual
relationships,
....
(1982)
has
'
(Rickards
Edwards,
1985).
problem solving.
drawing
teaching'
what she calls a 'cognitive
shift model of
enabling
individuals
different-fran-ordinary
tapping
'Whole Brain'
the
the
to
way
develop
of
the
processing
functions
'ability
visual
to
shift
information
to
a
by
....
However,
hemisphere'.
of the right
to learner drawers,
although the methods she describes may be relevant
to
do
they
especially
when working from visual
not
appear
reference,
be appropriate
to graphic designers who need to maintain an awareness
special
28
-
of
a wide
Torrence,
Taggart
left
and
range
of
and Taggart
information
modes of
indicating
(1985)
Rickards
criteria.
to describe the importance
non-visual
processing
for
cites
of both right
behaviour,
creative
that;
[creativity]
is
traditionally
right
with
associated
hemisphere
behaviour.
is
limited
This
view.
a
Accomplishing
individuals
work
requires
non-confoEning
inventing
something new combined with conforming people with
an eye towards improving something.
Indeed there is a left
dominant mode of creativity
duninant
as well as a right
The person who has developed a flexible
mode.
processing
the
style
exhibits
characteristics
of what have been
to as innovators
(right
daninant)
referred
and adapters
(left
daninant).
(p43)
Creativity,
therefore,
designers
who operate
that
the
particularly
within
the
commercial
of
creativity
graphic
where it
envirormnent,
is
a design
but also appropriate

not only be innovative
and
both right and left brain contributions
relevant,
must incorporate
and
discussion,
so, in terms of the current
the creativity
of graphic
required
designers
would appear
'holistic'
to be a 'whole
brain'
Indeed,
activity.
the
behaviour
creative
process and of creative
needs to be considered as a background to their work when the role of
drawing
in
is
the
stimulation
creativity
and maintenance
of
nature
investigated.
of
the
'Everybody
has ideas.
Essentially
the designer's
is
bright
ideas and then implementing
about generating
form of physical
to others.
manifestation
acceptable
Talbot 1987).
Equally
theoretical
relevant
designers
working
analogy
and
in visual
synthesis.
mechanism.... in translating
analogy. ' He cites Koestler
definitions
of
the
in
some
(Davies
and
process
for
these
'
creative
job
concerned with the use of

'central
(1973)
the
Broadbent
terms are those

For
analysis
to
to describe
is
synthesis. .. Undoubtedly
between two
the 'bisociation
frames
(1985) describes
the
Rickards
of reference.
theories
'believed
that
of the 'Associationism'
school of thought,
that productive
thinking
to make connections
to an ability
was related
bonds between clusters
'
or associative
Rawlinson
traces.
of memory
matrices'
(1981)
ideas
or
also
defines
which
were
creative
previously
thinking
as the
unrelated....
29
-
'relating
creative
of
things
thinking
or
uses
things
or ideas which are already in existence,

of those taking part in the creative
session. '
the creative
process Samuels (1975) writes;
that
in
is
In his
the minds
description
of
The word imagination

it
the word image,
contains
within
image meaning a mental picture.
theories
Most current
of
imagination
hold that images exist and are stored
creative
in the unconscious mind, and that the conscious mind can
became aware of them.
the
is believed
It
that within
to fonu streams of
unconscious images can become associated
images,
images, that they can juxtapose to form combination
form
to
new
or
coalesce
and
entirely
recombine
images......
New images cane to awareness as novel ideas,
(p240)
illuminations
flashes
in
or
ordinary
consciousness.
The importance
of this
establishment
an aid
in
for both the

use of drawing is recognised
fund of memory or 'stored analogy',
and also as
(Broadbent
1973,
the synthesis
of new concepts
the
of
processing
McKim 1980).
The
stimulation
associated
to
vigorous
held
generally
be
to
the appropriate
climate of relaxed attention
'juxtaposition'
of existing
and 'coalescence'
this
concepts
'memory traces'
or
(1973)
Broadbent
creative
is
fostering
with
encourage
images,
of
behaviour
that
claims
evaluation
'if
to
produce
the
design
images.
or
contained
process
indeed ought
and free,
then one can be wild
stage,
new ideas
'
to be as wild and free as possible
the
and so
at
mannt of synthesis.
to
the
it is worth considering
drawing
the relationship
activity
of
'innovator'
fostering
the
or
a
of
creative
within
which
climate
'adapter'
free'.
'wild
be
indeed
and
can operate effectively
or
Rickards
the
variety
describes
is
(1985,
no
of
p35-36)
when listing
approaches
to
creativity
as being
"warmth"
in problem
implications
emotional
several
the
analysis
' far
more than problem
solving',
attendant
on
indicating
definitions
of
thereby
creative
creative
behaviour,
there
solving;
acknowledging
activity
and
the
its
The concern, therefore,

of many
and fugitive
nature.
to devise ways of 'bringing
way,
about in a structured
the
behaviour, ' and the 'purposive
for
enhancing
attempts
(Rickards
based not
1985)
is
on the
process'
simply
unpredictable
theorists
creative
creative
carplexity
of design problems,
but on the nature

30
-
of creativity
itself.
of key texts
Through an analysis
fron
the major
(1980)
Rickards
of thought
schools
the
identifies
on
four
major
solving,
morphological
of techniques
as; brainstorming,
synectics,
describes
(1973)
lateral
thinking.
Broadbent
and
creative
families
problem
analysis
brainstorming
techniques to
the most effective
descriptions
the generation
of
prarote
of analogies,
and detailed
(1973).
(1963)
these techniques
Bono
in
De
Osborn
are given
and
large
'means
Rawlinson (1981) defines brainstorming
a
getting
of
as a
as being
and synectics
number of ideas from a group of people in a short time' and Broadbent

(1973) writes
the
depends
that '[brainstorming]
rapid
on
particularly
firing
'in
describes
it
simply
a
of ideas',
practice....
and
as
' Jones (1980) describes the aim
check-lists.
of brainstorming
a group of people to produce many
as to 'stimulate
the rule
ideas quickly. ' and stresses the importance of '[enforcing]
ideas
that
that no idea is to be criticised
it
are
wild
clear
and make
technique
welcome,
for
generating
is
quantity
wanted
that
and
stimulation
'
irrational.
there
that
graphic designers
drawing activity,
their
used
in
particularly
way to
outlines
creative
and
behaviour
challenge'
and
expressive
aid
requiring
positive
way, while
the
only
blocks
ability
the designer
mind to
In his
if,
the
overcaning
a 'sympathetic
emotional,
the
view
after
'think
the
the
literature
that
with drawing
'blocks'
to
of
of ideas,
environment'.
environmental,
cultural,
inhibit
found
to
be
can
in camnercial
environments.
'excessive
as 'opposite
zeal'
thinking
and so free
'mind set'.
the
the
using
sane of
employ such techniques,
they
idea 'doodles'
the early
systematically
a playful
(1980)
intellectual
solutions
as such in
no suggestion
and as a means of fostering
creativity
Adams
is
for
is the rationale
may be seen as a type of check-listing
produce,
being
It
and originality.
While
to
'
Jones
by
the
others.
suggested
upon,
"for
deliberate,
brainstorming
technique
as a
the
irrational,
the
the
crazy,
seemingly
of
combine, or to
(1979) also describes
source of insight
participants
try
ideas
improve
rational,
should
He describes
villains',
'incorporate
'lack
of
creative
in
a
criticism'
'tolerate
to
be
chaos'
able
must also
by
be
impeded
intuitively'
and not
to
pressure
a period
deadlines
of
of preparation
31
-
prompts creative
'charging
up of
or
time has been allowed

the unconscious' has been canpleted, sufficient
for a period of incubation 'to allow the unconscious to struggle with
problems'.
the
Adams also describes
language'
as an important
choice
'problem
an appropriate
of
strategy
a mental
to
of selecting
this
However,
blocks
to
creativity.
work on a problem and overcome
(1980)
McKim
be
is
language
in
the
thinker
ccnpetent.
must
which
a
frustrations
fron
the
indicates
that if visual problem-solvers
suffer
'visual
of being
describes
aspect
solving
illiterates'
creativity
'graphic
he
terms
use of what
the widespread
McKim
impeded.
is
their
languages'.
languages:
'Many
graphic
use
professions
currently
draw
diagrams
draw
executives
physicists
and graphs,
draw
crossand physiologists
organisational
charts,
find graphic language expressions
Indeed you will
sections.
boards
of a
every department
on the black
of almost
(p130)
university.
(1987) in their
Davies and Talbot
ideas,
when generating
in using
mental
mental
(1973)
'constantly
busy design
why is
(1985)
it
[and]
the
imagery,
of designers
'a
facility
of
and dynamic,
example as a multi-sensory
rotation
images'.
and scanning
'non-creative
environment
as
organisations
that designers
external
of
the
open to experience
source or locus
climate
'internal'
the
of evaluative
description
that
internal
climate,
As
(1970)
Rogers
condition
judgement
elements
(psychological)
enviroment'.
or
as a fundamental
to toy with
that
overloads our switchboard with

'noisy'
be
envirormments,
may well
stressful,
Rickards
them?
be
to
within
creative
manage
'between
the ability
one
noise, ' yet
bccnbards us,....
distinguishes
developnent
for
describes
descriptions
to designer's
pad: using mental
sketch
Franck
refer
study
of the experience
and concepts
evokes the activity
internal,
as being
of
part
advocates
of creativity,
being
climate,
with
being
the
and describes
in a
important
of drawing;
is
lack
the
Associated
of rigidity....
with
openness and
ideas,
the ability
to play
colors,
with
spontaneously
toying
is
fran
this
it
spontaneous
shapes, relationships...
that there arises
the hunch, the creative
and exploration
(p144)
life
in
way.
seeing of
a new and significant
32
-
the
In order to foster the 'external'

climate, Rogers stresses the need to
ideas
accept the individual
as of unconditional
worth, with their
being understood 'empathically'.
Drawing as an important means of
canmmication for the design team may be seen to play a part in
2.5
In
'empathy'.
this
pranoting
The use of drawing

investigating
in design
Processes
certain
nature
of the design process itself
have been identified
that are
by a number of theorists
characteristics
Lawson (1983), who is
applicable
across all the design disciplines.
'about design
himself an architect,
believes
he is qualified
to write
the
and how to understand them, and about design processes and

how to learn,
develop and practise
them' in a way that has general
by studying
Therefore,
relevance to designers and design students.
problems,
caRnentary
on the nature
of drawing
in other
to
relevant
in general
processes
types of design
information
acquire
of design
processes,
this
study
it
of
and on the use
has been possible

the
graphic
to
design
process.
Jones
(1979)
activities
describes
'craftsmen
of
practical
necessity'
permitted
'division
in
the
supplied
of
the
responding
'design
by
to
jump
in
labour'
manufacture
in drawings.
in
scale
the
of
the
to
processes
trials
and
fron
the
errors
of
which
a develognent
produced and led to the
drawing',
work
could be involved
where more than one operative
instructions
large
items
through
of
canplex
found
to
thereby
designers
A 'new class'
was
of
for
emerge, responsible
evolution
design
this
organisation
of
the works
of operatives
by
whole
as a
and leading to the conscious changing of the design

'using a symbolic gec etric
model, the drawing, to permit experiment
'
that is not possible when changes are limited
to the product itself.
(op. cit.
).
from which
image that
design.
'The professional
others
build
we now regard
(Lawson 1983).
specialised
has cane to
this
designer
producing
and familiar
be such a stable
as the
process
drawings
traditional
form
of
that a major
Lawson goes on to indicate
drawing
that
by
traditional
design
was
system of
weakness
in
this
problems
not
visually
apparent
tended
33
-
not
to
cane to
the
designer's
attention,
and, therefore, in the early 1960s, the systematic analysis
of design processes, intended to bring about improvements in design
methods, was introduced.
Cross [N] (1984) summarises the broad chronological
development of the
'design
'the
development
methods movement',
of
as moving fron
design
for
the
the overall
systematic
procedures
of
management
process,
and
of
to the
process',
'ill-structuredness
systematic
attempt
to
techniques
to
be
understand
the
apparent
used
such
within
car lexity
a
and
investigations
through
of design
of
problems'
designer behaviour by, as Darke (1979) describes it,
'asking designers
to recall
during
their own processes'.
As Cross [N] (1984) indicates
the late 1970s and early 1980s various thinkers,
for example Hillier,
Musgrove and O'Sullivan,
or
methodology
Broadbent
from
its
to
adherence
the
learn
fron
making art
The early
three
art
and to
experimental
artists
a social
of
of
design
In
science.
an
design
whose happenings
and other
events
are
a way of living'.
models
essential
devised
stages
to
represent
the
design
process
'contain
These
and evaluation.
synthesis
the problem into pieces",
as "breaking
to discover
in a new way" and "testing
of analysis,
can be described more simply

"putting
the pieces together
the consequences of putting
1980),
ideology
profound
of design
offered
have
changed,
methods
about
'design seems to be
that generally
do this properly
it seems we need to
explanation
of how his thoughts
Jones (1977) indicates
his belief
becaning
and Daley,
about the nature

of design and the role
'meta-design',
and encouraged
a freeing
re-statements
research
March,
the new arrangement
or as Lawson (1983) defines
into
practice"'
(Jones
the process;
looking
Analysis
involves
the exploration
of relationships,
for
in
the
information
patterns
and the
available,
is the
Essentially
classification
of problem.
analysis
Synthesis on the
ordering
and structuring
of the problem.
by an attempt to move forward
other hand is characterised
Essentially,
and create
to
the problem.
a response
is
the
Appraisal
synthesis
generating
of
solutions.
involves
the critical
solutions
evaluation
of suggested
the objectives
identified
against
in the analysis
phases.
(p27)
34
-
However, Lawson (1979) and Darke (1979) found that both in controlled
based
interviews
from
with architects,
on
research
and
experiments,
the
tendency
exploring
that
was
interaction
until
creative
the
As thinking
about
analysis
design
the
a new
analysis.
conjecture
of
with
one
model
synthesis
designerly
of
better
the
approach
recognised
by
types
knowledge
by
or
of solution
a
problems either
analysis
This
model
'prestructuring
the
of
that
the paradigmatic
approach
of
shift
the re-definition
of design processes, replacing
a model for
of
latencies
the
technology
and
to
of
the
instrumental
the
By ' instrLmental
types. '
solution
researchers,
(1972) provided
et al
a knowledge
canpleted.
development
the
by
by deferring
than
rather
that
realised
complexity,
recognising
model for the design process was required.
supplied
problems
had been systematically

developed,
process
its
Hillier
design
structured
solutions,
possible
of
aspects
designers
set
Hillier
set'
forms
potential
al
et
relation
refer
design
of
to
to both
solutions
The linking
his or her discipline.
to the designer
in
of
within
available
that
permits
the
this knowledge about their discipline
experience
with
by
the
is
means
the foreshadowing of viable design solutions,
seen as
then
tractable,
are
initially
and
design
made
problems are
which
through
approached
As Hillier
solutions.
decisions
cannot
et
and then analysing possible

design
'a
of
vast variety
point
out,
is
in
before
principle
the solution
of proposing
a process
al
be taken.....
thus proceed side-byand problem specification

this
the
(1979)
of
'
use
Darke
supports
side rather than in sequence.
to
'conjecture
elaboration
an
and
suggests
analysis'
model of
describing
a particular
include the notion of the 'primary generator'
into
the
way
design
in
a
the
process that precedes a conjecture,
stage
known....
conjecture
ie
problem,
a designer
imposed constraint
of
the
particular
aspects
conjectures
for
How then is
the use of drawing
possible
problem,
forms
that
and
prompts
thought
to support
(1982)
[N]
described
designerly
the
to
mode of enquiry
- analogous
depends on modelling
and simulation
response
the
to
specific
solutions.
processes
enquiry
in
above?
Cross
35
-
the sort
states
mode of
to
equivalents
scientific
as
of design
'the
that
analysis
different.
and experiment
'
The 'language
design,
'language'
the
of
modelling'
form,
as
scientific
is at
that
'language'
the
humanities.
the
of
in a sketch-like
think
powerful
to numeracy,
corresponds
literacy
as
in which
the
but
enquiry
the core of
and
of the sciences,
'The designer learns to
of user
patterns
abstract
into
the concrete
requirements
are turned
patterns
object. ' While the codes and languages used may differ
to another;
one design discipline
of an actual
fron
in detail
thinking
they facilitate
the constructive,
solution-focused
in the same way that other (eg verbal and
of the designer,
focused
facilitate
numeric)
codes
problem
analytic,
thinking;
they are probably
the most effective
means of
tackling
the characteristically
ill-defined
of
problems
(p225)
designing and inventing
things.
planning,
new
(1979) describes
Archer
design
treating
'a designerly
of
discipline
as a coherent
way of thinking
is
the use of visual

role of these 'visual
codes'
of study'
and carrnunicating'
describes
He further
codes.
basis
of a 'theoretical
the establishment
and the
for
existence
to which
central
,
(Archer 1980) the
as
the
to
fundamental
in
importance
a
capacity
of mind, equal
by
language
is
that
exploited
capacity,
particularly
designers
this the
but is part of everyday life.
I call
in
the
for
imaging.
Designers
up
capacity
can conjure
mind's eye an image of sane thing or system, can rotate and
its
it,
transform
judgements
about
and make shrewd
(p9)
construction,
practicability
and worth.
This
'designer's
images,
ie
internal
the
use of models and 'codes' relies

drawings,
diagrams and sketches
thinking
instructions
to
as
well
aides
as
(Cross
others
to
1982).
N,
the use of codes and language

that increasingly
formal research
canpetence
verbal
is associated
codes',
and
between designerly
of
increasing
camunicational
literature
fron
the acquisition
with
of
ideas
(1986)
and
when
and manipulation
of non-
an
our understanding
aspects
differing
caYmunicating
Cross [A]
of the relationships
examination
language
systems as a way
and appropriate
advocates
thought
that
on graphic
are aids to
design
in
activity,
systems
'design
that
has indicated
describing
writes
heavily
of
these
learning
codes
perspectives.
36
-
is
in
design.
widely
The c cmplex
discussed
For example,
in
the
Goodman (1976,
p5) defines
denotation
symbolic nature of visual

'independent
of resemblence'.
the
some of
in
their
role
codes and
Garland (1979) describes
the
characteristics
visual
of
Brawn
systems,
symbol
(1979
p123) the basic
the use of visual

codes,
value systems that underlie
'visualizing
(1970
in
Arnheim
the
the
and
p296)
role
artist
of
in visual
complexity'
and 'conceiving
of phenomena and problems
to produce and
terms. '
is the graphic
designer's
It
capacity
codes through the use of drawing and the role that

has in the graphic design process that is
this use of drawn 'language'
the focus of this present study.
manipulate
these
'multiple
In his
theory
'there
is persuasive
of
intelligences',
evidence
human
for
(1985)
Gardner
argues that
"relatively
the existence
of several
that
canpetencies......
intellectual
these
are
fashioned
be
independent
that
they
can
relatively
of one another, and
by
individuals
and
ways
and combined in a multiplicity
of adaptive
Gardner
In identifying
the nature of these ' canpetencies'
cultures'.
autonomous"
defines
six
intelligence',
of
of which, what he teens
'emerges as an amalgam of abilities'
including;
intelligence,
types
'spatial
to perform
the capacities
to perceive the world accurately,
initial
transformations
upon
one's
and modifications
aspects of one's
perceptions,
and to be able to re-create
visual
visual
experience,
even in the absence of relevant
(p173)
stimuli.
Gardner's
description
of
the
use of
this
'spatial
intelligence',
(p193)
has
particularly
strategic
planning
of chess games
interesting
implications
for the strategic planning of the content and
form of visual images that are related to other images, both spatially
the
and sequentially,
as are,
layouts
example, page
for
or time-based
sequences.
Drawing strategies
and Van Sa mers
signs'
for
as such are explored

(1984).
describes
Beittel
'Spontaneous'
defining
in
student artists
have a relevance
working
in the work of Beittel
in a different
from
to
drawing
context.
drawing
and 'Divergent'
working
the
criteria
life
(pp67-87)
strategies
that,
of
'strategy
strategies
to sane extent,
designers
graphic
Van Sciraners, by assessing

37
-
or
(1972)
the results
of a series
various
of experiments
factors that influence
account
of
the
to
factors
canplex
determine
the
the production
influencing
of
the
provides
an
effects
specific
of drawings,
the way in which
drawing
both
Drawing competence is seen as the ability
are developed.
by
the
to use 'learned drawing strategies'
the
use
of
and,
effectively
'reflective'
to
component within what he terms 'graphic intelligence',
skills
develop
new strategies
when necessary.
'Graphicy'
Coleman's
of
and
concept
information,
to
as a basic human capacity to use visual
express
codes
'show
that the
drawing
to
Silver's
citing
many examples of children's
Cross
in gaining
medium is instrumental
understanding'.
conceptual
Cross [A]
[A]
(1984) describes
(1986) also
contends
Balchin
that
the act of drawing makes meanings accessible to conscious

The manipulation of graphic marks
attention and focusing.....
therefore involves a particular
type of thinking,
which may
be inhibited
by, and in conflict
verbal
with,
rational
(p18)
conceptualisation.
She also
claims
that
of the nature of design

"do"
as with
what people
clarification
must be concerned as much with

"]naw"',
being
designerly
thought
progressed by 'modelling'
of 'a graphic language',
designers
use
effective,
several
each designer
thinking'.
(p169)
Rawson (1969) describes
language
'engaged,
systems.
Laseau (1980) raises

different
types
of
must be comfortable
the visual
the
the important
with
what
his
concept
point
and that
to
that
'be
own method of
arts as a form of language;
teen
"art"
is
class
one of the important
a
meanings of
broad
"language"
resembling
very
a
actually
covering
and
"language"
field,
as
embracing a wide variety
of activities,
factor
does.
All of these activities
the
of
cannon
share
be
being conducted in verbal
Language
can
symbols.
....
in all sorts
used to discuss an enormous variety
of topics
All of these activities
of ways,....
articulate,
support,
and enhance our awareness of the world we live in, and its
In the same way anything made by the hands of men
meanings.
but visual
conveys to the eye a similar
awareness of the
(pp2-3)
world we live in.
38
-
they
and
externalised,
Introducing
drawing
carpetence
(1986)
Boughton
differences
in artistic
are fundamentally
important
discussing
language
and written
and the verbal
visual
literature
the
reviews
out that
and points
different
'the
in the qualitative
'
(p131).
Van
is possible to encode within
Farther,
each.
Sammers (1984), while describing
between the syntagmatic
the parallels
meanings it
structures
of spoken language and drawing activity,
in the linguist/graphic
analogy
also warns against being over literal
(p260).
(1980) approach is to canpare the syntagmatic
Laseau's
and paradigmatic
dimension
of spoken
'[graphic]
drawings,
language
language
is
relationships
are considered at
'simultaneity
this
and canplex
accounts for the special
strength
'sequence
the
with
production'
of
of
symbols and their

the same time, ' and it is precisely
[that]
interrelationship
reality
of
all
simultaneous,
of
in
language
graphic
addressing
ccxnplex problems. '
This need to see design as a holistic

Morgan and Welton (1987) who state that;
process is
stressed
also
by
drawing] that
we need to emphasise those media [like
is rarely
Problem-solving
encourage parallel
processing.
piecemeal
successful when approached in a purely serial,
fashion: solutions are more often the product of an ability
to hold in the mind simultaneously several dimensions of a
(p112)
question.
They then
describe
process.
form of
McKim (1980)
a wide
the role
of abstract
in
languages,
representing
developnent
range
'fluent
fostering
like
the
use of
a wide
range
of
codes in
visual
this
a lucid account of both the nature and

languages (pp129-166) demonstrating
graphic
gives
of
graphic
languages
ideation',
and
for
example orthographic
(1979)
ideas.
Booker
of the engineering
drawing
in encoding
the
role
abstract
of
and isometric
describes
language'
ideas
concrete
graphic
in
projections
historical
'the
claiming
that;
for
languages.... play an inherent part in our very thinking,
he
we tend to think in terms of the languages we know.......
who can draw can think of , and deal with, many things and
Between thinking and
problems which another man cannot.
in the form of geometry, drawing has another
carrnuniration,
function; it allows us to predetermine the shapes we require
and is therefore a primary tool of design. ' (pXV)
39
-
and
Therefore,
drawing
while
flexible
problem-solving
fostering
for
thought
of creative
not be allowed
should
can be said to act

language, appropriate
designers,
its
to obscure
in
as a
many respects
for 'block busting'
and
the analogy to language
particular
its
example its capacity to support parallel
processing,
in predetermining
shapes and formats and its
capacity
imagined images.
2.6
The historical
of drawing
role
In historical
design
II
, -auxd
tuition
the
for
encoding
edw ticn
and the
the place of drawing tuition

on the curriculum
be
seen
may
and the teaching
methods employed
theories
educational
of design
time.
Frcm the
inception
nineteenth
century
the role
of drawing
The conflict
current
in
education
and philosophies
particular
controversy.
design
graphic
use as an aid
terms,
courses
reflect
to
for
characteristics,
Dyce and Benjamin
any
the mid
has been the subject
tuition
between William
at
of
to
of
Haydon
the curriculum
of the Design Schools centred on the extent
to which life
drawing could be seen as a basis for the training
of
Design School pupils.
that 'the study of drawing
Dyce, who believed
concerning
must in every instance

it
is
towards
be applied'
to
life
of Design,
drawing
on the
be conducted with reference to the use to which

bias
the
to
(Bell,
1963) raised
objections
preferred
grounds
at the Manchester School

in
draughtsmen
was producing good
by John Bell
that
it
the artistic
was more appropriate

sense, whereas the copy of patterns
(Macdonald 1970).
to the needs of artisans
Ashwin (1984) gives an
latter
tuition
type of drawing
was more
account of this
as it
generally
encouraged
in the Design Schools.
Most of the drawing which took place in the context

of
design education consisted
nineteenth-century
of the painstaking
imitation
of approved models, such as casts of the
It was widely
antique
and prints
of ornamental
motifs.
best
believed
the
to
that prolonged
and arduous exposure
design would ensure their
gradual
models of historical
(p85)
to the student's
identity.
assimilation
creative
In the subsequent
tuition
artistic
developient
has remained
an issue,
of design' education
with
approach and a very pragmatic,

40
-
the
the role
emphasis varying
practical
one.
of drawing
between an
Northcote
defending
when
the
in
on drawing
in 1849, expressed
concentration
of the Government School of Design

that 'it is obvious when you begin to educate,
curriculum
belief
you
have
must
attitudes
is
'the
and that
manufacture
the first
thing
However,
other
as is clear from the ccnment

in 1946,
that
Pamphlet No. 6, published
of Education
and drawing board training'
an 'easel
1975).
the
came to predominate
gradually
in the Ministry
for
(Ashwin,
drawing'
good
the
the designer
for
was inadequate
lay
of the success of a design
proof
in
the making. '

In the 1950s and 1960s belief
in the importance of a broad, fine art
based education was again predominant
with an
and became associated
(19&7)
Hudson
drawing
design
in
the
emphasis on
courses.
curricula
of
new developnents
the
reviews
in
approach
Coldstream
art
of basic
education,
to
Committee
examine proposals
for
increasingly
education
Coldstream
was
report
seen
emphasising
the
to
its
design
of
"broad
in
the
report
defends
the
receive
some fine
art training
and 'the attributes
of
drawing
semiotics',
recarcrbendation
or as the report
was
course
keeping
1960s,
with
when the
with fine
the
link
and
respectability
Strand (1987)
context"'.
that
Surn rson
design
'In
the
prestige
new philosophy
and to
courses
in
notes
in
the
new structure.
reccmriendations,
courses
the
time,
art
of
(1984)
appropriate
considered
of
of
up of a new form
design
in
fine
As Attfield
changes
education,
art
a completely
inclusion
the
to
establishment
space of
drawing
of
was making
give
a short
role
allied
(Ashwin 1975).
the
and the setting
to implement
the
to
curricula,
the liberal
art
1960s
led
1950s that
post-secondary
review
reorganisation
Committee was appointed

the
the
particularly
Then, within
course.
During
in
all
students
should
they
study
of
ensuring
a means
and elementary
colour,
shape, texture
as
states
the
fundamental
and
underlie
skills
which
and disciplines
design
form
in
and
sustain
art
or
any
of specialisation
by
students
which should be learned
all
and practised
throughout
the course as an extension
of the work already
done in the pre-diplana
teaching...
fine
the
art
course....
focal
it
of
point
can serve as we believe
a
as
should,
41
-
for
the
strength
and inspiration
Coldstream Report, 1960, pars 12)
The Sunmerson Report
whole
(1964) was primarily
school.
concerned
with
(First
the
results
by colleges
and
review of course proposals
submitted
Diplama in Art and Design.
schools of art for the newly instituted
for
in the design
institutions
The only
these
of their
guide
Coldstream Report, with whose general spirit
submissions was the first
they were required to conform, and as indicated
above a
and principles
of a systematic
principle
should
includes
much emphasised in
play
its
part
in
the
all
Coldstream
areas
of
Report
study.
was that
Swmnerson's
Fine Art
findings
the view that
the influence
of the
any system which tended to restrict
the
freely
throughout
Fine Art department from circulating
however the system
Furthernwre,
college was to be deplored.
it to be essential
that the Fine Art
was arranged, we felt
department itself
should on all occasions be the effective
(para 40)
source of method and direction.
Of particular
interest
for this
current
study are Sum'erson's cacments
about graphic design courses.

to make the Fine Art
There was also very often a failure
being
time
disciplines
insufficient
in
this
effective
area,
allocated to drawing, and the gran=
of design and too much
to the practice of ephemeral techniques. (para 42)
The second report of the National Council for Diplana in Art and
Design in 1970 also expressed the concern that in graphic design
decline.
Its
be
the
drawing
to
on
courses 'Objective
seems
...
individual
to
best
by
in
the
form
adapted
pursuance and study
students
'Joint
in
the
'
is
However,
propensities
regarded as a necessity.
of the same year a break from the previous emphasis
on the importance of fine art studies was signalled.
Ccnmittee Report'
The First Report envisaged that students in Diplana courses

to have sane kind
art
would all
of fine
continue
training....
In the meantime we believe that art and design
education has evolved in such a way as to make the concept
We would not noW regard the
not universally
appropriate.
study of fine art as necessarily central to all studies in
(para 42)
the design field.
42
-
Strand (1984) claims that this 'was a recognition of a view long held
in
by designers:
that fine art and design are quite different
dynamic
has
intention
Design
and a
a
attitude,
and application.
beginning
(1973)
describes
the
discipline
its
of a
Gray
own'.
of
between the disciplines.
growing sense of difference
A differentiation
seems to have taken place which may make
two
'Art
Design'
it
to
as
and
consider
necessary
had
have
happen
to
irreconcilable
a
processes which may
types
different
but
distinctly
now
need
which
colrrnon origin,
(p101)
the
system.
educational
within
of provision
Ashwin (1984) further
disciplines
has not
to
relationship
and has been a feature

unrest over twenty years. '
student
Gawans (1971)
the
assumptions
Fine
on changes in the place
made by artists,
Art
industry
courses
much debate
of
fundamental
some of
between the disciplines.
articulates
these differences
to some extent,
the
design
been resolved,
occasioned
underlie
repudiation
or
of
our
of fine
those
that
concerns
and
that
These are based,
art
connected
time',
between the
differences
of the
(1984)
Peaker
and
reforms,
and design in the colleges
by
of the Coldstream
between fine art
and practice
'the
claims
led
that
principles
explores
the fundamental
in society
with
the
what
'low,
and the
he terms
popular,
the
Fine
to
inferior
life
in
are
everyday
commercial or mass arts used
for
always
and
Art produced by serious
exhibition
artists
....
This
for
direction
inspiration,
dependent on it
and character'.
the
negative
he
be
He
condemns
also
cannot
proved.
premise,
claims,
be
forms
'Fine
demands
dogma
that
in
that
Art
all mimetic
effects
Art
'dogma
has
they
out of
that
torn
call
what
condemned', claiming
' and condemns the growth of the 'idea of Fine Art as a
history,
living
self
extent
time
justifying
activity'
by Arnheim (1970),
from fulfilling
their
(p93).
'Perhaps
These views
the arts
most important
are
echoed
to
some
have been prevented in our

by being honoured
function
too much. '

Macdonald (1973) describes
his views that
43
-
after
Coldstream
there
was a
design
swing away from vocational,
useful,
and specialised
towards a "liberal"
type of art education
education,....
dominated by high art and tall
talk .... the non-analytical,
been
has
non-intellectual,
non-teaching
always
approach
fine art departments.
(p96)
uppermost in British
He describes
the
'that
schools
believed
belief
fine
cainon in art
led design, '
art
masters
as
an
in
early
design
theory
still
the
'absurd
' This conflict

by many art educationalists.
in the development of art and design education,
be
be
to
seen
can
to this study in that the association
particularly
of drawing
relevant
with fine art practices
was stressed by both Coldstream and Surmerson.
in,
incredibly,
This
have been instrumental

in impeding the
association
may well
development of an understanding
use of
of the nature of designerly
drawing and designerly
drawing practices.
The approaches to drawing
'basic
design'
influence
the
the
through
promulgated,
particularly
of
for the requirements
movement, were not in many respects appropriate
the planning and conduct of
of designers and yet in many institutions
drawing tuition
for design students has remained the province of the
fine
artists.
Hudson (1987)
led
indicates
that
it
was the
development
'basic
theories
the
of
to new forms
of
paved the
way for
stimulated
had
that
by reaction
been current
The new form of these courses was

theory
to the broader themes of educational
in both Europe and America,
represented
which
in
its
educational
movement inherent
indicates
or
that
courses',
also
Coldstream.
the
influence
the Bauhaus and spread specifically

basic design course.
the
Cross [A] (1983) discusses
'more
innovatory
theories
indicative
the
general
of
particularly
through
foundation,
that
in
the
the
of
intellectual
intention
to
climate'
unite
within
theoretical
Germany.
and
She
practical
to the activities
experience
was central
of the Bauhaus,
and that the 'educational
nature rather
scheme was of an evolutionary
the
than being wholly
thus reflecting
pre-planned
or designed',
influence
However,
ideas current
of the educational
at the time.
educational
Cross claims,
courses,
philosophies
'many design
without
schools
understanding
on which the original
still
the
operate
similar
educational
basic
theories
Bauhaus Course was built'.
44
-
design
and
Therefore
through
design
,
the
belief
the
basic
design
education,
ideas
affect
in
conventions
claimed 'literary
favour
thereby
criteria
or
defining
Yet these
activity.
developed
that
approaches
movement provide
basis
an appropriate
for
influential,
must be subject to question.

'five
factors'
of change
what he calls
training'.
of
various
outlines
'basic
design'
the
of
the
although
De Sausmarez (1964)
indicative
that
factors
These
of
personal
other
theories
inevitably
must
rejecting
emphasised
are
and
preference
and
experience
associations
that
'which
movement
ancillary',
essentially
designerly
of
supportive
in the 50s and
influence
are not truly

had increasing
60s, being put into operation

in various centres in the U. K. (Carlin
1975, p268-9), and still
continue to have currency in some educational
the foundation
establishments,
particularly
courses where many graphic
design
begin their
students
The theories
specific
'basic
the
of
influences
specialist
design'
on approaches
camnon on many foundation

approach,
of
with
abstract
aspects
The
cognition,
learning
with
must continue
that
respect
to exert
design
to
that
are
this
exemplifies
by the exploration
models for
to artistic
learn
students
single
on
concentrating
exercises
and on reference
approaches
particularly
of drawing,
Rawson (1983)
courses.
through
have had
movement can be seen to

to the teaching of drawing
emphasis on initiating
principles
of visual
emulation.
courses,
his
education.
on
these
the use and critical
an influence,
for
appraisal
(1982)
Ashwin
as
claims
the way in which we draw and the way in which we perceive

been
drawings depends, to a great extent,
have
upon what we
and
educated to expect fron drawing as a means of recording
(p7)
information,
feelings
carmunicating
opinions.
and
Lloyd
Jones
foundation
theories
(1984)
course
of
claims
in basic
expressionist
that
it
design,
painters,
resources'.
Moreover, it
is not only on foundation
In sane respects,
'devise
a new
now necessary
this time not based on the antique
intellectual
persist.
to
is
as Attfield
45
-
but
put
together
with
today's
influences
that
these
courses
(1984) points out,
Our design colleges still

retain the art school ethos which
individuals
sees artists
as highly original
seeking to
Designers, however
express themselves through their art.
the
must learn to mediate, to work in a team and interpret
budget
ideas
in
terms
and
client's
production
of
constraints.
(1984)
Ashwin
also
individualism'
claims
in
keeping with
'cxcrpetitive
'militates
system
college system
[which is]
out of
strangely
and collaboration....
the realities
the
some respects,
encouraged by the art
team-work
against
that,
of professional
'
practice.
for
has
led
to
suggestions
of existing
educational
practices
framework for design education.
a fundamental revision
of the current
indicates
Baynes (1984 [b])
that the formation
with
of connections
Criticism
courses
by
motivated
professional
design
the
would
intention
to
and business
of
'formidable
design
'
However,
'cultures'
obstacles'
of
must
be
those
'adequate
'for
changes were
treatment
example
between designers
and scientists
to such ventures.
A systematic
'structuring
areas
if
of
between
or design
and engineering
Kennaway (1988) describes
design
studies,
education
interacting
be feasible
provide
links
He advocates
technology.
incompatibility
to
art
practice'.
information
of the
fine
than
other
it
into
planning
three
and
the
as one
approach
overlapping
and
communication
practices,
......
by
Mergert
been
has
practices,
advocated
and manufacturing
practices'
(1984), if designers are going to respond to the challenges of the new
in
developments
by
design
aspects of visual
communication
stimulated
technology.
However,
it
integration
advocacy.
is only
'[such]
....
puts
way,
said
that
of the traditional
retention
disciplines
has also received strong
the
of the art and design

Hudson (1987) condemns the
forthcoming
for
'market-orientated
dichotany
created
education',
when support
cannenting
that
to ccrnprehend the interdependence

show a failure
(1984)
disciplines
the
design'.
Macdonald
of
within
art and
the argument that art and design should be taught in a related
'Divisive
"policies"
for art and design education are
and that
harmful
attitudes...
and retrograde',
while
Yeomans (1984)
46
-
makes the
case
for
maintaining the balance of art and design education because of their

interrelatedness
through 'the use of drawing as part of
particularly
the visual thinking activity'.
Velarde (1983) also expresses a desire
to maintain a multi-disciplinary
art and design education but within
the framework of a more structured theoretical
basis.
In
recent
has been considerable
there
years
discussion
on the
best
towards the
means to move away fron an emphasis on self-expression,
development of more systematic methods for teaching specific
abilities
in art and design education at both higher and secondary school level.
Ashwin (1979) and Goldsmith (1980) advocate more systematic approaches
(1982)
to the teaching
illustration.
Tancik
and specification
of
suggests
more academic,
university-run
emphasis
on analytical
and abstract
a move away fron
students,
integrated
replacing
the traditional
one in
with
taught'
and Proctor
acquisition
schools
of
Taylor
which
(1984)
is
studies
to encourage a greater
for some design
with,
A more
orientation.
argued for by Smith (1979)
skill
describes
the
and its
In
response
(1987)
describes
to
'there
(1987) believe
function
expressive
the "language"
of
'graphicacy'
curriculum.
education,
board
Morgan and Welton
schools]
the
thought,
drawing
historical
(1987).
and Collins
for
for
role
courses
is a case
education [in
of art
the
fundamental
development
proposed
is
importance
of
through
changes
the need to define
world
visual
in
art
in
art
secondary
and design
disciplines
for
more precisely
environment
an educational
'that
believes
art and art practice
are there to be learnt'.
important
have
suggests that historical
an
and analytical
studies
to play in the move towards systematic
approaches.
that
He
role
in the
systematic
approaches are being considered
future development of art and design education in general,
can they be
Historic
to the conduct of drawing tuition?
effectively
applied
If,
therefore,
models for
drawing
have been devised

chronological
general
tuition
provide
in
past.
account
education
in
the
of
the
that
methods
systematic
examples of
has provided
a
Ashwin (1981 [a])
teaching
Germany between
developed
of
drawing
in
1800 and 1900.

in
the
of
The analytical
the
and systematic
approaches
some of
describes
be seen to have influences
can still
on certain
47
-
context
methods
he
schools
of
thought.
The systematic approach described by Maier (1977), as used

in the School of Design in easel, reflects
much of the disciplined
methodology, orderly progression, and the acceptance of a framework of
theoretical
Buss
principles
characterised by the work of Pestalozzi,
The teaching of 'Object Drawing'
and Schmid (Ashwin, 1981 [b]).
through the free-hand drawing of geometric forms and 'Memory Drawing'
demonstrate a theoretical
franemrk that perpetuate certain aspects of
long-standing
tradition.
In the introduction
Mind
to his
Picturing',
influential
book,
'Drawing
from Memory and
(1922,
whether the
p1) questions
imitation
method of teaching drawing by means of the direct
of objects
that are
the faculties
and examples is 'the best means of developing
to graphic
necessary
of imaginative
expression'
and the training
designers.
Catterson-Smith
His advocacy of developing
images from
'mental
conceptions
by means of observation,
than through
memory, and experiment
rather
the direct
for a time particularly
copying of objects,
was influential
in the Birmingham School of Art.
(1988) has given a detailed
Swift
account
of
'memory drawing'
has
the
considered
(Swift,
1983).
in
arguments
Birmingham
use at
for
introducing
of Art,
School
and
procedures
similar
to
Camp (1981) has pioneered the reassessment of the 'ways of learning
draw by the age old method of copying',
re-evaluated
a method recently
by artists
(Drew and Harrison,
has yet to be fully
1988) that
for
considered
the special
between the practice

is
stressed
needs of graphic
of drawing
design
students.
literacy
and the acquisition
of visual
Crowe and Laseau (1984)
by several
authorities.
'includes
that visual
literacy
two skills:
visual
acuity
'analytical
Bro (1978) describes
expression. '
of
a system
and 'responsive
analysis'
of drawings
as a means of
critical
the cam=ication
'drawing
of visual
case for
understanding
claim
and visual
tracing'
developing
faculties.
visual
For Simpson (1987),

a strong
The link
of
is basic
information',
the use of exploratory

form in a way that is
48
-
to the whole understanding

and Thistlewood
drawing activities
applicable
of
(1982) makes
to aid the
to designers.
No
how well
matter
structured
drawing become, as Beittel
drawing
known teacher
drawing
'are
'natural
way',
systematic
methods
(1970) points
out, the
be developed
can only
drawing,
of
learning
of
through
(1972)
Nicolaides
to be learned,
not
claims,
use
as that
the
but
as actualities'
'visual
literacy'
as rules,
to
capacity
For
practice.
about
well
rules
of
in the
drawing.
through
The outcome of the debate
on notions
of
(Boughton,
1986) and their relevance to art education in general will

surely have
by
its effect
future
development
design
the
affecting
courses
on
of
the range of abilities
that students develop before beginning higher
criterion-referencing
a profound
literate
effect.
about visual
level
the
matters,
of drawing
applicants
to design
effective
methods
and content
art
school
of
in
elements
of analytical
(Allinson,
1982) linked
to a move towards a
have
(Stevenson,
1983),
may
system of assessment
Potential
may become more verbally
students
curricula,
with
the domain structure
develop
the balance
changes in
the development
Indeed,
education.
and critical
is
that
skills
Should this
courses.
from
expected
currently
happen the development
drawing
teaching
of
to
but may not have had the opportunity
becane
will
of
more
even
imperative.
(1979)
Sless
argues
in
that
general
terms
there
been
has
little
from which design educators can

of
Cross [N] (1982) is also critical
establish
educational
criteria.
know
designers
this lack of systematic
that
what
claiming
analysis,
largely
tacit
about their
problem-solving
remains
own
processes
scientific
study
knowledge,
articulate
with
neither
about
being
practising
values
through
of design
behaviour
designers,
the processes
designers
a process
of
nor
design
of designerly
who pass on their

'apprenticeship'.
being
educators
activity,
with
knowledge,
teachers
skill
for
It may be satisfactory,
least
understandable,
or at
designers to be inarticulate
skills,
practising
about their
be
but teachers
to
design
have
as
of
a responsibility
articulate
as they possibly
can about what they are trying
for
to teach,
or else they have no basis
choosing the
(p224)
teaching.
content and methods of their
49
-
fully
and
(1979)
Darke
teaching
also
methods
staff-student
between
sceptical
about
on design courses.
relationship,
of solution
(1986) quotes
Cross [A]
codes'
or
she
the
effectiveness
When describing
that
states
and a student
is
types
for
a practitioner
experience
two
is
required
Schon's
description
language
typical
the
typical
'main
the
the
that
of
difference
fornrer
has
the
conjecture'.
a realistic
use of
of a 'simultaneous
'drawing
are
and talking
systems where
in the apprentice-like
parallel
ways of designing'
education of design
students,
while Lloyd Jones (1984) claims that,
on design courses
'Teaching
for
decades has been reactive,
the
realising
without
importance
of the development and teaching of a system of

be used generatively
to create novelty'.
could actually
Within
this
context
of
need
generally-perceived
rules
for
that
greater
to be given to the development of structured

approaches
to art and design education,
this present study seeks to re-appraise
the nature of drawing tuition
from a basis of research into the nature
consideration
of professional
in the
practice
ccomercial
environment.
Therefore,
fundamental
activity
drawing.
designerly
reappraisal
what
graphic
of
constitutes
has been conducted, with particular
emphasis on the role of
This has been based on detailed
of designerly
observation
practice,
and on intensive
consultation
with
graphic
designers.
By
in all
it,
and then
characterising
needed to use drawing appropriately
defined,
a basis for the development
of
the
investigating
considering
the
role
the drawing
of
drawing,
abilities
the range of uses thereby

drawing tuition
to
specific
provided.
described
The research
in chapter
methods
employed
3.
50
-
of
needs
in
graphic
this
designers
investigation
is
are
CHAPTER 3
1et17QC30kgy
3.1
Intictian
A description
background
of the
way in which the original

in Chapter
given
two part
1.
research
In this
the
of
to their
aims were modified
the methodology
chapter
and the
form, is
study,
current
and conduct
of a
are described.
programie
As explained
in Chapter
early
of the research,
stages
and evolution
1, a major
the
in the
change of emphasis occurred

focus of attention
shifting
fran
to one of professional
As
of educational
practice.
practice,
design
Darke (1979) points out, any theoretical
procedures
of
analysis
investigation
should involve
work, and it was
of the way designers
study
soon realised
that
designers
graphic
explored
this
of their
aspect
use drawing,
the way
specifically
practice,
not been sufficiently
has hitherto
well
to allow for the construction

of a theoretical
framework from which the role of drawing tuition
or articulated
and intellectual
could be considered.
The contribution
of the pilot
to the developnent
study
up
and setting
The details
of
of the research programne is analysed in Section 3.2.
but
the research progranme, which consisted
distinct
two
related
of
is then described.
The main part of the research,
parts,
which is
discussed
ways in
perform.
in
3.3,
Section
which
drawing
is
The second part
has been concerned with

which BA level
graphic
reference
to the role
of consultations
field
of
drawing
work and to test
has been concerned

used in
the
that
the
characterising
designers
graphic
of the -research, described

investigating
the educational
in
design
with
students
of drawing
tuition.
has been conducted

and design
for
tasks
with
omission
with
are
taught,
During
to discuss
studies
(see Section 3.5).
51
-
context
the
within
particular
the study
acknowledged
3.4,
Section
a series
experts
in
the
approach
to
the
3.2
The pilot
The pilot
study
study
was conducted
months and may, in

that
it
fact,
involved
aspects
explored.
Discussions
students,
academic staff
broad
range
identification
of
be better
number
fundamental
of the
views
of
topics
under
first
were
studies
investigation
to elicit
Then,
related
subjects.
the key topics
and variables
as
graphic
on a variety
which
were initially
design
graphic
with
designers
conducted
and practising
of
of
the
interview
study
advanced,
designed, tested and revised.
discussions
through
small-scale
and clarification
Specifically,
six
a period
of approximately
in
termed 'a pilot
study stage'
over
and
scripts
questionnaire
in
were
from first
year
students
from the Department
and third year groups and with 3 members of staff
3 members
of Communication Arts and Design, Manchester Polytechnic.
from graphic
of staff
also
for
consulted
a London-based
advisors
stage,
for
the study,
included
during
whom the interview
the
latter
were also
being
also
one of
the
Score of these
consulted.
progranine but none of
in the research
the pilot
script
were
one of the advisors appointed

designers
3 Manchester-based
and
graphic
designer,
were later
in the country
elsewhere
including
graphic
the data collected

with
departments
In addition,
appointed
individuals
design
at this
the study.
were conducted with
study was used.
Those individuals
were tested
and questionnaire
were not
included
stage
in the research programme. Thus, in summary, the pilot

study
involved
designers
6 educators,
4 practising
and more than 20
students.
In addition
important
dimension
Several
to the change in emphasis already described,

several other
A
developments
from
new
this
stage.
study
stem
pilot
was added to
of the
view that
is
equally
respondents
developing
drawn imagery,
the
consulted
the abilities
and to direct
as important
as a result
during this
research
both
and control
the pilot
of
stage
to understand
the drawing
study.
expressed
the
and appreciate
skills
of others,
graphic designers as acquiring

design solutions
an image, intended
to practising
For many final

practical
skills.
to be used as artwork,
will
either
be adapted
52
-
fron
existing
material
The designer must be able to

a specialist.
envisage the sort of image he/she requires and then be able to select
Finally,
image, or accurately
an appropriate
commission a specialist.
or
from
commissioned
they
must be able
to
the
assess
quality
or
the
of
appropriateness
The capacity to commission images requires a complex

in
range of decision
making (Ashwin, 1979), so should be included
be
for
design
well
curriculum
may
planning
and
graphic
students
(Htdson, 1987).
usefully
considered as an aspect of drawing tuition
submitted
It
work.
was
therefore,
established,
drawing
abilities
include
cognitive
understanding
of
to
addition
be
should
in
sought
ie
abilities,
the
information
that
broad
and use
the designer's
quality
ie
abilities,
and
categories,
the
to
pertaining
of drawn
abilities
nature,
practical
two
designers'
about
in
images,
'put
own
down'
skills.
It was also became clear

uses of drawing during
for
material
a design
since graphic designers make important

briefing
of reference
and collection
design
in
a
preparing
and similarly
that
the
job,
be
elicited
solution for production,
also
respondents' views should
during these procedures.
about their drawing activities
The identification
influence
It
led
the use of drawing,

to
research
interviews
the
frcm
was also
identification
of
the
ie the factors
development.
important
a very
'population'
target
the
which
the
that
for
the
design
of
respondents
were selected,
and questionnaires,
and the planning of the approach to the
case study.
It
in the study,
of the variables
These variables
was realised
during
are given
the pilot
study
in Section
that
3.3.
a range of data collection
techniques
Various methods of collecting

would need to be employed.
information
and eliciting
and the most effective
were explored
in
for
Both the interview
use
selected.
structure
and questionnaire
the two parts
series
ensured
of trial
of the research
interviews
and revised
coverage of every
Tuc]nan (1972), data collected
in the final
analysis
of the
then tested
were formulated,
identified
during
research
53
-
until
by a short
a form. was developed
variable.
the pilot
findings,
As
stipulated
that
by
study was not included

and respondents
were
not included
in the samples employed in either
of the research
part
Prolram ie.
The need
develop
to
mechanisms
for
aspects
of the two
during the pilot
established
parts
mind during
the case study,
various
between
cross-referencing
the
of
the
Programme was
research
of common
study and an identification
points of reference,
or 'key' themes was made. This ensured that both
in the structured
views
and focused interview
progranmes respondents'
borne
in
these
themes,
were elicited
also
were
on
pre-determined
which
through
the field
into
the
themes linking
work for
second part
the various
of
the
aspects
research
and again were carried

key
These
programme.
can be summarised
of the research
as follows:
1.
Attitudes
their
to the importance
different
of both drawing
and drawing
forms to the work of graphic
ability
in
designers
2.
of the ways in which drawing is used in the work of

graphic designers
3.
Views on the drawing abilities

required by graphic
in 2.
order to use drawing in the ways identified
designers
in
4.
Views on the means by which graphic

draw.
be taught
to
Identification
designers
should
The pilot
study also showed that the choice and use of terminology
from the interview
From the data elicited
would be problematic.
of the
respondents, it was apparent that neither the representatives
academic nor of the the camercial
environments to be studied made use
that were
of any broadly agreed terminology for the drawing activities
being investigated.
In fact,
found
to
only
used was
The terminology employed in
the terminology
be agreed within specific environments.

the literature
was also found to be specific to particular
or disciplines,
or even to individual
authors.
This
realisation
lead
to
a decision
54
-
to
limit
the
use of
paradigms
research
do
that
methods
way of
data
collecting
from academic staff
the
with
pilot
in order
It
each group.
of the
three
graphic
to take
capacity
in
were,
It
been
relatively
between
found
for
less
articulate
in
design
practice
and
clear
develognent
of
Therefore,
in
designers
(the
interviews
with
were
held
namely
design
drawing
structured
junior
although
the
the
usage
junior
within
the
respondent
interviews),
a short
was included
in
relationship
they
terms
group
of
of
the
experienced
programme of
the
were
context.
educational
in
were
profession
of the
drawing,
in
who had
designers
the
of
drawing
of
use
own experiences
main
designers
the
in
years
description
their
abilities
to
addition
was
their
about explaining
designers
the practising
graphic
two
their
about
of detachment
groups.
about
that
than
less
particularly
interviews
articulate
articulate
was also
employed
to
problem of knowledge elicitation

implicit
of their
understanding
was found that

very
general,
practice.
the scope and
comparison
(Tuckman 1972).
up a position
respondent
the particular
who have a tacit
or
However, it
actions.
data
collect
the most effective

ways of approaching
framework
that,
the particular
was discovered
within
ie the exploration
of the use of drawing, a marked
but who are not necessarily
subject
spread
potential
groups,
respondent
design educators
and graphic
in each of these three
designers
to
example,
and trial
Magee (1987) discusses

fron
widely
to identify
research,
difference
in their
evident
in
respondents
in the interviews
discussions
study,
of all
designers,
students,
was the only
questionnaire
for
in
understanding
of
from BA courses around the country,

design was inevitably
in
restricted
members
practising
fron
and was used,
nature of question
the degree of openness possible
During
checking
the use of a postal
locations,
geographical
for
allow
Although
respondents.
feasible
not
main
focused
research
program e.
Trial
interviews
environment
information
position
of
both the respondent
groups from the educational

indicated
in
unbiased
some difficulties
canvassing
demonstrated
a
Graphic design educators
and opinion.
detachment when talking
about the use and importance of
with
55
-
drawing,
but
about
was not consistently
sustained when talking
the way in which drawing should be taught.
It was found that the
to canvass in that they showed very
student groups were very difficult
little
detachment on any of the issues under
sustained
position
this
discussion.
was, however,
It
difficulties
they
insufficient
to
possible
encountered
their
when
on the
their
views
drawing
ability
elicit
was
ideas, and on the specific

of their
to them.
they felt
provision
of drawing tuition
would be beneficial
Hence, a short interview
progratcme was included in
and questionnaire
the
to
expression
the
Some reluctance
to investigate
these issues.
research programe
in several
BA
to be subject
to investigation
was also perceived
for
better
became
be
it
that
there
scope
centres
and
clear
would
access,
professional
the decision
designers
in
quantify
the
graphic
design
and
it
education
in the
opinion,
Therefore,
environment.
detached
of
educational
to switch
focus
the
decided
was also
instead,
and,
broad
to
not
of drawing
the
to
in BA
tuition
this
about
study
attempt
to canvas wide-ranging
issues
general
in
of attention
of the provision
state
raise
elicitation
the
practice,
current
thereby
educational
the
than
rather
alongside
to
as for
as well
opinion
aspect
of
provision.
Consideration
was also
given
during
the
design
organisations
study
pilot
means for
to
and educational
to enable environments to be chosen for detailed
study.
establishments
for the choice of such organisations
Criteria
and are
were defined
be
in
there
3.3
3.4.
that
Sections
It
would
given
was also clear
and
classifying
and
considerable
difficulties
categorising
programmes within
and that
the
in conducting
the short
time
Faculty
of Art
local
ccanplex and detailed
span possible
environment
for
research
to colleges
visits
a rich
provided
source
Therefore,
in terms of teaching both drawing and design.
of expertise
to
it was decided to capitalise
Visits
this
planned
were
on
resource.
level
that
in
BA
typical
graphic
other courses
were
of
most respects
design
provision
study
could
but
be
where,
identified
the
at
in
variables
in tuition
were included
discussed
in Section
3.4.
same time,
advance
to
particular
ensure
in the research.
56
-
that
topics
for
important
These aspects
are
The main results and effects

summarised as follows;
be
study may, therefore,
of the pilot
1.
A change of focus in the research

cctinercial environment
2.
An extension of the area of investigation

drawing abilities
or 'non-practical'
3.
the
include
An extension
investigation
the
to
use of
of
of
area
drawing in procedures involved in preparation
and production
4.
An identification
graphic designers'
5.
An exploration
methodologies
6.
for
'key'
forming
An identification
themes,
a mechanism
of
referencing data fran each respondent group
7.
An identification
8.
An identification
the
of
population for the study
9.
design
the
by
Definition
factors
the
of
of
which a choice
organisations and BA courses to be investigated could be made
3.3
The conduct
of
This
the
professional
their
of the major factors

use of drawing
identification
and
of problems
of
the
describes
the
to the
the educational
to
'cognitive'
include
that
or variables
research
appropriate
of
affect
cross-
in the use of terminology
response
research
characteristics
into
graphic
the
of
desk hers'
use
drawing
section
conduct
fron
main part
practice
rationale
and the
methods
employed
to
research programme concerned with the

to
designers,
regard
with particular
of graphic
of
the
use of drawing.
interviews
in a number of ways.
Data was collected
50 structured
were
conducted with designers representing
a wide range of experience and
focused interviews
Less formal but, nevertheless,
were
expertise.
also carried out with 20 more junior designers.
of both these sets of interviews
were validated
series
of non-participant
The specific
and supplemented
of designers at work.
to monitor jobs in progress,
observations
findings
by a
Several
to talk
organisations
were visited
to designers and to watch them at work.
A number of meetings were
'job
bags'
the
files
back
were
also observed,
and
and
contents
of
design
57
-
scrutinised
when possible.
A case study
design
representative
of this
the
in
was conducted
or
focused
interview
studio
the
All
organisation.
research
practice
period
of
and junior
staff
senior
in either
Focused interviews
programs es .
(these were not
staff
were also conducted with marketing

the sample).
Several visits
were made to
entire
environment
and they are included
were interviewed,
organisation
structured
design
the
the
when non-participant
included
in
over
the
organisation
of
observations
studio
took place.
and meetings
A collection
was also made fron a number of sources,
of drawn material
for
including
the case study organisation.
This has provided material
been
have
used to
more detailed
study and analysis,
and samples
illustrate
various
Therefore,
to
in this
points
first
this
summarise,
thesis.
the
of
part
programme
research
included:
1.
A prograncne of structured
2.
A series of focused interviews
3.
Observations
4.
Analysis
of designerly
of designers'
The data collected

5.
A detailed
During
factor
the
pilot
study
a
the
of
presentation,
etc)
designer
engaged,
job
was
graphic
was found that

and general
the nature
"
practice
way was also supplemented by:
case study of one design organisation
requirements
It
designers
with 20 more junior
drawings
in this
influencing
individual
designers
50
experienced
with
interviews
in
it
became apparent
designer's
graphic
specific
graphic
design
number
of
use of
the designer's
orientation
and even location
use
(ie
procedure
the
designer's
that,
role
of work
of
the
-58-
drawing
of
briefing,
process
on which
other
variables
drawing
can also
in the design
on which
they
organisation
the
although
major
the
was
analysis,
a graphic
influencing
be identified.
team, the type of

were engaged,
in which
they
and
were
employed, all had an influence on the use of drawing, and it was clear
that each of these variables needed investigation
during the study.
may be sinnnarised as follows :
These variables
1.
The requirements of the procedure in the graphic design process
2.
The general
orientation
packaging design
3.
The nature of the specific
4.
The designer's
relative
seniority
role on the design team
5.
The nature
6.
The predilections
3.3.1
of
the
work,
for
job, or specific
and and location
place
magazine
or
aspect of the job
and managerial
of their
of the individual
example
and their
status,
of employment
designer
Rationale
Various important
considerations were kept in mind when planning and

It was most important to
conducting this part of the research.
discover how designers use drawing, how it facilitated
their work, and
this was not to be confused with any considerations
of whether they
according to any criteria
of judgement other than utility.
fran which the sample was selected was
the population
designers,
than successful
rather
one of successful
draw well
Therefore
primarily
draughtsmen or waren.
A further
judging
for
importance
the
criterion
as a
of
of utility,
be
had
drawing activity,
to
that
placed on
was
emphasis
drawing
to
insight
usage
relating
opinion, experience and
implication
eliciting
from 'the
could
group',
as
reliance
usage from simply looking at the drawings produced.
user
reconstructing
be placed
little
Darke (1979) points
out,
it
the
seems.... that
necessary to
research
material
understand the design process is not a set of sketches but a
knowledge of the mental process the designer goes through.
Observation of sketched and written output is a curious way
of
obtaining
such material.
59
-
Asking
designers
to
recall
on
As
their
own processes
the truth
about such processes,

(p37)
foam.
and finish
diagrammatic
is
no
to get closer to
in a less verifiable
albeit
Indeed from observations

made of graphic
is clear that there is a wide variety
of
varying degrees of finish
and attention
being worked through, careful
renderings
scribbles,
facie
would seem prima
designers
working
it
sheets,
of drawing, exhibiting
to detail.
When an idea is
types
can be juxtaposed
indication
of
with
quick
A rough
significance.
in the
a significant
progression
development of an idea, whereas a beautifully-executed
image may be
the result
in short,
it
of time wasted on an inappropriate
solution.
is not possible
to judge the role
the
of drawing in progressing
sketch
development
design
of
However, by talking
of
drawing
and
more informed
individual
from
benefits
they
the
observation
appropriate
use
designer's
was established
drawing abilities
skills,
solutions
to designers
in the pilot
the role
assess purely
facility
fron
the
in
study
of
drawings
alone.
they
see in
the use
from
understanding
drawings,
effects
it
of
its
appropriate
so gained
with
beccmes possible
to
levels
of
differing
In addition,
as it
the range of graphic designers
image making.
that
under consideration
of these kinds
derive
the
of working
from
observation
about the value
and then backing-up
application,
separate
may represent
must also
of abilities
include
non-practical
is even more difficult
to
observation.
Hence, visits
were arranged so as to be able to discuss the use of
drawing. The use of both focused and structured interviews played an
important part in the research,
by 'providing
access to what is
"inside a person's head" '.
(Tuckrnan, 1972)
The research conducted through the case study of one typical design
environment enabled the findings
produced through the interview
programme to be validated and to be followed up and explored in more
detail.
Various
important
aspects of the work of a designer, as

described in the interviews,
for example briefing meetings and client
meetings, the effects of teamwork, and various managerial procedures,
could thereby be observed and the use made of drawing to facilitate
60
-
these procedures
confirmed.
the
research
process
feedback
of
In that
feeds
into
data
of
1983),
and Atkinson,
'analysis
(Hamnersley
design'
from the interviews
the
and further
was validated
during
explored
the case study.

Whereas the use of a mailed questionnaire
method
was the only feasible
information
fron design educators
in widely dispersed
of eliciting
(Magee, 1987), this method was not considered
locations
geographical
of
designer
for
appropriate
like
research
methods
information
Magee discusses
respondents.
repertory
grid
and protocol
the advantages
when
analysis
or what he terms
eliciting
'the
implicit
about the tacit
activity,
they make that can be

in words'.
However, various factors
made such
by the
The breadth of the study necessitated
like
identified
time-consuming
method
made a
that
understanding
' and about the 'value based decisions
difficult
to describe
methods inappropriate.
number of
repertory
variables
grid
wide in order
orientation
consisted
addition,
getting
and
of
experimental
projects
them to describe
their
However,
during
time-consuming
the event
the major variables
all
in
Moreover,
designers,
their
were
time
tried
was
and
found
created
that
high
own
was,
of work
population
limited.
In
designers,
student
during
either
that
or of post-rationalisation
the
was very
with
use of drawing
it
their
about
The sample of respondents
to include
employment.
successful
project.
extremely
inappropriate.
analysis
of necessity,
test
understanding,
designers
have
or after
were
procedures
degree of inhibition
such
after
the event.
Hence,
they were not used in the study.
3.3.2
The
Selection
population
It
criteria.
of the sample - designs

of
It
freelance
designers,
criterion
proven
essential.
study
was entirely
practice.
graduates
the
excluded
made up of
specialists
as
(see
significant
Section
number
1.5. ),
of
but
graphic
included
design
the
As already
up freelance
explained,
practice.
is
to say a
that
of being 'successful'
was also applied,
design
to
work was
capacity
produce
viable
curanercial
take
All
members of the sample were therefore

61
-
kkLAII.
to two main
according
in
designers
were
who
graphic
defined
was
both
'successful'
and 'practising'
'purposive
A system of
to build
graphic designers.
to the specific
needs
The variables
the use of drawing, determined
affecting
(see Section
3.3)
the inclusion
of
study
required
types
from
different
of
work
orientations,
up a group of respondents
of the study.
in
the
(Cohen and Manion 1985) was employed
sampling'
pilot
representatives
organisation
or
structures,
selection
of twenty
account.
As the
satisfactory
levels
and
An initial
seniority.
was made to take
respondents
interview
of
into
these variables
perceived
programme progressed,
omissions
the
Ultimately
and additional
respondents interviewed.
designers
the major orientations,
sample included
representing
all
by
identified
types of design organisation,
and levels
of seniority
)
(See Appendix II for details
the study.
the
groups.
respondent
of
were corrected
'opportunist'
A purely
'convenience'
or
1985, page 101) was used for
a series
were conducted with
more junior
years
a group
experience,
Through
the
use of
chosen to reflect
to
possible,
more
than
in
order
interviewed
on established
individual
to
These
Design Industry
designer
from
the
relative
given
organisation
influence
of
and
Where
approaches.
corporate
were
respondents
system,
of the Graphic
and
assess
practitioners.
sampling
purposive
one
interviews.
focused
10 of which had less than 2

interview
in
the
main
represented
the broad nature

both
represent
the
of
designers,
not
programme which concentrated
(Cohen and Manion,
sample
was
personal
views and job requirements.
The places of employment of respondents were

location, the nature of the organisation,
the
and whether or not it
was independent
More respondents were chosen
organisation.
design
groups than from the public

design groups.
This was because it
these types
of organisation
often
to
according
categorised
design
the
unit,
of
size
larger
a
of
part
or
fron
cornnercially
from large in-house
sector or
became apparent
sent work out to
sector.
62
-
funded
early on that
the cxrrrriercial
designer
an individual
in either
their
could represent more than one aspect of the industry,
the opportunity
past
or current
practice,
was taken to elicit
an interview,
During
information
to
asset
where it
this
about
the
that
fact,
In
experience.
that
study
became clear
same respondents
it
could
proved
a valuable
information
give
on
more than one aspect and therefore

would form part of several sample
for
work was
classifications,
example a designer
whose recent
identity
concentrated
programmes had
of corporate
on the design
been responsible
previously
designers
Sane
are
for
the design
to
subject
of a magazine.
technical
of
set
particular
Others
example those working with computer graphics.
Both
achieve a high degree of freedcn,
and verge on being artists.
but,
these groups, although specialists,
in
the
included
sample
were
for
constraints,
as already
Individuals
not.
graphic
they
indicated,
design
represent
other
specialists
such as illustrators,
were
fncn a
are generally
engaged in design co-ordination
background, and so were also included in the sample as
design
for
graphic
a potential
employment opportunity
students.
Interviews
were also
conducted
with
aspects
of their
work that
brought
drawings
could
be studied,
and
designers
according
could
be
to different
investigated
marketing
them into
furthermore,
fron
so that
personnel
with
contact
so
different
that
those
designers'
the
work
perspectives
of
and
requirements.
the
of
same respects
sample was not
representative
interviewed
population in that a higher proportion of the individuals
than would be representative
of the
were in managerial positions
industry as a whole. However, it was judged reasonable to spend more
In
the
truly
time with people who were able to give an experienced account and a
broad perspective.
In addition,
the nature of the subject meant it
was important to interview respondents who were reasonably articulate
about the topics
being investigated,
63
-
therefore
maturity
was useful.
3.3.3
The structured
(p113)
interviews'
reflexive
present
p-ag
between 'standardized
(1983) make the distinction
Hanmersley et al
this
interview
and the interview
can be said
used during
techniques
incorporate
to
and
the
advantages of
formed
both these approaches.
the
A predetermined
series of questions
basis of the main programme of interviews
conducted in a relatively
research
formal
or
manner at prearranged
'structured
conversations'
as opportunity
opportunity,
'trigger'
meetings, whereas the focused interviews,

(Harrrnersley et al, p15) were conducted,
arose, often
with discussion
a coffee
of
topics
predetermined
break
incident
a particular
'non-directive'
for
lunch
or
to
questions
providing
the
providing
the
one
explore
of
the
of the study.
A script
of question
interview
programme to ensure coverage of all
content
the main
was used throughout
and order
topics
the predetermined
by
conducted
were
recording
of responses.
'reflexive'
the author throughout,
for
this
a relatively
and
allowed
approach to question order and the use of 'funnel'
and open questions,
It
together with supplementary
'probing'
questions where appropriate.
and to aid
The interviews
was not uncrnmon for
respondents
later
but again,
in the script,
in every
case this
respondent's
the
the study
were
the
designers,
they
importance
of
to
were
drawing
of
acquisition
drawing
capitalise
be direct
also
in
the
ability.
fron
intended
was the interviewer
practice
to
of
probe
graphic
The use of
In
order
In addition
the
While
programrie.
'knowledge
a means of
procedures fron expert
to
attitudes
design
and to
open questions
the
was made manageable.
mode was incorporated
as
in specific
intended
were scheduled
interview
and specific,
responses
of analysis,
the
responses,
to
that
and of the terminology

checked by the author.
on volunteered
questions
reliability
questions
on the use of drawing
elicitation'
the author
of
could be consistently
primarily
topics
be accaru dated.
could
of data were obtained
interviews
possible
in that
understanding
adopted for
Two kinds
situation
to discuss
the
the
made it
and by structuring
recording
to further
and analysis
facilitate
of
the
response
where possible
a 'fixed alternative'
into the interview
Use
was made of
structure.
64
-
'fixed
'yes',
(ie
alternative'
beginning
the
education,
of
each
professional
'don't
know') response modes, or

and 'rank ordering' forms.
'attitude'
scaled responses, including

At
'no',
interview,
experience
anonymity
were
questions
asked
The loss
and current
status.
concern for respondents
was not a matter

of
commitment had been made by the author
to seek permission
about
in
of
that
before
using
any acknowledged quotation.

The interview
questions
expanding
each section
to prepare
of the
explanation
the respondent for the change
a short
and opportunity
was taken to
before the more direct
and specific
emphasis,
response
any conditioning
Appendix
discussion
clear
views
important
at this
terns 'drawing'
of the
that
between
a broad basis
to establish
the respondents'
also
the
of
of the interview
section
stimulate
order
A list
effect.
an unconditioned
could have
questioning
elicit
questions
used is
in
given
I(a).
The first
that
of
to be covered was given
topic
to
was made up of four sections,

each containing
in the pilot
on one of the key issues identified
At the beginning
study.
in
format
for
subsequent
in
and respondent
discussion
of drawing
and elicit
ability.
It
was
stage to check agreement on the use and meaning

for the research,
and to make it
as specified
of drawing
the type
interviewer
the
importance
on the
to set the scene and
was designed
used in the respondent's
activity
working
to
referred
as a graphic designer.
under discussion
practice
The second section was concerned with identifying

ways in which
designers
the way the
graphic
use drawing,
more specifically
respondent used drawing, and contained questions about all the phases
of the graphic design process together with questions about the use of
drawing in the design of specific
elements, for example grids and
logotypes.
The third
specific
drawing
Invariably
the majority
of time was spent on this
section
contained questions
response about the importance
abilities
and skills
that
65
-
designed
of,
graphic
to
elicit
section.
a more
of, the
and the nature

designers must have to
the requirements of practice.

In the questions a distinction
drawing
between
the
of
was made
cognitive
and practical
aspects
like
to allow for discussion
ability,
abilities
of non-practical
assessing and carmissioning imagery.
fulfil
on how graphic
respondents views were elicited
design students should be taught drawing and the section ended with a
'life
'perspective'
and
checklist
of specific
subjects
such as
forms
to explore
to
of
classes',
respondents
attitudes
established
fourth
In the
drawing
section
The data
tuition.
canpared with
that
When setting
up the
were generally
term
would
organisation
would
candidate
for
be
interviews,
for
interview
interview.
respondents
in spite
while
setting
first
letter".
When a
in
inclusion
to
were persuaded
helpful,
only
purpose
the
sample,
a
on
to participate,
difficulty
of
the
the majority
but
design
particular
information
gain
of the inevitable
The general
and students.
With perseverance,
cases were found to be not

the study
the
for
was later
section
approaches to respondents
by what TucMnan (1972)
telephone,
the
consulted
interview.
this
from educators
collected
was selected
designer
approached
collected
conducted over
"cover
verbal
fron
senior
suitable
of designers
and in
enthusiastic
also
most
about
in making time for
the
was explained
to
research
up the interview.
Notes of particular
and recorded
responses were made during interview
in the space allocated
Further,
unless
on the interview
script.
the
specific
were raised or conditions
were not propitious,
objections
entire
for
later
interview
the checking
carefully
reference
was also
recorded
All
later
reference.
of answers and for

reviewed
and
expanded
to the tapes and possible
the tapes
on tape.
upon,
quotations
where
were kept
The notes
were
possible,
with
were identified.
It was generally found that the respondents were only partially

aware
of the scope of the research when the interview began. This situation
was capitalised
on by the use of general open questions at the
before
beginning of the interview to elicit
first
thoughts
and record
the respondent's views could be conditioned by the structure of the
66
-
interview.
These questions
or idiosyncrasies
of the interview.
prejudices
During
the interview
definitions
framework
designers
were the subjects
of the
elicitation
of the discussion
many instances additional
and notes were made to record

Observations
keeping
but
keeping
views while
was given
the
In
under review.
by the respondent
these.
design
of
clear
graphic
practising
The balance was struck
aspects
caruent
the
within
of
skills
specific
useful
the respondent's
to elicit
research.
to the
evidence of any
during the rest
account
of the respondent's
majority
3.3.4
into
was taken
opportunity
of drawing where possible,

that the day-to-day
working
between a free
in providing
proved useful
to be taken
the
and
practice
cmluct
the
of
aise study
Observations of designers' working practice were conducted throughout

In the case
the period of the research whenever opportunity allowed.
interview
(out
during
the
fifty)
thirty
interviews,
said
of
either
of
was given, and in addition
One
permitted.
environments was
access to drawing material
or subsequently,
a guided tour of eighteen studio

large and two medium sized organisations were visited
addition to the visits to the case study organisation.
The case study
of a series
four
of visits
and three
in the
studio
observed,
marketing
was conducted
were
and ancillary
plus
periods
conducted
and consisted
two periods
observation
studio
with
practice
junior
workers.
of
spent
was
staff,
In-
such as art
Backfiles
were reviewed.
and
workers
were attended
fortuitous
that the case study extended over such
for the observation
time because it
of
allowed
a long
period
various
changes and developments
of
staff,
these
meetings
was particularly
duration
of non-participant
interviews
personnel,
senior
During
environment.
house and client

It
to interview
days respectively
focused
a four-year
over
in
times
several
in
the
organisation.
facilities,
A change of
growth
a considerable
took
in client
place
changes
numbers and status,
staff
number
a
and
of
during
the duration
Another
the
particularly
of
case study.
address
and an extension
of
studio
67
-
interesting
general
development
design
and packaging
The organisation
number
=
of
change in
was the
group to a design
was chosen as an enviromnent

The
reasons.
quality
of
both creative
fron
the case study for
this
organisation
consultancy.
for
design
produced
work
was
terms.
It
in
consistently
canpetitive
and carmercial
drew accounts fran all over the country and fron abroad, having a wide
The
range of clients
and size of jobs and accounts to deal with.
number of designers
there
and experience,
turnover
a broad range of age groups

franwork
and regular
managerial
employed represented
was a stable
of staff.
Although part of a larger canpany, the design organisation had its own
It
managerial policy and a high degree of managerial independence.
was large enough to have separate in-house marketing and artwork
The organisation was located in London, enabling designers
sections.
to enjoy the ambience of a major capital city and the opportunity to
in
being
Other
sited
visit major art exhibitions,
advantages of
etc.
facilities
the capital
included the availability
production
of good
lettering
large
including
fund
and a
of every sort,
of specialists
Along with other Londonartists,
photographers and illustrators.
based design consultancies, the organisation enjoyed good contact with
design periodicals
and the attendant opportunity for publicity.
the
because
of
was
choice
case study
Several of the senior staff were interested
guarantee of good access.
In addition,
in the study progranme and supportive
of the research.
for
the
the studio accamtiodation was sufficiently
to
allow
extensive
for
Another
reason
presence
of a researcher
The conduct
the
senior
From
of the
identified
included
and
for
the
of
disturbing
without
case study
initially
other
further
type
of
meetings
with
exploration.
drawing
employed
design
normal running.
interviews
involved
and these were included
staff
these
this
staff
Issues
in
interview
in the
various
given
relation
all
programme.
issues
special
to
with
were
attention
the particular
that
different
the effects
drawing
the
media
procedure,
on
of
duties.
the designers used, and the effects
teamwork
and
managerial
of
68
-
between designers
Contacts
drawing
monitor
the
drawing
was observed
meetings
with
the
and marketing
use of
in
in
in-house
Further,
clients.
job
of different
magazine design, etc) noted.
a
series
discuss
to
possible
focused
of
drawing
experience
of
adaptation
and develop
professional
practice
There were
issues
tuition
limited
their
meetings
and in
designer
interviews.
this
way validate
of
itself.
meetings
where
designers
were briefing
junior
designers
were briefing
marketing
marketing
day interchanges
briefed
and senior
hands of junior
3.4
were also
designers
staff
designers.
interviews
some of
with
to attend
possible
considerable
the organisation
it
was
Their
in these interviews.
attend
was, however,
Also
and
at college
and the subsequent
in with
drawing abilities
to fit
to
opportunities
It
meetings
conversations
junior
with
while
ent of
and
were the main subjects
because of security.
held within
interviews
various
briefing
meetings,
use of
a wide range of work was observed and

design,
(eg packaging
orientations
effects
Through
the
Again,
such meetings.
to
observed
were also
staff
data
the
interest
clients
two client
obtained
in
the
were the meetings
to attend
There was opportunity
designers,
senior
were briefing
designers,
and both
personnel.
observed,
whereby
junior
and senior
The more casual day-toartwork
checked the progress
were
personnel
of projects
in
the
designers.
The ooc uct of the research into drawing tuition
Fran the pilot study, it was clear that opinion on the role and nature
be
ideally
design
of drawing tuition
should
on graphic
courses
However, as described in Section
canvassed as widely as possible.
3.2, the pilot study had also shown that there inherent difficulties
in terms of access and feasibility
in a blanket survey of graphic
design courses.
Therefore, a decision was made to elicit
a range of
views as a way of raising issues about this aspect of design education
rather than attempt an in-depth analysis. Hence, the approach used in
this part of the research was primarily
69
-
designed to this
end.
of questions about graphic design education was included in

(see Appendix I(a),
Section IV).
the interviews
with graphic designers
directed
The use of a postal
questionnaire
at design educators was
A series
because
necessitated
A short
colleges.
dispersed
the
of
series
of
sample of these courses
to a small
of visits
locations
geographical
information.
Furthermore,
a short
was also made to collect
additional
from other
series
of interviews
was conducted with academic staff
drawing
design disciplines
had
for
who
conducting
a responsibility
tuition
and
with
Questionnaires
During
the
other
were
background
promotional
to
fields.
relevant
students.
of
sample
this
research was conducted additional

fron a number of sources, eg fran
was collected
which
and course
Therefore,
acknowledged
experts
cxmpleted by a small
also
in
period
information
in
material
such
this
second part
summarise,
as
the
of
etc.
prospectuses,
course
research
programme
included:
1.
A postal
2.
Visits
3.
A short progranme of focused interviews

other experts in relevant fields
4.
Questionnaires
5.
A short
students
6.
A review of relevant
7.
A series of questions
graphic designers
to four BA centres with graphic design courses
The target
directed
progranme
population
having
as those
tuition
on BA design
However,
groups could
for
the
design
courses,
graphic
design
consumers.
and Appendix
focused
or
included
this
direct
within
the
details
large
very
conduct
of
having
drawing
position
and
on graphic
students
carment
of the main respondent

)
individuals
the
consulted.
of
70
-
key
responsibility
tuition
to
design
certain
population
designers
graphic
with practising
BA graphic
more specifically
courses
design
broadly
be
research can
drawing
knowledge
of
or
namely educators
and practising
for
the
of
who were in
(See Appendix II for details
III
with
in the interviews
experience
this
graphic
and course material
part
courses,
for
interviews
promotional
be distinguished,
planning
with design educators and
at students
of
in
defined
courses.
at graphic design educators
directed
questionnaire
on
as
groups
The problems noted in the pilot

been described in Section 1.5.
respondent
a dichunetric
requiring
of terminology
have
attention
when
close
the questions
the
majority
of
were followed
response
instances
questions
by a request to the
Although
more detail.
answer in a little
mechanism was used to check that the meaning of the question
respondent
this
respect
namely when formulating
In
modes.
in
These were given
the questionnaire,
constructing
and
study
to
clear
to explain
the
provided
their
a very
rich
fact
in
respondent,
source
the
many of
both
into
information
of
given
cannents
attitudes
was
also
and
procedures.
The questionnaire
was sent to all heads of departments of BA graphic
design courses with a covering
letter
the purpose of the
explaining
that
the
request
a
with
study and the structure
and
of
questionnaire,
they
forward
to
staff
a member of
or conduct of design
planning
given
it
for
responsible
either
A copy of the questionnaire
tuition.
the
is
in Appendix I(b).
began with
The questionnaire
including
respondent,
their
contact
with
their
current
post.
for
a request
the number of years

the
about
the
had been teaching
and
information
they
details
design
of
plus
profession,
and specific,
questions were direct
graphic
In general,
and dichanetric,
scaled,
and check-list
response modes were used as
Where necessary, supplementary explanation,
particularly
appropriate.
of terminology,
was included with the questions.
The questionnaire
the
eliciting
relationship
provision
graphic
contained
responses
on
of drawing ability
of
drawing
designers.
organisation
four
of
tuition
The first
sections.
importance
to
The second section

drawing
tuition
on
example detennining
of
graphic
specific
drawing
to
design
the
the
the
ability,
practice
particular
was directed
was aimed at
and the
needs
at clarifying
respondent's
course,
of
the
for
the curriculum
for planning
who was responsible
time
the
of
amount
was
and for conducting drawing tuition,
and what
to drawing tuition.
The third
allocated
section was concerned with
it
for
investigating
to
drawing
whether
tuition,
example
approaches
71
-
design
into
formal
integrated
primarily
of
classes or was
The fourth and final section elicited
projects.
opinion on the new
technology and the consequent needs for changes in drawing tuition
on
graphic design courses.
consisted
A questionnaire
graphic design
used
Polytechnic
but
educators,
first
with
year
in
and,
same basic
the
addressing
with
graphic
addition,
used for
as that
topics
was also
necessary adaptations,
fron
design
students
a much simpler
of
questionnaire
Manchester
year students by going through

they were
folder
their
to what extent
and asking them to describe
in
the
drawing
dissatisfied
their
work
satisfied
or
with
use of
(See Appendix I(c) and (d). )
presented.
construction
was conducted
Completed
questionnaires
carefully
analysed
caiinentary
third'
fron
both
contained
information.
and additional
In
of
were
students
and
educators
deal
great
individualistic
shades
many cases,
of
categorised
were expressed in such way as to make a highly
individual
less valuable than a careful
the
of
consideration
opinion
analysis
points
and
with
raised.
in
chosen
courses
were
(see
Appendix
for
the
the
consultation
and
others
with
advisors
study
two
IV).
Zwo of these courses were in provincial
and
art colleges
examples of
were London-based. The courses were chosen to be typical
Visits
four
made to
graphic
design
specific
sort
sandwich
courses,
of
BA graphic
and yet
course
with
the
same time
be investigated.
to
provision
at
design
particularly
one course
with
contacts
strong
well
}mown for
its
provided
opportunity
progranue
within
In each of
students
these
illustrative
to
the design
visits
and an in-depth
Department.
look
Opportunity
at
course
discussion
was
fourth
graphics
curriculum.
was possible
interview
was also
strong
course
computer
a well-integrated
design
and the
bias,
and creative
was a
for
professions,
reputation
while another had an established
Again, another
emphasis on the value of drawing tuition.
enabled
each
with
was conducted
furnished
72
-
both
with
to observe
staff
the
either
and
Head of
design
Carmentary was recorded in note form

or drawing classes in action.
and written-up irirnediately after the visit.
In addition,
a series
the
of
Faculty
interviews
and Design,
were conducted
departments
Studies
Art
of discussions
with
Manchester
a member of
Three-Dimensional
of
and the History
of Art
and interviews
Design,
was conducted
In-depth
Polytechnic.
staff
Textile
from
each of the
Design, Foundation
the member of staff

for life drawing
the provision
and Design and with
it was to organise
whose responsibility
for
the entire
Faculty.
Several
were
acknowledged experts
interviewed
and a small series of interviews
was also conducted
graphic design students.
3.5
Consultation
Periodically,
in
also
with
and corroboration
throughout
the
the approach and methodology
programme, various
employed were discussed with
aspects
research
of
the special
advisers for the study and with some of the other ac3maaledged experts
it
wham
was
who had been consulted
and
about educational
provision
felt could, fron a position
of detachment, make useful recarinendations
about
the
overall
corroboration
samples
identified
direction
on specific
used.
Those
in Appendix
of
the
such as the
aspects,
individuals
or
research,
consulted
III.
73
-
for
could
give
of
the
purposes
are
constitution
such
expert
QPTM
Graphic Designers'
4.1
Use of Drawing
Intnocuctian
This chapter
the graphic
practising
draws together
design
from
process
designers
graphic
made on the use of drawing in

the series
with
of interviews
the findings
and
fran
detailed
the
case study
The findings
conducted in a large, London-based design consultancy.

have been presented according to the following
scheme.
Preparation
Accepting
and passing
Collecting
reference
Phase
Analysis/First
Main Creative
Phase
on briefing
material
Ideas
Synthesis/Developnent
Presentation/Evaluation/Revision
Commissioning art-work
Production Phase --[
Rather than discreet

canprising
phases
phase and the

broad
Preparing for production
stages, the graphic design process is regarded as

(namely the preparation
phase, the main creative
production
in
phase),
that
terms
and includes
many feedback
'procedures'
or
courses
of
various
Procedures
are conducted
through
it
is
loops.
action
the performance
in
linear
only
Within
these
be
can
very
phases
identified.
of a series
of tasks.
the
briefing
designer
example, while
query
accepting
will
a
information
being given by the client,
both
information
the
note
will
given and any ideas that form during discussion,
also ensure
and will
For
that
the
individual
conducted
drawing
client's
'pieces
or assisted
that
intentions
have
of
or
work',
through
is characterised
been
tasks,
fully
are,
the use of drawing

in detail
74-
understood.
in
the
and it
in the chapter.
These
main,
either
is this
use of
has
It
been
canpletely
found
that,
separate
in
certain
it
practice,
is
difficult
very
from each other.
procedures
to
For example
the
linked
to the
analysis
of a design problem is intrinsically
formulation
together
of ideas,
and the synthesis
of
or bringing
various
is invariably
elements of a design solution
accompanied by
to or developments
in the solution.
adjustments
these
Therefore,
linked procedures have been discussed together.
to what
can be seen from the scheme set out above, that in addition
have traditionally
been categorised
in the design
as the 'stages'
ie analysis,
has been
there
process,
synthesis
and evaluation,
included procedures involved
in the preparation
for a design job (ie
It
those
tasks
involved
in
briefing
accepting
reference
(ie those
and collecting
and procedures involved in controlling

production
tasks
involved
in
for
cannissioning
preparing
art-work
and
This has proved extremely
Not only was it
production).
valuable.
found that
kinds
drawing
characteristic
occurred
of
activities
material),
in
uniquely
that
the
these
additional
phases, there was also clear evidence
formulation
decision-making
was
of ideas
and creative
occurring.
As described
in
Section
Appendix
However,
was put to 50
questions
format which allowed
practising
graphic designers within
an interview
the respondents some freedom.
(The interview
is given in
structure
chapter
This
I(a).
does not simply
is
because,
responses
and also
identifying
briefing
or
three
Questions
of
the data
the way that

the
interviews,
a more complex
with
that
for
client
they used it
quite
process.
interpretation
questions
9,15
in
an
75
-
that
given
initially
during
many respondents
information
to carbine
have been
themselves
team, thereby
occurring
For example,
II
this
script.
they used drawing
as
been necessary
Section
that
to the design
procedures
sane instances.
and 16 of
than
director,
art
information
separate
has also
It
was found
it
both when accepting
on that
passing
two
or
in
is presented
in the interview
the structure
For example, when asked whether
briefing
indicated
a series
reflect
during
required
anticipated.
a
3.3.3
during
data fron
responses
combined
in
the
two
from
the
discussion
and 8 of
for
on preparing
Section
and client
is
II
because
presentation,
in
together
canbined
data fron
Again,
production.
the
cannents that ideas as well as finished

both to colleagues and to clients.
fron
in-house
respondents'
be
presented
can
solutions
the effects
of the
is not possible to
Although
the respondents were selected to represent

(see Section 3.3), it
identified
range of variables
breakdown of the sample in terms of these

numerical
the
because some respondents
variables,
were found to represent
28
broad
terms,
in
in their
However,
effects
of several
work.
the
within
respondents had predominantly
managerial
responsibilities
give
of
context
became clear
it
Questions
an exact
team, whereas 22 were predominantly

concerned with the detailed
developnent
in
the
design
At
stage
of
early
solutions.
an
in
investigation
it became apparent that there was a marked difference
approach to drawing usage between design for packaging and design for
design
with
experience
of design
care was taken
Therefore
publishing.
in packaging
of working
for publishing
from Manchester-based
to
comparison
enable
Respondents
including
were
of
employed
ensure
design
design
provincial
fron
10 respondents
that
and 10 with
experience
in the sample.
were included
5 respondents
to
were included
organisations
London-based
and
various
of
sizes
9 from small organisations

with less
team, 15 from medium-sized organisations
than
practices.
organisations,
3 members in the
15
3
between
and
with
in
the
15
people, and 26 from large organisations
members
over
with
design team.
19 fron in-house
28 were from design consultancies,
design
design
groups
specifically
concerned
with
category),
and 3 were
respondents,
publishing
along
employment is given
The illustrations
serving
larger
having
been
free-lance
with
in Appendix
used in this
organisations
included
A full
designers.
level
their
II
of
(designers
seniority
in
latter
this
list
and
of
these
place
of
(a).
fron
a wide range of
drawings recorded or collected
during the study and are selected to be
They
representative
of the type or types of drawing under discussion.
to which they refer.
are placed at the end of the sub-section
chapter
76
-
are taken
4.2
The ' pn?pamtozy

and collecting
The procedures
collecting
While
the pivoedunes of briefing
including
phase'
reference material
of accepting
visual
and of passing
reference
indicated
respondents
on briefing,
and again
in
are described
in general,
they
material
that,
this
do
of
section.
not
make
use of drawing during these procedures,

sane important uses
Before a designer or design team can cartnence the
were described.
consideration
must
of actual design solutions,
a sound understanding
extensive
be achieved
both
of the client's
requirements
of the design problem to be undertaken.
nature
specific
visual
design solutions
4.2.1
reference material
can be explored.
'1t
use
briefing
drawing
of
Respondents indicated
and of
Again
must be collected
curing
accepting
the particular
in many cases,
,
before ideas for
and
passing
cn
procedures their use of

drawing is greatly influenced by a number of factors, particularly
the
nature of the occasion of the briefing and the designer's relationship
It is therefore useful to consider some different
with the client.
during
that
briefing
approaches to briefing.
Respondents
particularly
where there
on behalf
design profession,
of the graphic
described
those employed in larger
cases
organisations,
fron the client
are intennediaries
who accept the briefing
certain
of the designer
representatives
be fron
from
areas
or design
of the design
team.
These intermediaries
team, or account
executives,
may be
or they may
they
Further,
the organisation.
have an active or a passive role in the development
may subsequently
In many organisations
of the design strategy.
a senior designer or
design
then
the marketing
director
simply
considerable
will
pass
creative
In some organisations
section
within
meet the client

the
on
control
it
brief
They may
and receive the brief.
but,
exert
will
more cxnmonly,
at this
is the policy
77
-
stage.
for several
of the design team
to meet the client,

monitor
who may then be asked back at regular
progress
director,
and
described
throughout
the final
for
the jobs allocated
to
One creative
suggestions.
for
a canpany policy
to be responsible
designers
to them, even to having
control
over
with attendance at the

and starting
Editors
and senior designers working in magazine
described how they attend editorial
and cover meetings
production
briefing.
initial
make additional
intervals
and book design
of artwork,
and then pass on the design concepts agreed at these meetings to the
the use of drawing
Thus, investigating
other designers in the team.
during briefing
by this variable
is made difficult
system of practice,
and is further
may be passed on
designers
at various stages as additional
are brought in to assist.
More specialist
designers,
such as those working in computer graphics
have indicated
for jobs that are
that they often received briefings
already
described
briefings
notes
meeting,
to
or
discussion
detail
at
their
as
of
of
any
these
Many of
meeting.
the
information
of
of
the
at
by
stimulated
respondents described
the
ideas
drawings
informal
they
that
on
passed
to
produced
in
2
Fig.
notes.
method of making small-scale
type
use drawing
they
29 said
All
clients.
themselves
own personal
shows examples
with
reminders
remind
the
development.
a number of ways in which
and meetings
made visual
the brief
that
advanced in terms of visual
well
29 respondents
during
by the fact
complicated
record
information.
Although
some designers
for
occasionally
used
respondents
stressed
circumstances
unless
said
an exchange
that
the
with
respondents
interviewed
the
is
of
the
in
these
been
had previously
relationship
fact,
drawing
majority
caution
exercised
In
expressed
ideas,
of
they
client.
clients
when with
a good working
established
front
that
one
except
all
reluctance
considerable
to
the
of
draw in
look
design
easy,
make
could
A senior designer admitted
and therefore
not good value for money.
but felt
that he tends to want to draw when with a client,
that it is
not
of clients.
business-like,
It
was felt
that
this
described
and another
hang yourself'
There
was
also
.
idea,
this
and liked
a first
the
practice
worry
expressed
could
then
78
-
that
carmit
if
'rope
as a
to
a client
saw
a designer
to
that
solution
ineffective
proved
designer
experienced
one had arrived
it,
put
As one very
with later development.
'drawing for a client
could imply that
thought',
or
quickly,
without
sufficient
at a concept
'one may get stuck with
unfortunately,
equally
in
not practicable
even if one should
was also felt by some designers that it is often

a large meeting to draw to demonstrate one's ideas,
wish to do so.
It
However, where designers

client
_/
ideas
they had a relationship
felt
idea'.
an inappropriate
of trust
with
drawing
to
less
explore
was a much
use of
self-conscious
together.
20 of the respondents said that they would prefer to
there
be able to use drawing in a relaxed way to check their

understanding
the
draw
initial
it
talk
ideas.
find
to
same
at
Some
and
and
easier
Fig. 3 shows
time, and to use drawing to explain an idea to a client.
an example of
described using
sheet
the
for
type
this
produced
quickly
at the top half of the

by
half
the
lower
the
on
and those
client
as a means of checking
designers
The drawings
purpose.
were drawn by the
designer
of
schematic
the shape and proportions
of an object
to be packaged.
manager who was the
draw
to
his
director
business,
his
he
that
capacity
used
of
own
said
his
in order
sales
to impress
of
part
as
confidently
clients
they only used
technique.
However, most respondents said that either
Only one of
the
drawing
their
for
accepting
designers
a design
interviewed,
or did
own note making

(See Table
briefing.
for
in
not use drawing at all

breakdown
detailed
a
of
two aspects
to
responses).
It
became clear
briefing
fron
procedures;
briefing
to
correspondingly,
that
taken
to
interviews
The
is
It
use
recording
purposes.
like design directors
of
to
was apparent
effectively
Respondents
and art
there
briefing,
according
to pass on information,
ccranunicate
that
the
accepting
others.
these two procedures.

a designer
the
drawing
the
that,
are
the
and catmunicating
differ
to
found
was
different
requirements
when drawing
of
was used by
be
usually
rather more care must
than when used for purely personal
with
editors,
79
-
responsibilities,
managerial
described not only their use of
drawing to record joint decisions made during a meeting, but also

their way of using drawing when conveying the results of a briefing to
their junior designers.
Fig. 4. shows drawings produced when this
and decision
sort of passing on of infonnation

Zbb1e 1: Use of drawing
To check
information
For notation
29
respondents
In many instances
whole,
house'
50;
several
of the job.
is
there
design
free
a more informal,
director
described
a typical
verbal
briefing
individual
during
to
design
the
designers,
rough quick
discussion
their
The case study
one
to take on either the

'indone
is
this
where
checking
subsequent
drawing
style
situation
team,
more than
in
others
for
understanding
Not used
21
Of course,
opportunity
briefing
responding
have to brief
designers
or one aspect
and
accepting
To impress
client
20
[Number of
category]
while
making occurs.
the
be
adopted.
can
when, after
designer
senior
being
scribbles
of
A
a general
to
talks
used by both
sides
of the work.
provided
several
to watch
opportunities
the procedure
that the senior

important
It was clearly
of passing on briefing.
type
designer had developed an appropriate
the
for
producing
strategy
to a junior member of the
of drawings required for passing on briefing
design
team.
policy
towards
clear
directives
creative
senior
for
development
about
designers
opportunity
Where it
the
contribution
and fran
drawings
Over-prescriptive
the
for
style
the
junior.
lack
about
juniors
could
the
indicated
but
be seen to
also
gave
pre-empt
the
fron
were recorded
of the
on the part
frustration
broad
not only
solution
Complaints
initiative
of
about
creative
is necessary
visual
of
design
the
of
that
caused
by the
junior
lack
of
input.
to brief
example where a design
designers
co-ordinator
80
-
from an outside
is passing
organisation,
on the requirements
of brand managers or pranotion

personnel,
briefing
being
tends to be verbal,
reliance
of the co-ordinator
and experience
job.
to explain
However, the use of drawing
interchange.
A design
'buying-in'
for
deal
the
knowledge
the requirements
of the
in this
kind of
can also be a factor

for
a major ccapany responsible

design work indicated
a
graphic
co-ordinator
a great
that
was found
placed on the
it
of
for a system whereby commissioned designers present rough

preference
drawn visuals
of ideas at an early stage of development, such that a
(However,
this
check can be made that the brief was fully
understood.
sort
of check was not required

for
who was also responsible

that they must be able
being
that
to
by the branch manager, a non-designer,

)
Several designers said
caonissioning.
check
if
they
a briefing
have understood
for example marketing people, and

passed on by intermediaries,
they draw as a four of ccmnunication with intermediaries
at these
times.
In
design
the
plays
in
be the
designers
they
41(c)
want
of
camunication
interesting.
to
studio
the
Open University,
between
equivalent
by producing
in
the
in Section
of
their
and client
who may be said
is
that
instance
in this
brief
are encouraged
client,
own drawings for the illustrations
publications.
sketch produced by an non-designer
(See Fig.
of the design
academic. )
the development
81
-
drawing
particularly
to
Open University
4.5 for
role
designer
Here, the OU academics,

the
the
solution
the
that
41(a)
from a
Imw-ac.kSQ RiyCP
U
WlelA
veCwbl
.
41
f1i
il
jfi&2v,
(,
',
1
t
i,
-
:
;.
".
6
i\
c: (
vUL'%t.cati(.
`.
Figure
2:
during
Drawings used to record
-1
(CYB 1989), pencil,
reproduced- -same 'StZ
briefing
'
82
I
e-*,
`
t-
\'
_
T.
a:..
4
.
A1:
l: '^r' "
iV/
'a
i
1
- Sf
Figure
3:
Drawings produ
"to check understanding
of the brief
ink, reproduced same size
the c gent CYB 1989
,
with
0.
.,
kh
Ile,
Ile
/+"+ti...."
4
'VOslo.
A
to
air
lilt
Ii
44. d.
r
1
rr., r
- -,,. r
----'
r
,
ter,
l
`tir
. r+'
.r_
.'
=
r
.....--- ..
-'
.
,f
`
---
-.
-.
,
--y'
Q'',1,,,,
C.e.
-Ut ,,
t.Zt.
d,
ri,,
42d
/49"'
l_
Figure 4:
Drawing
produced to
1989) pencil, 1S on the briefing
to
the design team
reproduced with 50%
reduction
- 84 -
P
i
4.2.2
The
use
drawing
of
in
the
zefezEnoe
of
collection
material
19 of the designers
interviewed
said that they regularly
drawing when collecting
Others said
visual
reference
material.
Only
collected
by
references
collection
the
use
of
of
magazines clippings,
shows examples of a designer collecting
job
a particular
analysis
of
reference
through
idea
an
use of
incorporating
to
attached
the
work
fran
or
photography
or from relevant
used
they
their
own
Fig. 5
books.
for
visual
reference
material
drawing,
and Fig.
6 shows the
taken
the
clippings
15 respondents
sheet.
for
visual
particularly
stressed that shortage of time meant that this stage in the production
of a design had to be dealt with very quickly
and that there is never
time for leisurely
So, reference material
must be readily
collection.
delegating
the
habit
their
available,
of
and some described
responsibility
job
particular
they collected
of
acquiring
to
a junior.
reference
[Number of respondents:
is,
however,
respondents,
well-developed
consider
the
a variety
collection
to
that
knowledge
it
was essential
of
of reference
that
note
visual
of appropriate
knowledge of historical
material
Refer to
clippings
or books
Delegate
17
10
50]
important
thought
said
respondents
refer
in Table 2.
are sumarised
Take
photographs
for
material
reference
metboas of collecting
19
It
correct
The methods by which
material
Table 2: Respoent's
Regularly use
drawing
the
style,
solutions
material.
styles
was also
the
47 of
majority,
that
they
should
thereby
allowing
jobs,
to specific
Many thought
essential.
that
the
have a
them to
without
an accurate
The need for
this
the
ng
confinni
of
means
a
as
images when time was not available
relevance and accuracy of visual
for much specific
job.
A design
for a particular
reference collection
type
of cognitive
ability
was described
85
-
for
co-ordinator
the
Post
Office,
that
designer's
stressed
historical
terms was essential
trends in
understanding
of visual
being able to 'set the right mood' for
for
21 of the respondents
said that their
regular use of drawing as designers played a part in
developing
14 of these
literacy
their
visual
and, more specifically,
that drawing to develop this broader
respondents expressed the belief
a job.
references.
was a very valuable
aspect of collecting
by
described
4
drawing
The practice
to
train
of
aid or
memory was also
2 explaining
the way they developed their
own
of these designers,
understanding
knowledge and understanding

specimens,
he liked
that
and another
it
of typefaces
from
and tracing
in order to
draw an object
by drawing
to
10 respondents
put
and remember it
again.
life
from
drawing
or other
particular
emphasis on their
practice
of
to develop their perception
source material
and visual memory.
observe
closely
developing
books
of
means
as
a
of sketch
Figs. 7(a)
background knowledge was also mentioned by 10 respondents.
has
drawing
7(b)
book
fron
designer's
where
and
show pages
sketch
a
for
been used as a means of both recording
information
and
visual
The keeping
developing
books and note
designer's
the
involved
officer
in
understanding
design
book to collect
for
of
A graphics
form.
visual
museum spoke
a major
keeping
of
information
of
and, more particularly,
A senior
keeping sketch books and note books of a particular
place.
designer described his policy
to go to museums
of encouraging juniors
The
knowledge of visual
to develop their
style.
and art exhibitions
sketch
majority
this
the
designers
of
sort
of learning
designers
merited
the extra
described
conjunction
with
was found
material
magazine
publisher,
imagery
that
it
involved.
for
is
employ
is more likely
it
of reference
for
a
that
the
the methods that

literacy
at.
collection
for
an
researcher,
a verbal briefing
86
-
and
visual
publishing,
picture
valuable
in
material.
during
commissioned
of
of
was very
their
such
proportion
a significant
that
developing
designs
precluded
Table 3 indicates
in many instances
that
work,
thought
the collection
to be used for
organisations
(7)
time
of
However,
activity.
effort
lack
that
admitted
interviewed
designers
It
general
of visual
example in book or
In
stage.
early
for
will
example
be given
a
and
that drawing will

lettering
artist
or
not be employed. However, where an illustrator
drawing is usually
employed.
must be briefed,
Descriptions of this use of drawing are given later in this chapter in
the section on commissioning (see Section 4.4.1).
Methods described for developing visual
Table 3:
Drawing frccn
reference
material
Drawing fron
life
14
Keeping
sketchbooks
10
[Number of
category]
respondents
several
Visiting
exhibitions
Drawing
to train
memory
77
10
= 21;
literacy
in
responding
more than
one
The findings
of reference
on the uses of drawing during the collection
in
fall
therefore
Designers will
in two broad categories.
material
some instances
actually
in
source
draw from observation,
to
order
collect
reference
but because of time constraints
this
tend to rely on their
and designers
form
developed
proportion
engaging
of
in
the
through
the
respondents
study
material
for
practice
is
In
of
drawing,
both
through
their
work and through observation

of the work of others, this
in order to be brought
and knowledge can developed
required.
87
-
job,
and knowledge
that
restricted
greatly
addition,
considered
or copy fron
a particular
understanding
experience.
(21)
or trace
of
significant
a
by
regularly
own practical
understanding
into
use as
77
4Lwr
,1
f
`_
3
s
iI
-I
'7"dIr
C- I
.*
4I
,:
'f
vSYS
Iz-
;:.
`:
(F
-"'-
IJ&
j---'
,,
ti
1
c
F'1
'7
-s
N
.,,
..
`/
r
i/
a,, l
,.
F
t
ci
r
+RI
'
,,/

rL
Figure 5:
Drawings
1984-88),
used to collect
visual
pencil,
reproduced with
88
-
material
reference
50% reduction
(CYB
17
S
YHy
-'
ca
, rev
I UU
' -'E
`;
,I
---/
_}
i
t
.. -"
..
..
tj
3
--.
------
-'
'p---
?I
1.
I11
`1
vK
II
I
I11NUN.,.
wMr
Figure
6:
FI\1
r
11
4'I
Analysis
(CYB 1984-88),
of visual
reference
material
and pencil,
89
-
ink
/C ' YI%
I''mfzo
f sT0
tY
1'
-u.
--
mai
"
mal!
&
LeTTCd
f04
LeTTCd
cd-'
fN
ty cd-'
lel
eta
2-1 4
A.
SG
97 i'
V%'A
lftn
l,,
Pjx,,
*..
t
bun
of
op
111
Aell
Ilto-9a
"i
'
{
,f
111
.i
.r
'(
,;
l-'
ftt
1c3
pli
C
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r1 (
I
t
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Figure 7a:
',
M'
1001*0-
Drawings used to record visual

information
1988-89), pencil,
ii
777
.
1,41
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-
(Stephen
Raw
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7b:
Drawings used to
1988-89), pencil,
information
record visual
91
-
(Stephen
Raw
4.3
use of drawing
design process
in
'It
'main
the
the graphic
of
phase'
creative
This section presents findings

on the use of drawing in the procedures
fron which the 'main creative
phase' is comprised, namely the analysis
and
of design problems and the formulation
of ideas, the synthesis
development
formats,
of visual
stages
of their
of such design
solutions.
various
Fran the designer's

these
specific
designers'
formal
While
respective
problem,
in drawings
produced
these drawings
take
down first
of putting
format
a visual
capable
detailed
the
design
solution
types.
of
tN
only
problem
considered
the development
may take
several
different
procedures
of a design
solution.
For these
reasons,
the
more
of
the different
design
the
of
notes
of written
elements
design
the
of
Fig. 8 shows a worksheet

of evaluation.
in the developnent
of a design solution.
with
being
showing that a more

form and the analysis
drawings
of visual
explored
through
the
proposal
of
the solution
of design problems
in distinct
phases by the design team and this was
that
identity
programmes
of large-scale
corporate
months,
commonly described
01
is
of
aspects
ideas as a canbination
the develoxnent
one of the respondents
as being
for
for
concern
observations
barely
scribbles,
fulfil
the
they nevertheless
the various
at an early stage
Rapid notes of ideas are juxtaposed
produced
are
form of free
the
and style,
and of synthesising
while
mentioned above can

few hours of work on
in the first
of analysing
that
they
exception
the procedures
all
at
and revision
is clear
identified,
the
with
solutions
it
Moreover,
that,
of presentation,
requirements
and sketches
into
interrelated.
closely
in speed of execution
changing
evaluation
of their work,
may be separately
work have confirmed
be demonstrated
and the
descriptions
very
aspects
a job.
development,
procedures
nevertheless
of design
the presentation
described
to
even years
was that
complete.
change
of
a gradual
predominating
at given
stages
on the
use of
the
findings
92
-
The situation
more
emphasis with
in the development
of
drawing
in
these
are subsumed under one phase of the graphic design process,

have been grouped in
However, findings
creative
phase'.
procedures
the 'main
in order
separate
sub-sections
of drawing associated
4.3.1
for
design
fron
invariably
extensive
and during
respondents
that
said
to this
is
or
drawing
use of
is
they
phase as
of
and observations
was during the initial
the formulation
of the
it
accompanies
stimulated
first
made in
by
this
the
though your brain
An art
said 'Your hand is part

is drawing'.
for
'Vogue'
44
process.
one design director
design
the
quick,
handwriting,
or
haw he needs to
brain
the
while
of your brain.
up ideas
talked
that
analysis,
used drawing here.

'the thinking
bit'
and likened
Another,
show
practice
of the
analysis
ideas that
first
spontaneous kind of drawing used as being almost like

like 'a musician's
Another designer described
score'.
draw while he is thinking,
'keeping the hands occupied
is working'.
uses
of the design problem and in
interviews
many designers
problem,
referred
the
on the specific
each procedure.
The use of drawing in the analysis

the fomulation
ideas
of first
The findings
that
with
to focus attention
Its
as
for
work with
of mixing
free
her
in
lists
her
back
design
to
shopping
mind ranged
problems
as
time.
Another designer talked of making doodles in a note book on the
bus going back from a briefing,
saying that at that point ideas work
assistant
but
drawing,
he
does
not produce elaborate
so
'That's
in note books.
scribbles
when you decide what you are going
Fig.
to do, or decide you haven't a clue what you are going to do! '
faster
9(a)
than
and 9(b)
whatever
hand,
the
show examples
is to hand when ideas
A lack of drawing
of
this
spontaneous
need
to
draw
on
cane to mind.
was seen by the majority

of respondents as a
the requirements
serious handicap towards fulfilling
of the analytical
indicated
that they use drawing to
activity.
help them think
use of
out solutions
a very fluid
and therefore
ability
drawing
is essential.
analysis
remained
In contrast,
largely
cerebral.
for
93
-
5 of the designers interviewed

That is to say, they consider
the problems
most of
possible
solutions,
heads and use drawing mainly to check

one respondent saying that he sorts out ideas and
in
their
in his head, and another

he used to do many
that
a lot
'thumbnail'
but
to
ideas
for
for
now
sketches
sort out
a grid,
example
including
3 of those working in
solves more in his head. 5 designers,
rejects
design,
editorial
early
said that they

as far as possible
analysis
stages
of
and therefore
of
more ideas are tried.
23 of
the
most
during
the
initial
to
a lot
director,
For one creative
has brought
experience
analysis.
their
for
spent on
the final
during
drawing
in
the
change
use
of
a
finish,
less
time
He now draws more quickly,
on
spending
practical
design
a layout.
resolving
time
aimed to reduce the

to allow more time
the
associated
being
one
The effects
have on their
and development
use of drawing
solution
to
stages is
you do for
'drawing
in designers'
discussed
is
of a design
said,
differences
that
obliges them
drawing
kinds
of
done in these early
director
creative
is
frequently
detailed
and
However, the drawing
as
yourself'.
duties
of other
the synthesis
it
that
indicated
namely when the approach to a

that they do the majority
of
constructed,
time-consuming
more
staff.
essentially,
interviewed
a job,
of
The pressure
with
more junior
designers
analysis
is
problem
drawing.
leave
senior
can
seniority
in
in more detail
Section
4.5.
In
general,
drawing
is
procedures
first
a very
significant
of a designer's
thoughts
designer
comments make it
respondents'
to explore
10
aid
work.
and a fluid
It
the
analytical
helps
designers
free-ranging
a greater
effort.
Fig.
generation
of a number of early
14 respondents
to
drawing
that
ideas
for
use
of
ideas
and first
to assemble their
a
can enable
style
number of ideas quickly,
shows a worksheet
the
that
clear
economy of
with
demonstrate
this
rapid
a symbol design.
described
how they use a canbination

of words and rough
it down makes one realise
visual notes, because 'Putting
what one has
in
Working ideas out on paper, noticing
the possibilities
overlooked.
effects
and the testing
' Fig. 11 shows this
constantly.
chance
and
kind
- 94 -
rejecting
of dual
of
ideas
processing,
goes
with
on
words
it
practice
of studio
drawing
was clear that designers use this sort of rapid,
notational
job
freely
the
a
on
and frequently,
work
not only at
cannencement of
but at any subsequent point
or
when new elements are introduced
and images working
in tandem.
Fran observation
is required.
revision
page spread fron a notebook where drawings

Parts of these drawings
produced on a smaller pad have been affixed.
have then been worked over again.
Four types of drawing implement
have been used, indicating
that the drawings have been worked on at
12 shows a double
Fig.
different
drawings
not
his
can be seen to be using

keep a record but also to stimulate
The designer
times.
to
only
own
further
ideas.
some designers
For
thinking
this
analytical
one designer
have
seems to
stage
keeping
described
current ideas
results.
in note books, needing to be jotting
then down all the
time, and how this practice often influences solutions for jobs not
yet seen. Fig. 13. shows examples of this type of recording of ideas
additional
developing
for
future
reference.
Observations
of
the
early
analytical/idea
book,
showed a different
sort
a series of ideas for double
but
sketched,
content
and
of
layout
organic
a refinement
and
development
initially
on postcards,
indicating
progressively
composition
of continuous,
spreads
of
stages
for
a design
illustration
were
with
quickly
as the
style
of
resolved
together.
7 of
the
described
observation
respondents
drawing
of
who worked
as a vital
studio
part
practice
as
of
part
their
confirmed
of
team
specifically
inter-carmunication,
its
importance
and
in
this
has been discussed in

The use of drawing to pass on briefing
be
Section 4.2 and its importance in presentation
will
and evaluation
discussed later in this chapter,
but it is worth noting at this point
that when designers were observed discussing
design problems in either
respect.
a general
or specific
way they would frequently
well.
95
-
draw for
each other
as
Some designers
described
to bounce ideas
opportunities
the others,
with
are discussed
interim
In the daily
of drawings
production
have
be
to
Respondents
down on
indicated
that
this
'sitting
stage,
the
Thus,
ideas
to
ability
paper in
interaction
the
was tested,
was 'like
by the designers
put
exploit
a very useful
was considered
meetings described by several
in early
where the potential
respondents
at this
a pencil'.
ideas
quickly
as
drawing ability.
design
with
deliberately
they
one-another
off
and thinking
draw
Ideas
the ways in which
out loud'.
thinking
discuss
to
order
between
rapid
them.
members of a
only be able to
vital,
and that a designer must not
it is also
produce working drawings that ca municate to colleagues,
important
to have the ability
to see the potential
shown in the
team is
drawings
working
said that
others.
they used drawing
Table 4:
the ways respondents
and idea generation.
analysis
and idea geneiation
in analysis
To think out
solutions
In canbination
with words
For idea
swapping
44
14
during
analysis,
ideas,
the results
to
subjection
at
of a rather
critical
that
designers
they
adopt
feel
during
confident
in recording
The descriptions
employed for
that
exercise,
It
and through
and relaxed
the flow
designers
such
with
that
made
a vehicle
for
and not suitable
for
was clear,
observation,
procedure,
show drawings
them as merely
of
private
scrutiny.
this
to
an unwillingness
to think
preferring
interviews
in more than one category]
44, some responding
demonstrated
Many respondents
inhibition
for
The use of drawing
gained
4 indicates
Table
of
that
impressions
from
it
the
style
there
is
is
important
of
drawing
no delay
or
of ideas.
gave of
by which analysis
the
drawing
styles
they
are
and idea generation
progressed were generally consistent,
and the observations of work
produced at this stage also confirmed that a free informal approach to
the tasks
96
-
drawing
was typical.
drawings,
Sane designers
describe
a review
earlier
necessitating
of
making many small-scale

ideas before decisions
could be made. one senior designer described how he plans a timetable

for a job as a drawing.
Another how he always works in spirit
marker
his
to stop himself
deleting,
himself
thus enabling
to review all
ideas later.
Respondents
techniques
with
the
data
interesting
provided
shown in
is
and media and this
data for
corresponding
creative phase, for comparison.

drawing used and the introduction
and blocks of type.
use of different
media, including
photographs
on
the
other
the
use
Tables
particular
of
5 and 6,
procedures
of
together
the
main
Table 5 shows the particular

scale of
like photostats,
of 'real elements'
Table 6 gives an indication
of the
easily
revised
like
media
and erased
permanent media like black spirit

markers or ink, and coloured
(The data for other parts of
media like spirit
markers and gouache.
the main creative phase are described in more detail
later. )
pencil,
Table 5: The use of specific

creative
pease
techniques
in the prooeuties
of the main
Procedures
Techniques
Use of small
scale
Same-size
Use of real
elements
Analysis
/ideas
Synthesis/
development
27
21-
In-house
presentation
Client
presentation
18
20
11
18
50, sane responding in more than one category]
27 of the respondents specifically

said that it was usual for them to
work on a small scale at this stage, although observations of practice
indicated that a higher proportion of designers than is suggested by
this result generally adopt this approach. Fig. 14 shows examples of
_97_
this
use of a small
imposition
and 1/4
sheets
designer
for
have specially
Magazines usually
scale.
scale
BBC Television
pads for
Productions
this
purpose.
how, in
explained
printed
A graphic
the
early
his
of story
was to produce a series
practice
that are quick to draw and revise because of the small scale
but
format
in
described
the
Another
same
working
employed.
respondent
ideas,
lot
he
through
that
of
a
often goes
on a small scale, adding
stages
boards
a design,
of
later
to
the
to
these
client
work, and even shows
best
the
found
has
he
help
this
prove
and
recreate
stage of analysis
stages of
When watching designers working on the initial
solution.
it was seen that they invariably
the development of design solutions
many of which don't
work on a small
using
colour,
often
scale,
in the very early
especially
Table 6: The use of

main creative
to work
choosing
media
specific
phase
in
pencil
and rarely
stages.
in
the
pzoceckures of
the
Procedures
Media
12
Use of
erasable
media
In-house
presentation
Synthesis/
developnent
Analysis
/ideas
Client
presentation
26
Use of
per anent
media
29
Use of
coloured
12
10
14
13
18
media
Several
respondents
about the drawing

in black
there
said
often
were exceptions,
Fig.
that
implements
and white,
use colour.
50, sane responding in more than one category]

they
made a very
deliberate
decision
The majority
of designers
to allow for easy revision.
they use.
in pencil
some designers
15 shows drawings
_98-
making
initially
it
deliberate
produced
policy
in Pencil
work
But
to
with
the addition
of coloured
one designer
qualities.
spirit
markers
described
to test
the effects
his method of setting
of tonal
out a series
colour grounds, another how he worxs

but in colour with a brush, because this is the medium with
quickly,
black
he
feels
Yet
scale
which
most confident.
another makes small
of rectangles
and white
to make small-scale
sketches
with
notes on colour.
_99-
*.
49
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ec'.
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Figure 8:
Worksheet showing developnent

100
-
of
yNQ
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(CYB 1989),
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(CYB
1984-88),
pencil
form
in
Developments
canposition and
50%
reduction
with
marker,
reproduced
coloured
and
108
-
4.3.2
The
use
graphic
in
of drawing
design solutions
Strictly
speaking,
different
procedures,
intimately
synthesis
but
connected
the
synthesis
are best
they
of
seen
to
be
process
they
are
so
(see Section
together
treated
It
be
can
design
graphic
deve] c1
and
develognent
and
in
that
the
4.1).
42
the
of
synthesis
description
that
respondents
and
that
a greater
said
development
they
that
used
design
of
the majority
of
degree of drawing
these
skill
during
the
and
from
the
gave it
is
drawing
solutions,
respondents
in the conventional
clear
sense is
than is needed in any of the previous procedures considered.

Respondents indicated
that drawing is no longer used only as a quick
for ideas but for canbining and modifying
notation
visual elements by
necessary
developing
subtle
and form.
in composition
variations
design group said,

As a creative
director
for
in-house
an large
'Drawing is the key to relating
imagery)
(of
type
the
and
all
elements
together'.
here designers need to be able to exercise more
Therefore,
technical
and stylistic
control
over their use of drawing and, as one
respondent
cannented
'artistic
idea
and colour
in
appropriateness
from concept
Reference
to Tables
in
formulation
of
'real
the
format
scale
in
when watching
form,
of
considerations
the
need to resolve a visual

its
decisions
about
make
the
earlier,
media
consideration
their
drawing to the
real
designers
pace
and style
and development,
drawing
of
of
a shift
shows the tendency to work

than during
analysis/idea
of colour.
important
was particularly
of
he termed
can be seen to take place.
permanent
and 11 about introducing
confirmed
to
order
5 and 6, given
design.
what
The designer's
to format
more
elements'
raising
aesthetic
a change
and to introduce
in editorial
the
the course of synthesis
attention
'same-size',
in
prompts
During
activity.
etc.
detail
more
is
that
aspects',
canposition
becane more aware of
they
talked
at work during
working
respondents
about progressively
same size
elements.
109
-
to
The introduction
as the
ultimate
These tendencies
the case study.
were
is
that,
rather
also clear
within
and development,
synthesis
different
kinds of development take place according to the nature of
the design work being undertaken.
In general,
all the ideas that the
It
the analysis
stage are brought
in more detail.
In certain
and are rejected
or explored
types of work however, for example in publishing
and editorial
designer
the
all
has conceived
of a design
elements
including
type galleys,
are brought
17 designers
stressed
that
the
elements
of a
decisions.
various
significant
designers
layout
creative
that
said
when
photographs,
together
they
the
all
it
juxtaposition
and their
only at this stage,

design,
they can
that
In
were only
were
elements
to
able
really
in
assembled
the real
It
is
during
junior
the
designers
briefing
by the
'see
junior
how they
organisation
in
in for
may be brought
time-consuming
generated
and develognent
tasks
of
designers
indicated,
many organisations
the first
to
junior
craft
designers
render
it
takes
5 years
type and letter-form
of
studio practice
with both fluidity
have
that
of
sort
in
ideas
most
been
described
director
order
in
develop
skills
are
the manner of
designer
as one senior
a designer's
of
some organisations,
time to help canplete
one creative
draw up sane design
However,
form
the
16 shows this
ideas
the
generation
of ideas, with much of the detailed
being carried out by more experienced designers.
average,
in
designers.
senior
look'.
that,
drawing-up
planning
from
the
camnent
was
thing'
Fig.
and art editor.
drawing produced fran 'photostats'.
synthesis
particularly,
They then move the elements
one noted magazine designer

of developmental
when canbining
begin to make
start
and assemble them in
page grid
and
explored.
design
magazine
specific
design,
photography
is
'You have to work with
collage.
illustration,
and type galleys.
photostats
about on a full-size
together,
during
rendering
a major
slowly,
value
of
to
in
and
the
imagery
He asserted that, on
before a designer
can
and accuracy.
during
4 respondents said that visualisers
are sometimes carmissioned
this part of the design process.
In some of the larger organisations
with the
are permanently employed and work closely
visualisers
110
-
designers.
As the
advertising
agency
in developing
effect
bring
that
their
the details
own influence
is discussed
3 designers
of
large
head
a
at
studio
manager and
visualiser
indicated,
can have a significant
a visualiser
indicated
refinement
bear
to
more fully
that
of the style
on the
in Section
they
prefer
the
when synthesising
of a design.
visual
They can
treatment,
a point
4.5.
to go through many stages

design,
producing
of
a
elements
not
is
detailed
their
Most
produced
work
sketches.
of
'same size' with the developnental
drawings often being worked over,
from
findings
The
in some instances
becaning
the
art-work.
actually
further
discussed
this small but significant
group of respondents are
just
a few initial
in Section
4.5.
be
found
to
the
development
was
aspect of synthesis and
attention given to specific aspects of the design, for example to grid
design.
logo
The
design, typographic styling,
lettering
and
and
An important
development of these elements was found to require specific uses of

drawing. The numbers of respondents giving specific examples of their
use of drawing during synthesis and development are given in Table 7.
Table 7:
Specific
uses of drawing during synthesis

To design
page grids
To carbine
visual elements
17
[Number of
category]
To design
typography
41
respondents:
41 respondents
said
that
To design
letterforms
33
35
42;
several
they
responding
used drawing
and
in
more than
when planning
one
grids,
working on a small scale with

a pencil and producing a series of
4 other respondents said that they developed more
small schematics.
drawings
full-scale,
through
specifications
grid
ruled-up
The design of layouts or page formats, was
using ruling
pens.
described as taking place in a similar
way through small-scale
by
the
d
but
infonr
to
development
moving
sketches,
on
a stage of
detailed
111
-
introduction
of accurately specified
areas of type and tracings
Figs. 17(a) to 17(c) show this sort of development.
images.
There was quite

typographic
drawing
a wide range of descriptions

by the
elements
for
35 respondents
the design
for
given
they
that
who said
of
of
used
in
involved
respondents
contrast
design, working to prescribed
formats,
described a detailed
editorial
did not use
invariably
that
and exact
approach to copy-fitting
drawing.
design
For example, one respondent described his typographic
this
as involving
the
refinements
through
making
and precise
the
designers
In
purpose.
of
In
a series
of
casting off for typographic
correction
and marking
typographic
producing
were
many instances
elements was done
lists.
up of
However,
proofs.
where
individual
for
specifications
jobs,
the use of drawing tended to be more cannon.

Several designers
described the fact that they needed to indicate
the look of type in
order
to get an impression
early
stages
design
of
of the overall
text
production,
the use of drawn lines
In the
of the design.
by
typography was indicated
look
the X height
indicating
18 shows
Fig.
of type.
for page design.

Several respondents also
examples of this practice
described later stages of development, when they indicate
type in more
detail
19(a)
to get the more specific
Fig.
typeface.
shows
effects
of
indication
a careful
an
indication
importance
typographic
style
drawing
specifications.
for
Although
designers,
the
of
33 described
initial
typography.
of
clear
and fit,
only
designs
the
preferred
to work very
and slowly
resolving
the
letter-form
designs
own particular
example of
design
Other
is
these
of
general
designers
and existing
requirements,
this
printers
involved
the
given
were
to produce
Two main
described.
Same
freely
typefaces
Fig.
use of
lots of sketches
producing
look of the letters
Fig. 20 shows
described
working fron established
again
in
elements
for
letter-form
specialist
the need to be able to use drawing

letter-forms
of
and logotypes.
respondents
practice.
were
respondents
of
for
specifications
respondents
to
this
shows an example of
The majority
invariably
and this
(See Section 4.4)
approaches
the
and 19(b)
typography
display
of
the
stressed
of text
and modifying
through the use of
21.
112
-
Very
few of
them to their
the
drawing.
An
respondents
described
drawing
using
this
was at times the

letter-form
designers.
necessary
being
for
the
sufficiently
instruments
final
stage
to produce
of
design
of
and adaptation
visually
literate
reproduce
to
specific
stylistic
qualities.
freely
drawn but,
examples of letter-forms,
particular
stylistic
qualities.
113
-
for
resolution
One of the abilities
forms,
letter
the
although
specialist
respondents
described
as
letter-form
was that
of
be
Figs.
able
to
22(a)
none-the-less
perceive
and
and 22(b)
show
evocative
of
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114
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The development
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1985), ink, reproduced with a 50% reduction
115
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Figure
17b:
The development
stages
1985), pencil,
reproduced with a 50% reduction
116
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Figure
17c:
The development
stages
1985), ink, reproduced with a 50% reduction
117
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Examples of the means by which the

on page designs (CYB 1984-88), co1ol
with 50% reduction
118
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height is indicated
d marker, reproduced
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ink, label
li
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typography
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20:
letterfoim
Resolving
through
the use of many drawings
(David Craw 1988), ink, reproduced same size
121
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21:
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letterform
to established
pencil,
122
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Figure
22a:
Freely
labels
drawn
letterform
7cm x 7cm
123
-
(CYB
1984-88),
coloured
ink,
Figure
22b:
Freely
labels
drawn letterform
7cm x 7cm
124
-
(CYB 1984-88),
coloured
ink,
4.3.3
It
drawing
The use of
the revision
design
process,
in
that,
designers
that
for
the pzesentatim
evaluation
and
their
awn
of design solutions
has been found
ideas
in
carry
there
to
addition
for
out
the
of
evaluation
themselves
two types
are
the
the
throughout
of
presentation
'in-house',
place
graphic
for
evaluation,
that is among
that takes
presentation
members of the design team and the presentations
conducted by,
behalf of, clients.
Through studying the use of drawing during
namely
procedures
important
several
findings
or on
these
emerged.
procedure can be
each type of such presentation/evaluation
distinguished,
they are not necessarily
accompanied by the production
drawings
designers
frequently
In fact
of new drawings.
re-use
during some other procedure.
For example, it has
produced earlier
Although
been found that
drawings
done as a means of developing
be used as a means of evaluating

This
type
occurring
of
during
double-use
and indeed was also

use was less
common during
own individual
The reuse
evaluation
drawings
re-using
arxl
for
use
Individual
evaluation
presentations.
Its
Table 8 indicates
the
procedures
and
(Sane clearly
do
the
of
evaluative
these procedures.
drawings
of
for
of
32
26
Use
42
35
36
50, sane responding
However, as can be seen from
Table
125
-
8,
purpose
Client
evaluation
In-house
evaluation
Re-use
as
work,
in-house
for
mentioned
their
evaluation
presentation.
client
the number who drew specially

both. )
8:
frequently
was
found to occur during
number of respondents
Table
same ideas.
drawings
of
designers'
these
ideas may later
in more than one category]
in
the
majority
of
cases
drawings
are
produced
indicating
respondents
presentation
Indeed,
have
will
in
taken
place
was also
by respondents
design
to revise
solutions
produced for
24 shows a drawing
the
amended during
produced
to
return
during
client
more
was
including
more formal.
drawings
evaluation,
they
play
although
runs,
very
in
the
drawings
themselves.
stages
serve
design
the
eventually
much more
presentation
show this
presentation
drawings
progressive
and client
agreed that,
throughout
part
such as photography
as
organisations
of
the
visited,
develognent
means
Then, progressively,
members of
view
unanimous
of
the
in the early
stages
and that
later
the
stages,
and even short
print
used.
of design
early
will
are
the
progressively
the main means of presentation
methods,
are occasionally
which
in
the
means of
resulted
drawing, becoming correspondingly
use of
significant
alternative
In the majority
that
the
involved
evaluation
presentation,
of
type
of new ideas.
frequently
this
for
to the
similar
a
and indicate
very
generation
produced drawing
and speedily
that
respondents indicated
'formal'
procedures
and it
that
ideas
the
of
and idea
analysis
the consideration
respondents
scribbles
stylistically
the
All
uses
has been
that
presentation
with
are
free
a similarly
facilitates
of an
presentation
to presentation/evaluation
draw in
who said that they frequently
Fig.
during evaluative
procedures.
presentation
These revisions
drawings
the visual
occur.
can
evaluation
linked
use of drawing
revealed
revisions.
before
as one of the most essential

of the graphic design process.
the tasks
interesting
Another
instances,
many
described
with
purposes,
sane degree of
presentation
can be evaluated,
so that it
of drawing within
order
that,
idea,
for
specifically
of
visually
solutions
team in
a slightly
attention
is
for
clients
refinement
of
126
-
a design,
explained
many rough
ideas
testing
for
be presented to other
form, until
more resolved
will
given
to evaluate.
in drawings
presentation.
designers
to
the
Figs.
preparation
23(a)
produced
for
of
and 23(b)
in-house
The various
of
stages
in-house
evaluation,
presentation
4.3.3.1
Individual
Through
with
were found to occur.
evaluation
the
all
briefing
and client
uses of drawing
stage characteristic
as individual
and is each
presentation,
can be sumarised
presentation
procedures
the
of
design
graphic
starting
process,
'production
the
of
and even going on to the procedures

drawing can be seen as a means of testing
phase',
appropriateness,
design
visual
sections
the use made of

sense,
has already been discussed
evaluations
individual
on earlier
However,
in
to
described
facilitate
this
themselves
show two sheets of drawings

When sorting
to bring
all
developed.
shows him testing
continuous
of
drawings
as producing
the
a designer
of the design
The progression
through
will
specifically
to
and
this
25(b)
purpose.
he uses drawing
he
has
that
solution
brochure
the elements
ideas
42
for
produced
a complex folding
how his
evaluation,
25(a)
Figs.
evaluation.
that
for
out ideas
together
already
type
own individual
their
in
procedures.
addition
respondents
this
In
solutions.
performing
of proposed
for
drawing
value
and carmunication
qualities
feasibility,
the
work,
the
sheets
both
in
of
drawings
and three
two
dimensions.
4.3.3.2
In-house
46 respondents
design
indicated
takes
solution
and reactions
presentations
that
place
of progressively
the
with
'in-house'
initial
colleagues,
more senior
after
designers,
evaluation
which
the
design
of a
advice
managers
It
be
became
was
resolved.
more
or editors
may
sought as solutions
fron the descriptions
a range of
evident,
of respondents representing
design
different
for
the
that
of
evaluation
organisations,
procedures
solutions
design
for
varied
according
organisations
in-house
explained
story-boards
that
to the nature
of the work undertaken.
have a system of formal
presentation
and
evaluation.
procedures
it
was
example,
or semi-formal
For
the BBC has a series of production

meetings
are the basis for evaluation
and revision.
127
-
Many
where drawn
in the design
Respondents working
page layouts
made up of key-line
and features
with
art
Fig.
26 shows a drawing
designer's
senior
progressed
It
was found
cheap to produce in that

but are expressive
time,
solutions
can be assessed.
design
profession,
indicated
potentially
The
ability
essential
these
of the studio,
important
aspect
appraisal
of
drawings
It
is
organisations
formed
to
note
thought
that
by an informed
in progress
the overall
One designer
designer's
basically
28 shows examples of
quality
included
the
main
for
a regular
as a very
of interim
the
this
and
study
evaluative
manager.
respondents
part
the
of
for
afforded
done for
of
in
working
of a job
they claimed,
helped to
in such organisations.
colleagues
as part
of
own evaluation
procedures
when making the carient
there are two kinds of drawings designers produce, 'the
- 128 -
evaluation
regular
produced
larger
within
working
advantage
and this,
of the design
drawings
during
vehicle
that
audience,
an
caunents
manager's
managers described
observed
and designer
were the opportunities
studio
lift
was regularly
between designer
important
Fig.
and evaluate results,

This kind
responsibilities.
their
progress
invariably
dialogue
effectively,
to check progress
of
is
but
team.
who were designer
respondents
several
develognent.
further
designer
the
with
of the design
the feelings
11 of the
quickly,
of the work.
aspect
drawings
quickly-produced
recording
tour
out
in this
skill
ideas
for
chosen
before
forward
be put
probably
are
of the graphic
development',
score areas
and 'concept
packaging
solutions
draw
to
to the
presentation
has been modified on
in
Respondents
notably
suitable
editor.
drawings that are

presentations
require
they do not take up much valuable
studio
design
that
the
true
of
potential
such
many ideas will
that
the
shown to
are
to the editors.
presented
' in-house'
that
they
design that
printed
it was clear that a
In book publishing
be
idea
before
could
was necessary
an
approval
and subsequently
of magazines
drawings (like
Fig. 16) are checked
has been used for
that
editor,
and Fig. 27 the final
the basis of this drawing.
section
before
editors
that
indicated
the
that
ones
you do for
Broadly
implied
practical
formats
and the ones you do for
yourself
two
speaking,
by the tasks
to
ability
effectively,
in
kinds
involved
draw
in
albeit
interpreting
the client'.
drawing
of
in
were
ability
'in-house'
evaluation,
a manner that
to
a
'roughs',
visually
found
ccmTunicates
literate
to
namely
be
the
ideas
and
'audience'
the
cognitive
attendant
to interpret
The use of drawing as a kind of
ability
such 'roughs'.
between the members of the design profession
shorthand caanunication
experienced
and
ideas that most

to the rapid transmission
so essential
of visual
(47) of the respondents
it as an essential
role for drawing
cited
within the graphic design process.
is
4.3.3.3
For
the
Client
tasks
presentations
involved
in
'client's
a similarly
presentation'
progressive system of formalisation
as that for in-house presentation
Figs. 29(a) and 29(b) show early and late stages in
was apparent.
in
this progression.
When clients
invited
take
to
early
part
are
these
be
drawings
at
presented
may
sessions, rough
meetings but this process is only for regular, trusted clients and was
(36)
described
by
the
2
The
respondents
majority of
only
respondents.
indicated that they would prefer to show clients only drawings where
idea-swapping
sane care had been taken with presentation,

quality and potential
of a design solution.
in order to indicate
the
During the case study it was observed that the work leading up to
presentations to clients had a major effect on the operation of the
design studio.
The designers worked more as a team than at other
help being 'drafted
in' fron designers who
times, often external
Senior
had little
to do with the job in question.
previously
to junior
designers would tend to be more specific
in their briefing
designers, and juniors in turn accepted advice without expecting to
drawing
that
their
the
Much
use
of
make
own creative contribution.
of
'gear'.
There
in a different
accompanied these tasks was noticeably
break
the
longer
time
drawing
and
a
was more activity,
without
spent
itself
tended to be slower and more careful.
drawing activity
129
-
in
Respondents
the
packaging
profession
(10) agreed that
to control
presentation,
the acceptability
that
to
attention
is not
chosen solutions.
that drawing was used with
finish
more
work
for
the
most
when presenting
and
than in any of the other tasks of the graphic
(33) of respondents held the view that
The majority
important
that a designer draws well for presentation
only
but
purposes,
These designers
thought
style
given
by clients,
evaluation
design process.
it
the
ways
may be used used in specific
influencing
and
affecting
evaluation,
thereby
they
of
areas
drawing
of the designer's
indicated
also
development
and concept
important
also
way to
a designer
that
can draw
in
the
of a given
visual
quality
particular
imitating
30(a) and 30(b) show designers
Figs.
various
solution.
drawing
illustrative
9
the
Table
of
uses
same
major
shows
of
styles.
that designers described during the procedures of presentation.
appropriate
express
Table 9: The use of drawing in the prooeuzes of presentaticri

To control
impression
on client
To simulate
print
16
from visualisers,
make up
for
decision
having
time-consuming
design
lack
their
in a lot
designers
either
drawing
ability,
of
been made not

craft-based
team were
means of
50, some responding in more than one category]
were found to be involved
Sane organisations
of drawings
15
15
to
cacinit
tasks.
are used, e. g. proofs
solutions
of type,
above, specially-cccrnissioned
to
clients,
photographs
of
recognising
or
creative
However,
seen by many respondents
presenting
To indicate
illustrative
styles
For initial
testing
drawings
the need to
a
alternatively,
'ideas-people'
produced
as the
most
although
other
of pictures,
' buying-in'
to
by the
appropriate
techniques
and, as stated
visuals.
drawing skills
'in-house' was generally considered
may not
an advantage, although it was pointed out that such abilities
Having appropriate
130
-
be found in every designer.
necessarily
to
preparedness
in
assist
designers,
acknowledging
abilities,
not all
the
of the ideas
has a different
presentation
each designer
that
the
possessing
indicated
Some respondents
required
of
other
range of
skills
and craft
patience
that
techniques demand. Case study observations

presentation
and the
descriptions
system
of other respondents confirm that this unofficial
for various aspects of a job, especially
of sharing the responsibility
for presentation
is fairly
considered
widespread,
and is generally
very
helpful
by designers,
that
practice
took control
In organisations
it was apparent
visual
quality
caution
although
away fron
about
was raised
any
the designer.
habitually
take over presentation,
where visualisers
to bear on the
that they can bring their own influence
of a design, and whereas this may bring improvement, it
can also produce a bland result,

have car nand over a sufficiently
especially
if
wide variety
does not
the visualiser
A majority
styles.
of
to work regularly
with
respondents
who had the opportunity
(7 out of the 9) did appreciate
help, one senior
their
visualisers
dawn
in
designer
'bogged
the
herself
to
confessing
prone
getting
of
techniques
of
visualisation',
skills
of a visualiser
strong
preference
purposes,
for
However,
available.
the use of
to the more finished
they thereby
concentrated
to
and preferring
their
have
2 respondents
own drawings
work of the visualisers,
the client's
the
attention
for
specific
indicated
presentation
believing
on the creative
that
theme
Respondents
of the work and not on rather arbitrary
visual qualities.
from the smaller
were in
organisations
visualisers,
not employing
this is
general agreement that, whereas any skill
can be 'bought-in',
prohibitively
expensive
other
than for
the final
job.
17 respondents, including all those working in packaging and product

development, indicated that speed of execution is an essential factor
When
in a designer's
an
use of drawing for client
presentation.
initial
it is frequently necessary
presentation is made to the client,
high
to demonstrate several design possibilities
to a relatively
degree of visual
finish.
31(b)
Figs. 31(a) and
provides an
indication
of both the quantity and quality of presentation drawings
that a designer may be required
to present.
131
-
However, 15 respondents
until
some initial
after
where designers
practice
more detail,
tested
where
in detail
are not visualised
in-house.
5 described the
testing,
usually
in
draw up a selection
solutions
of potential
been
have
ideas
initial
a whole series
of
only
after
on the
described
this
process
for a
visuals
are produced to demonstrate
design.
in a 'theme'
The
for
potential
packaging
highly
be
the
not
must be exact,
although
visuals
need
the
proportions
finished,
director
A creative
client.
many full-colour
client
designs
said that
long
as
as
reasonably
pack is
appearance of a printed
testing.
of this initial
clear
indicated.
this
However,
of
representation
Fig.
practise
the
32 shows an example
was also seen to be
decisiontoo much emphasis on the client's

putting
2 designer managers complained that providing
with a
making.
a client
the design
range of proposals
could lead to confusion,
when ideally
problematic,
team should be delegated

for the client's
needs.
the presentation
if
most useful,
have.
indicated
that
style
solution
Conversely
that
it
a particular
makes on a client
of illustration
accepted
an inappropriate
the
ability
advantage
style
to
of
that
as one of the
a designer can
is worth
solution
By copying
a designer's
that
abilities
is a great
solutions
the impression
to control
solution
drawing
essential,
an illustrator.
of a particular
the ability
cited
illustrator,
particular
a design
not
a client
of employing
to choose appropriate
of a design
8 respondents
to convince
the authority
to be able
the
expense
the work of a
indicate
was seen as an asset
the
quality
in getting
by a client.
use of
drawing
detrimental
have
a
can
as
problems
cause ccnmunication
observations made at one meeting where design solutions were presented
to clients demonstrated.
Having presented ideas for a logo for a new
identity
of an
programme, using highly finished drawn 'indications'
effect
on
presentation,
and
(apparently)
the
to
client's
carefully-considered
application
that
the designer had difficulty
the
vehicles,
client
convincing
to be resolved
had still
significant
elements of scale and position
improve the appearance of the final work. Whereas
and would radically
132
-
it
is clearly
not reasonable to expect clients to be able to interpret

the rough visuals
that designers use among themselves, a highly
finished style of presentation for ideas that are not fully resolved
was found to be equally misleading.
Where it
is known that
meeting
at
potential
of
33(a)
Figs.
responsible.
a range
work
important
true
of
ideas
visual
is not going
marketing
and 33(b)
show that,
must be presented
must be indicated,
personnel
when the designer
solution
Respondents
indicated
in such a way that
is essential
In situations
interpretation
verbal
of
'speak' for themselves.
effectiveness
faced
in trying
of a particular
clearly.
up sufficiently
instances
all
it
can be
a client
A senior design co-
so that
drawn it
the outcome of the
indicated.
clearly
the
of
in
that
not only
on occasions,
implementation
but their
solutions.
she has at times
has not
by intermediaries
presented
at the
will
a range of items
shown the potential
of the various
described the difficulties
ordinator
across
to convince
to be present
it
is
be presented
to clients,
demonstrate
that they draw in a way that will
for which they have been
the design solution
their
which
particularly
the
the designer
has
when work
that
specified
be
to
the designs
are drawn
production
method is
for a
is no opportunity
designer,
the images must
where there
by the
job
the
to
was not uncatinon during the course of the interviews
hear designers
to avoid taking work to a high
say that they prefer
degree of finish
described
for the 'client's
they
and
presentation',
three basic reasons for this.
the necessary
In a small organisation
However,
it
range of
drawing
expensive
design
doing
may not
to spend studio 'hours'
pertains
to
solution;
a job
instances,
design
be available.
skills
and getting
considered
solution
art
on the time-consuming
'the
one designer
is
paid
actually
to
give
taking
to designers
it
a true
into
it
time
it
is,
representation
print.
is
rendering
shortest
Again,
a rough'.
impossible
without
particularly
of the final
quote
Further,
very
of a
between
in
some
of
This situation
whose work depends on the quality
work.
15 respondents indicated
that
when it
133
-
is necessary to imitate
print
for
who has little
a client
to do this
necessary
considerable
to
the
endeavour
costs
to
are exacting
was
the
avoid
explained
time
techniques
the craft
incur
will
and
consuming,
time that have then be passed on
and time
in terms of studio
It
client.
imagination,
visual
and
that,
expense
where
practicable,
involved
in
they
detailed
save the cost of producing

'rough
to
as a
visuals'
use
presentation
and
Indeed, several
means of evaluating
and choosing a design solution.
in
free-lance
designers,
the
those
worked
or
of
who were
especially
presentations,
highly-finished
small
agreeing
organisations,
where possible.
for a book cover,
with
said that
a client
drawings,
to
they preferred
this
sort of negotiation
drawing produced
Fig. 34 shows the one presentation
where costs were limited.
- 134 -
Figure
23a:
Progressive
in presentation
refinement
1984-88),
coloured
marker and gouache
135
-
drawings
(CYB
'MIIWai
i
.
,.
'W;;
Yv.
i i
.
,ii.v
li
'
Figure
23b:
Progressive
refinement
1984-88),
coloured
marker
- 136 -
in
presentation
and gouache
drawings
(CYB
\:
LL
i
II
\11
i
/y
y'!;,
r,
\
Y
Figure
24:
Client
drawings
presentation
coloured
marker and gouache,
137
-
(CYB
1984-8$),
revisions
with
with 50% reduction
reproduced
.
,.;.
q-,
"1
."
c
41
It
1
3
Af"I
r'_:.
"y
.
"l
1r
_
J
"a
nJ
IC
F\
cam1
Figure
25a:
Sheets of drawings
produced by the designer evaluating

138
-
t.
Q)
il
i
;,
. ,
'!
i..
'
N
i
.i
3
z
v
-75
n
0
r
c
r,
v
V
N
41
4
-
A,
Figure
25b:
Sheets of drawings
designer
the
evaluating
produced'by
139
-
(V
Al
,r
-r
riitj
J
x
/. "
'/
2K
I.
;y'.
.. '
4(
K.
Figure
26:
to
Drawin<i
produced
(Which?
editor
magazine
with 50% reduction
to
'
tiOIUtion
present
a de!; i
1985), coloured
reproduced
pencil,
140
-
Figure
27:
The final
reproduced
design
solution
with 50% reduction
141
-
(Which?
1985),
photograph,
,
r
.. i
Nj
Figure
28:
Drawings
proiuceed ioz in--house
presentations
88),
ink
coloured
marker,
reproduced
and
reduction
142
-
(CYB 198450%
with
:t
i'
kJ
ll
YYY
c
s
A.
.,. "
.
\w
''"
Ate,
(')
Mw
i... "'w"'.. r"",
AA'
..,..
i'C
!s
(
r%
_
/l
1
), 'lam
c"""},
.
'nFP
411
--
yr
II
I
,' -
''
Figure
29a:
"(
-'=_---
for
Drawing
used
early
client
presentation
(CYB 1984-88),
of a design
progression
solution
50%
marker,
and coloured
reduction
reproduced
with
143
in
the
pencil
iL
fix'
"e;
Ei
L;
;
ti
3y
Q,
\OOJ
OG.
Z2
=4
Rc
_
]
p2TTT.
K
r
N
f
Ll
(D
n
d
Figure
29b:
Drawing used for client

presentation
(CYB 1984-88),
solution
a design
gouache, reproduced
with 50% reduction
at a later
coloured
stage of
ink
and
- 144 4
11
Figure
30a:
drawings
Designers'
illustrative
imitating
styles
various
(CYB 1984-88),
28an
10cxn
x
coloured
marker and gouache,
- 145 -
IjI
U.,..
ll, %%%Aow
"S
Figure
30b:
nh-lit
to-oll
..
vo*"
Otto
drawings
illustrative
Designers'
imitating
styles
various
28an
(CYB 1984-88),
10an
x
coloured
gouache,
marker and
146
-
Figure
31a:
Drawings for client

presentation
- 147 -
(CYB 1984-88),
coloured
T
,
(y
. _
S
Figure
31b:
Drawings for client

presentation
- 148 -
(CYB 1984-88),
coloured
SICVIKRIN
/K)0.
Noemm
kH
; t, mJKnf(t
Figure
32:
for client
Drawings
ink,
reproduced
with
presentation
50% reduction
- 149 -
(CYB 1984-88),
coloured
.e
41/
Figure
33a:
for
Drawings
client
presentation
implementation
of
a design
solution
coloured ink and marker, reproduced with
- 150 -
the
showing
(CYB 1984-88),
50% reduction
Figure
33b:
for
Drawings
presentation
client
implementation
of
solution
a design
coloured ink and marker, reproduced with
- 151 -
the
showing
(CYB 1984-88),
50% reduction
f
r
C)
i
il
r
Figure
34:
Drawing
marker,
for
client
presentation
reproduced
same size
- 152 -
(Stephen
7
Raw
1988),
4.4
The use of
pzvoeres
Many of the
to
ready
drawing
of
decisions
the
greatly
on the
control
over the various
ability
'p
ucticn
wring for
aid p
inclndi*g
phase',
the
indicated
aspects
that,
a design
the
was
creative
depended
of the final
result
(or design team) to maintain
quality
designer
the
of
the
pzoducti, on
made it clear that by the time

'production
phase' and most of
had been taken,
Respondents
the
xmni. ssicnirig
respondents
go into
in
of production.
at
this
the
stage,
abilities
of
such as illustrators,
photographers
and model makers,
would probably be harnessed in the production
of various elements of
the design, if not already brought in at an earlier
However,
stage.
31 of these respondents also made it clear that designers continue to
specialists,
use
drawing
addition,
during
the
specialists
the
commissioning
to
abilities
were considered
choose,
of
brief
and
In
specialists.
such
judge
by 47 of the respondents
the
work
of
to be invaluable
to a designer.
When commissioning
the work of either
or
visualisers
illustrators,
the ability
to judge their drawing skills
was considered
has therefore
to
been given in this
Attention
essential.
section
these conceptual,
Different
policies
paste-up
were
organisations.
judgmental
skills.
for
the production
of camera ready artwork and
described
by
their
in
respective
respondents
In the larger
organisations,
an in-house artwork
Again, in
section was generally found to take over all production.
such instances, the ability
of the designer to ensure that production
in these stages meets accurate specifications
depends not only on
their own degree of control of specific drawing techniques but, as was
frequently
to direct
mentioned, on their
and judge these
ability
in specialists.
In some smaller
aspects of drawing quality
designers may be required to
organisations,
or in free-lance practice,
produce artwork themselves.
4.4.1
OQTIni s sia1irJ
peci
_
al i stc
The ways in which designers
receive
- 153 -
brief
a
on
and pass
has been
discussed
also
in Section
need to use drawing
stages during
the development
of a design
illustrators,
photographers,
lettering
necessary
for
particular
element of the design
such
specialists
There are many different

but
may carrnission,
kinds
for
at various
like
to specialists
solution
artists
be
to
they
that
of the respondents indicated

to give briefings
or instructions
4.2.31
brought
becomes
when it
etc,
in
cat lete
to
solution.
that
of specialists
the purpose
of this
study
a graphic
designer
attention
has been
is used by the designer

that
None of the respondents indicated
designers,
they use drawing in any way to brief
typographic
marked-up
being the agreed procedures used, and so
copy and type specifications
this aspect of the design process will
not be considered.
directed
at those specialists
as an aspect of the briefing.
for
It
must be briefed
was clear
that
their
particular
given
information
sort
specialists
wham drawing
For example,
expertise.
Therefore,
instructions
in
to
necessary
drawings
circumstances,
such
the
get
rough
it
produce
the
to
model maker
from a designer's
although
before
sketches,
of
is
on
need to be
model makers will
structures.
about three-dimensional
drawing may be needed as part
perspective
of
depending
differently
some
a designer's
in fact
often
working
mechanical
a final
production
method can be agreed.
the designers
Some of
interviewed
illustration,
admitting
beconing illustrators.
expressed a special
they themselves initially
that
Further,
19 respondents
to have a wide experience and understanding

to be able to cannission accurately.
Several
high
designer
quality
in any design
potential
there
result
illustrators
in which
were of course differences

this
maintaining
director
of work from
in
the
quality.
area
to contribute
it
that
managers said
is
important
in
to
illustration
Some respondents,
design
to a well-researched
- 154 -
that
it
is
of illustration
to
insist
realise
forms a part.
of opinion
of packaging
order
intended
implied
important
in
interest
the
on a
full
However,
best
the
to
methods of
as
for
example a creative
a predictable
who requires
described
a method
solution,
of producing
a carefully
of the illustration
in addition
an example of this
to
other
type
of visual,
along
information
who
to
experimental
work, preferred
hand,
trusting
to
their
position
illustrators
give
professionalism
material
reference
illustrator.
to
the
to
ccnnission
conveys
more
free
a relatively
and
to
35 provides
Fig.
the
and style
is then given
This
with
it
in
were
layout
briefing.
to the verbal
augment the
respondents,
of both the
visual
is to be comnissioned.
that
the illustrator
collected
rendered
respecting
their
creativity.
For 3 of the design
have the illustration
organisations
best
was to
solution
by the designer who
the
visited,
ideally
completed in-house,
had developed the ideas.
A policy
the illustrative
of producing
demands the recruitment
elements of a design in-house
of
obviously
designers with a particularly
but
high standard of drawing ability,
very
few of the designers
in their
in
However,
the designers
invariably
however,
it
and that
that
is essential
result
sufficient
professional
publicly-funded
and Albert
The majority
it
practice
a designer
cannission
for
Museum, financial
had to produce
was usual
confidence
in an
quality
groups,
of course.
that
to
experience
predictable
small
they themselves
as a matter
indicated,
expressed
an appropriate
at the Victoria
meant that
illustration
working
to produce
ability
illustration.
interviewed
constraints
range of
(46)
of respondents
a varied
to buy-in
has sufficient
an illustrator
example
illustration,
knowledge and
who can produce
to order.
was found that lettering

artists
can also be briefed in either a
free or a precise way
being either
is to say the letter-forms
that
,
before
just loosely drawn or almost entirely
designer
by
the
resolved
is brought in.
a lettering
Where appropriate,
artist
as with
illustrators,
lettering
artists
are at times given the freedom to
It
produce a creative
designer.
Respondents
result
indicated
with few restrictions
that
photographers
produce the best results

when given
being cainissioned
to give a 'shoot'
a great
155
-
their
from the ctimissioning
can,
deal
in
instances,
sane
of creative
own stylistic
freedom,
exploration.
however,
At the same time,
described
also
respondents
briefing
including
a verbal
photographers
of briefing
drawn visuals
that had already been produced
they drew specifically
that
when briefing
described
producing
a detailed
the back of the camera.
over
was to be present
Many of the designers

drawing
in
that
itself,
constitutes
creative
expertise,
best
the
achieve
work,
avoiding
were
in
is
appreciation
direction.
was
of art
which,
their
of
responsibilities
her
for
his
own
or
employed
fron
quality
dependent
on
the
to
carmissioned
Respondents
specialists
designer's
general
in the case
form and, especially
to appreciate
is
when briefing,
unsuitable
or poor work.
to brief
that
the ability
on the ability
of the
direction
through
agreement
heavily
very
method
ability
significant
argued by same senior
is clearly
intention,
designer's
and awareness of visual
of illustration,
ideal
an appreciation
aspect
and most appropriate
wastage
general
accurately
it
an essential
one of the major
the
and placed
an especially
As a specialist
work.
particular
quality
is
this
own art
that
thought
is
abilities
of specialists
design
In fact,
manager.
individuals
in
interviewed
their
one
although
the
For most respondents
at the shoot and give
Few said
of the design.
photographers,
be 'gridded-up'
to
rough
methods
the
showing
and
several
and formal
the stylistic
of drawings.
important
Another
'specification'.
type
of
is
drawing
instructional
the
36 shows a typical
example of the canbination
In
drawn
instructions
that
make up a specification.
of written
and
be
but
this case the designer need not imitate
must
visual
qualities
to
the
to
enough
well
of production
able
understand
procedures
translate
services
the
Fig.
design
manager for
specifications
his design
into
solution
a large
represented
production
design
in-house
the
team in the design
last
use of
process.
- 156 -
terms.
studio
drawing
said
that
A creative
that
detailed
was made by
`F1
f1
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fl
i)
n
II
35: Drawing produced

c
Figure
illustrator
e
to
ccLission
material
reference
with visual
(CYB
ink,
1989),
attached
with 50% reduction
reproduced
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Figure
36:
Specification
coloured
marker,
1!
,'
drawing
(Stephen
Raw 1988),
reproduced
with 50% reduction
158
-
pe6c''l"and
4.4.2
four p
marin
it
From observation,
organisations
that
appear
vocational
the majority
that
was clear
employ
specialist
art-workers.
have
art-workers
professional
training
than designers.
that
thought
ictian
the
specialist
skills,
10, only
17 said
most
efficient
continually
that
33 of
they
large
to
of medium
it would
In general,
had
more
a different,
interviewed
designers
the
required
in Table
production
of artwork
and, as is indicated
practised
use drawing
themselves
for
refining
either
thought
It was generally
of art-work.
kind of drawing ability
and
was needed for artwork,
that it was a poor use of the time of a creative
person to be involved
found
in drawing-up
It
also
was
and pasting-up
camera-ready copy.
or controlling
that a different
that
the production
organisations,
bought in black
usually
printers
or production
However,
there
on the
passing
that
free-lance
artwork,
respondents
types
or
small
often
were
without
important
designers
are
reasons
they
themselves.
for
to
artwork
of
prefer,
Figs.
fact
37(a)
general
It
specialists.
economy,
in
this
more likely
generally
art-workers,
made the
paste-up.
to
exceptions
in-house
and invariably
artwork,
house responsible
of
who said
of artwork
and white
production
for
those
and
insist
to
37(c)
there
on,
was found
do their
to
of
policy
other
were
doing
own
certain
show a relatively
where
approach to drawing during the production
of such artwork,
has maintained
the designer
even
control
a high degree of creative
late stage in the design process.
this
Fig. 37(a) shows the
until
have
drawn
letterfozms
freely
from
the
versions
which
chosen
sheet of
free
been cut and mounted on the art-work

design.
the printed
shown in 37(b).
Fig.
37(c)
shows
7 respondents described the need to solve many of the detailed but

important problems of layout at the artwork stage, where it is
right.
possible to get the proportions
absolutely
of a ccr osition
For example, Neville Brody said that for him certain aspects of design
were 'like
the main creative

decisions being made when
painting',
David Gentleman, also producing work in which
working on the artwork.
the meaning of the design is entirely
dependent on the quality
and
159
-
individual
particular
and
for
respondents,
it
convenience
themselves.
artwork,
atypical
totally
view.
working
procedures
of
these
will
be
reasons
of
linked,
closely
The
4.5.
interviewed
was often
Their
must be produced,
a similar
are very
indicated
for
easier
view
and this
it
the
that
the
cxmplete
of
production
person,
implies
for
that
them to
if
that
was
is to be handed to another
solution
expressed
-
and design
wham art
designers
the
of
rather
in Section
explored
10
of the final
style
specification
an accurate
design
the
all
artwork
a design
stages are
to become
it
quite
catmon for
necessary to change sane aspects of a design layout before paste-up.
to
For example, the detailed
is difficult
arrangement of the text
concluded,
fully
resolve
final
if
the
final
the
that
designer
the briefing
typesetting
better
is
keeps control
and several
available,
of detail
kind
to this
attention
skills
of specialists,
drawing
practical
of others
artwork
abilities
is
the
and even through,
up to,
Where,
production.
artwork
themselves,
implied,
and if
a designer's
that
artwork
much of
abilities
of an illustrator
Although
characteristic
procedures
respondents
other
involved
described
procedures
of
the
control
required
to
canpetence
is
are
technical
work is such that it is in the production

the
the creative
all
work takes place,
may be required.
and even of an artist
uses
of
in controlling
themselves
during
judge
the proper
designers
degree
and
understand
in ensuring
however,
a high
in the design
uses made of drawing
factors
to
the non-
that
thought
respondents
required
were important
produce
of
is
paste-up.
As with
of
before
indicated
respondents
achieved
whereas
drawing
can be identified
production,
as using
process.
the procedures
- 160 -
for
is was found that
drawing
than for
the
fewer
any of the
Table 10 shows the particular

of production.
Table 10:
The uses of drawing
To canission
specialists
To produce
specifications
for artwork
31
15
in the prooedunes
To refine
details of
layout
10
of procuction
To maintain
creative
control
7
[Number of respondents : 50, sane responding in more than one category]
161
-
Ti
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lifir
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aid
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Figure
37a:
from which artwork has been cut

Sheet of letterfozms
(Stephen Raw 1987), ink, reproduced same size
162
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(Ste hen Raw 1987), ink,
163
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Figure
37c:
design
Printed
50% reduction
(Stephen
Raw 1987),
164
-
print,
reproduced
with
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4.5
Factors
that
the
modify
in
drawing
use of
the
design
graphic
PIS
It
has been has found that
factors
than the specific
other
procedures
the graphic
of the graphic design process can modify and influence
designer's
include
the nature of the
These factors
use of drawing.
(whether
it
both
design
its
in
terms
orientation,
of
graphic
problem,
is concerned with
the
scope of
designer
packaging,
problem;
is employed;
of the individual
4.5.1
the
The
Generally
for
the
of
the
of
in the design
it
team and predilection
design
graphic
was
drawing
is very similar,
same series
of
that
apparent
example the design
the
of press
phases
as
indicated
respondents
dimensions
from flat
images but
to
three-dimensionally,
think
that
was indicative
A respondent
about
they did not draw three-dimensional
should
be
who was involved
the
lack
that
2
colleges.
to
inability
a more general
in
the need for

stressing
design
at
like
objects,
12 described
taught
felt
they
of
of
who were involved

their use of drawing.
structures
be able
use
not so extensive.
albeit
three-dimensional
conventions
and the
jobs
in producing
24 of them said that

packs, any differently
tend to go
advertisements,
larger
scale
small
very
even
by the 36 respondents
spatial
its
and
pioblan
A range of views was expressed
to
the
an the use of drawing
through
designers
and
etc),
designer.
speaking
problems,
and the role
nature
influence
nature
and the scale

in which
organisation
design,
editorial
three-
express
of drawing
ability.
designers
graphic
that he had noticed
caranissioning
for
the
on three-dimensional
structures
said
between the way graphic designers draw and the way in which
difference
'on
designers draw, in that the graphic designers manipulate
interior
threethe flat'
to conceptualise
and do not show the same capacity
work
dimensions
as interior-designers
respondents
described
designers.
Two of
the
to employ specialist
model makers to make
drawings.
38(a) and 38(b) show
Figs.
designers
that
graphic
spatial
conventions
having
accurate
three-dimensional
examples
of
some of
or
industrial
the
- 166
;s
were found to employ.

factors
One of the primary

drawing
instances
fields,
design,
been
shown
a great deal
require
standard
draw
accurately
three-dimensions
it
was apparent
is
on the
design,
that
drawing
in their
design
chain
detail
considerable
detail
necessary
to
convince
clients
once ideas
effectiveness,
compilations
editor,
of
the
of
in order
5
drawing
the
time
mention
for
to
of
the
sketch
for
the
overall
to
must
designers.
for
of
describing
fron
less
briefed
quick
the
art
the
'look'
the
their
the
of
it
was not
editorial
sketches
and
editor,
and
work
own personal
felt
they
need
or
their
of
However, 3 out
the design.
on
in
features,
Since
very
use of
editorial
organisation
observation
- 167 -
on editorial
ideas were not
and initial
exclusively
importance
and work
they
be
of particular
be shown to
go-ahead
self-developnent,
be able
within
frequently
would
the
engaged
these
that
for
the
reason
of
command operating
appearance
could
to get their
respondents
particular
of
activity.
outside
had been resolved,
photostats
found
Part
by the
any great
in-
be
to
of
need
magazines,
of analysis
in
both
and furthermore,
stages
developed
solution
the need to
for
working
make far
responsibility
So many early
magazine.
the
about
retaining
editor
of
Designers
organisations.
design
their
and to
designers
that
working
was found to be the
in
working
of images.
design
day-to-day
employed in
in different
describe
was also
convincingly,
to the quality
possess sensitivity
art
quickly,
for
visualisations
to
worked.
packaging
solutions
It
sane
design.
that
presentation.
represent
contrast,
4.4
Section
of
need
in
and
those
especially
and these
use of
which the designer
within
or in packaging
in
presentation,
designers
this
particular
in some cases many visualised
several,
house and client
In
job,
of drawing activity
working in this field
Designers
and presentation.
a high
designer's
the
work on a range of jobs

for example designers
tended to specialise,
already
produce
of
orientation
in editorial
television,
problems
the
say, while
design consultancies
others
has
influence
to
some designers,
to
independent
It
orientation
the particular
is
That
the
was
found
to
explore
made
use of
to
find
image
making in order
to develop
as opposed to
and that the sequencing

taken into consideration
One respondent,
described
credit,
relationship
drawing it
of
re-design
the
stressed
fact
be seen as three-dimensional
design
period
many major
periodicals
he
very
of
when
had
a photographer
and together
to fit'.
up and then 'shooting
to
his
working
spreads by
good
they designed
described
He also
the
of a national
newspaper, where he made a
of grid designs indicating
possible areas for
stages of the re-design
early
large
number of sketches
and then gave these to his
pictures
He went
canputer
software
available.
difficulty
encountered when print
to visuals,
read
in terms
to consider
assistant
the
to
control,
with
all
the total
objects
be
the
and spatial
should
aspects of
pages
through the use of drawn dunnies, etc.
the
with
for
day-to-day
the
books and magazines should
that
literacy.
visual
(3) who were responsible
Those respondents
magazines,
their
operatives
describe
to
on
were required
of
the
to respond
to be able
and the difficulty
with expecting non-designers
'designer
code and the graphic design language of drawing'.
Another
respondent
material,
generally
the actual
need to design
with
'you have got to work with the real
the
stressed
photographic
thing! '
sane similarities
were found between the system for editorial
design and that
for
book design,
a greater
use of drawing was
described
by designers
generally
It was clear that many
of books.
Although
influential
creative
decisions
in conjunction
editors
with
designers
senior
Subsequently,
required
it
to a more junior
would fall
were made at
images would
stage.
However, when the designer
covers,
particularly
series
very
of
books,
closely
to
was found
that
used
that
by
or
to juxtapose
these
by
personnel.
commissioned
had more scope over
and
at a later
the design
of
was being given to a new

use of drawing corresponded
when consideration
it
meeting'
and marketing
be collected
designer
'cover
the
the
designers
in
other
aspects
of
the
profession.
Respondents specialising
in design for
corporate
identity
progranmes
168
ai ki
i >I
identified
also
particular
aspects
design
the
drawing
uses of
of the use of drawing
characteristic
of
the
image
in order
ability
itself,
to produce
kind
in this
which
of work, namely
a broad range of
required
solutions,
and relevant
creative
two
They described
drawing.
programrcne, which required

of the identity
to a wide range
resolution
of logotypes and their application
Fig. 8
to a high degree of presentation.
of destinations
visualised
and Figs.
and Fig. 39 show early stages in the design of logotypes,
implementation
and the
detailed
40(a)
and 40(b)
implementation
Another
show examples of drawing

of identity
problem,
giving
the
further
usually
in
described
that
was
In these reports
reports.
use of
design
For this
work.
drawing was described
4.5.2
purpose
the
of
the
size
have a considerable
organisation
from three
and structure
designer
Independent,
respondents,
organisations,
free-lance
represented
was
publishing
fran
in-house
organisations
groups,
they
a
produce
wide
were
a wide
range
in
book
or
magazine
while
publishing
28 were fron
designers.
and 3 were free-lance
independent
not only
10
the
consultancies,
did
of organisation,
practices
including
represented
of
and it
were:
3)
also
the
which
place of etnPloyment could

The types of
use of drawing.
Independent design consultancies
they
of schematic
sort
of their
on their
effect
represented
sorts
2)
proportion
found that
in
ni sation
In-house design groups, including
independent
actually
scheme, without
has no need for
the client
a particular
1)
19
a given
of
solution
employed
Respondents were selected

found that
that
the
as being used.
The influence
is
identity
a corporate
such detail
in
solution
of the
drawing
to the production
relation
of consultancy
basic ideas for
design groups express their
design
aspects
programmes.
important
particularly
demonstrating
chosen
because
design
of
range
terns
of
A high
it
was
work but
organisational
169
-
:.
,s:
structure
and size.
design
In-house
of
sorts
have
groups can to be associated

including
organisation,
major
with
different
of
a range
like
canpanies
the
BBC, who
their
fran
own design
section
which they
carnission
both
design
Designers
as
specific
requirements.
are
employed
designers and as design co-ordinators
these sorts of
practising
within
the
for a range of work including
organisation
and can be responsible
their
production
materials
of
pranotional
and
in-house
material,
specialist
magazines,
and
for
corporate identity
schemes. The wide-ranging
in previous
found
sections was, therefore,
designers
in the in-house
design
or
manuals
learning
implementation
the
of
use of drawing described

to be required
among the
groups visited.
feature
of such in-house design groups was the particular

relationship
with the single client,
namely the parent organisation
itself.
This frequently meant that use of drawing in presentation
in that it was not necessary to 'sell'
stages was rather limited,
A consistent
ideas to the client.

the case, and
However, this was not consistently
of selling
often designers described problems such as the difficulties
ideas to keepers in museums.
design
In-house
groups
in
situated
organisations
Open University
were observed
to make rather
drawing
of the graphic
designers
ability
museums was found

lack
house.
the
of
promotion
which
of
publishing,
represented
different,
facilities
to
required
anything
typographic
illustrations
production
albeit
include
detailed
to
and
by the
or
the
as
complex and rather
again
appropriate
- 170 -
as
the
educational
considerable,
Although
were required
specialised
communication
layouts
imagery.
and visual
well
In
art-work.
Open university,
designers
in-
to produce a great deal of

large-scale
from designing
specifications,
even
team and
working
visualisers
demands were made on the designers.
were available,
design
Working for
employed there.
designer's
demands on graphic
art-workers
were themselves
could
demands on the
specific
number of members in the design
like
specialists
Designers
work
highly
make particular
because of the small
skills,
the
to
museums or the
like
more
to understand
problems
Figs.
in order
41(b)
and
of the range of work produced for one spread by the

team, working fron a drawing produced by an academic, shown in
41(c)
show part
design
41(a).
Drawing was found to be the main vehicle
used for
the accurate
terms.
cammication
of complex concepts in visual
layouts were drawn in both greater
Preliminary
and detail
quantity
than was typically
the case in other organisations.
testing
of
Considerable
design
the
demands on drawing
ability
in
made of designers
are also
to produce many
For example, they are required
ideas very quickly,
them well enough to
and to be able to resolve
of their
convince senior designers and marketing staff
of the quality
consultancies.
ideas
before
they
ability
to
express
ever get the
ideas
to have their
shown
to the client.
Often these consultancies
were found to be moving into
the newer areas of the profession,
for example product develops nt or
designer's
design, and this can put additional
the
retail
on
pressures
three-dimensions
had in-house
these organisations
in some instances
It
visualisers
to a design
given
solution
thereby
been
types
show the
understanding
drawing,
broadly
The size
on the
in
of
that
it
educational
not
problems
is
being
ideas
is
involved
involves
only
but
used
in
also
in
to
the
brief
a very
what
back
team.
has been
job
draw out
literally
team will
and
them'
and
that
has
highly
developed
important
use
may be described
of
as a
way.
of the organisation
use of
what
the design
within
client's
most of
artwork,
producing
when a major
the design
process
design
for
some instances,
just
client
facilities
the
However,
convincingly.
were available
consultancy,
to 'present
This
given.
in
that,
was apparent
opportunity
drawing.
was also
Where there
found to have particular

are
several
designers
effects
within
group they were observed to share work amongst themselves,

with some
designers preferring
to
to work on the ideas stages, others preferring
there
However,
where
resolve the details
of design solutions,
etc.
to deal with
were fewer members of the team each member was required
In a very
themselves.
more of these different
small
aspects
it was more likely
that designers would have to cxmplete
organisation
all
the drawn stages
themselves,
including
171
-
artwork.
For the majority
of
free-lance
It
may therefore
designers
be said that
range of drawing
to
respond
from their
abilities
demanding
the case.
alone this was invariably
while large organisations
require a wide
working
level
In
Factors inherent
to
organisation
individual
These factors
can be broadly
responsible
design
Respondents
to as designer
have been found
markedly
For
designer
manager,
through
particular
solutions
It
is
also
to draw in
team to
his
individual
this
design
with
in
the
of
the
role
and predilections
this
team, especially
of
responsibility
context,
managerial
influence
clients
on the
use of drawing
is
or
to use drawings
to
convince
the
by
employing
drawings
however,
to
quite
changing
tool
produced
of
ideas
The
personnel.
by other
as to be able to
fall
Very often it will
of
the
efficacy
produced by
the designer
came nicate the ideas of the

during passing on of briefing.
172
-
and
as well
client
that
duties
camrnunicate visual
marketing
cccnnunicate,
are
overall
important
an
or her own drawings.
important,
order
range
In this
drawing
manager needs the capacity
camiunicate
and their
have to be used to
like
people
members of the design
able
experience
managers.
Drawings
non-visual
team.
designer
the
of
to
designer
the
cawnunication.
to
as follows:
have a considerable
use of drawing, with designer's
as they become more senior.
detailed
the
designers
categorised
seniority
process.
referred
work,
the senior members of a design team had a dual role,

for both managerial
tasks in the
and executive
that
was clear
to
to individual
The influence
of the
individual
designer
being
creative
the
1) The relative
design team
It
they can
that
nature
of the
of the job,
and the nature
in which the designer
is employed, factors
to
specific
designers
drawing usage.
were also found to influence
addition
2)
in order
the
smaller
will
need a wide range of drawing
the diversity
of work required of them.
of
designers
the more its

organisation
in order to cope with
ability
4.5.3
designers
the
of
design
manager is
client
to the
The sensitive
drawing
use of
for
this
information
manager must pass on the

the type
predetermine
in
given
the
brief
that
and yet
(See Section
to be followed.
of solution
in
important,
very
and 4 are examples of the work of designer
2,3
Figs.
is
procedure
the
not
4.2.
)
managers.
Table 11 gives a comparison of the use of drawing made by designers of

designers
different
ie those more senior
mainly
with
seniority,
in the design team and those with mainly
managerial responsibilities
Among the former
duties.
executive
during
activity
idea generation,
of drawing
it
shows a predominance
for analysis
phase, particularly
the main creative

but with considerable
and
made at the client

Only 2 respondents
who were designer managers
stage.
presentation
2
drawing
for
they
the
that
while
phase
used
creative
main
never
said
claimed they only used it during this phase.
It
found
was
artists,
designers.
his
capacity
keep
develop
work
of
the
a sense of
in
studio
flair
touch
be
in
involved
and specialist
than more junior
in
responsibility
and fashion
with
and
contemporary
developments.
stylistic
the
Therefore,
drawing
designer
the quality
be
to
skills,
frequently
visual
the
greater
extent
as his particular
saw it
to
illustrators
the work of
a
to
tend
managers
to
etc,
One respondent
managerial
thereby
judging
and in
catnissioning
lettering
designer
that
use still
manager
able
to non-visual
people,
drawing
as well
of
to
be
can
use
specific
seen to require
for
drawing
canmmication,
of
and to have a broad understanding
as having a well developed sense of
literacy.
Not unexpectedly, the designer's

role
deter ined by individual
predilection
designers were found to prefer
were more capable of initiating
were more skilful
certain
ideas
while others
of
a wide number
in representing and rendering detailed solutions.
Although the respondents interviewed

working practices,
the team was found to be

Sane
as well as seniority.
Some
types of design activity.
in
each was also
expressed a broad agreement about

in
individualistic
approach.
very
173
-
The balance
and weaknesses
talent
militate
of skills
was found to
with
approach,
process
emphasis
depending
arsenal
each designer's
differences
individual
in
towards
falling
on the aspects
the
of
design
on different
stages
to which
were most suited,
they
of
designer
on the
might
concentrate
example a very creative
developmental
whereas a designer
stages,
with well-developed
drawing.
would tend to do more presentation
skills
Table 11:
Rspcrxient's
use of drawing
to level of seniority
Mainly
11 (50%)
5 (18%)
14 (64%)
Analysis
/ideas
26 (93%)
18 (81%)
Synthesis
/development
25 (89%)
17 (77%)
In-house
presentation
24 (86%)
18 (82%)
Client
presentation
21 (75%)
15 (68%)
Commissioning
specialists
20 (71%)
11 (50%)
Preparing for
production
5 (18%)
12 (55%)
Respondents
out of 28
found
was also
designers'
responses
confidence
designer's
or
route
lack
into
early
craft
Mainly executive
managerial
Collecting
reference
for
acxx)rdirmir
18 (64%)
Briefing
It
in design
of
Respondents
out of 22
that
attitudes
to
some of
towards
the
questions,
in their
confidence
the design profession,
of
174
-
the
use
drawing,
and
influenced
by
of
were
drawing
own
especially
skill.
when initiated
an interest
through
fron
in
in the use of drawing.
interest
involved
a lot
reliance
on
activities
drawing
of
drawing
as
Designers
have
seem to
classes
helping
a means of
design
the
of
cannon admission
to a
seems to lead typically
relatively
of the respondents)
about one third
particular
(a
illustration
process,
whose education
heavy
a
retained
in
them
a phenomenon worthy
the
various
of
further
study.
the
Although
majority
of
was clear that there

individualistic
with highly
These may work
capacity.
specifically
identified
examples
by identification
respondents
preferred
early
of
for
in
work
it
cammercial organisations,
designers
of influential
profession.
designers
graphic
organisations,
teams
a number
in the
talents
are still
in
or
this
sort
of graphic
in the sample (by means of their
by their
in
and,
peers)
a free-lance
designer
were
during
the development
these
respects,
certain
or
reputation
They
use of drawing.
shared a characteristic
not to have to produce drawings for presentation
stages
within
all
at
purposes
it
Each described
of the design.
to trust
them, having once ccmuissioned
as necessary for the client
drawing
job.
them to do a particular
In each case their
was
use of
those
than
found to be informal
less
distinct
through
stages
and move
who were members of design
designers
greater
on a personal
emphasis
exploratory
art-work
teams.
type
drawings
Their
and a more
of
expressiveness
many of the drawings
In fact,
use of media.
produced by these individuals,
had a quality
shoved a
and even the

of being hand
crafted.
The effects
summaries of
giving
of
of
individualistic
their
particular
approaches
a cross-section
use of drawing
of
descriptions
during
the
by
be described
best
may
from
design
respondents
process.
For
designer
in a middle-sized
design consultancy with a
his own method of using drawing as
wide range of accounts described
he is not
follows.
Although he scribbles
ideas down for the client,
example,
a senior
about his drawing
confident
things
privately.
photographs
stages
of
For
and buys books,

the job he plans
and so likes
ability
collecting
rather
out
reference
than draw.
procedures
- 175 -
and try
time to think
material
In the early
he
takes
analytical
and make time-tables
as a
way of drawing-up
design
He draws to a small
ideas.
initially
scale
but always uses a felt
thereby eliminating
erasure,
pen, never pencil,
drawings.
He
he
back
later
that
so
at a
can go
over a record of
stage
has
he
his
designer
that
explained
over
years
as a practising
developed the ability
from quite rough drawings and does
to evaluate
not need to carry out a highly
decide on a successful
solution.
in order to
presentation
he is quite prepared to draw
finished
Again,
canes to the stage for the group to

He described himself as patient,
and good at
present to the client.
is
he
He
indicated
is
due
to
temperament.
client
presentation,
which
he
illustrator,
When briefing
also quite happy to produce artwork.
an
ideas when it
out sanebody else's
feels
insulting
it
'take
but would
to brief
too much detail
such a professional
with
risk'
on the specialist's
a calculated
ability.
design group,
from a middle-sized
senior designer,
similarly
in
described
how at briefings
idea
have
mind and
would
not
she
an
However, she
would certainly
not draw at all in front of the client.
Another
would
always
library
or
During
initial
draw when collecting
out a general
initial
ideas
she
references
she
makes
has
of
lists
she writes
to the work,
approach
got
some specific
from which
she tends
to
describes
reasonable
standard
visualiser
had
been
most
employed
in
the
to solve
a design
solution,
and
enlarger
be
quite
may
studio
to
presentations
client
difficult
the
information.
to try
presentations
producing
the
as
the
In-house
change scale.
she
in
tracing,
of
to
to any great extent

found
has
mind and
When synthesising
use
going
and may use scribbles
solution
to work.
considerable
but
material,
for
cuttings
in her head and does not use drawing
photocopying
rough,
envelopes
while
analysis,
to sort
until
her
searching
reference
of
part
where
organisation
job.
the
a
A
she was
'being
it,
previously
employed and she preferred
not, as she phrased
bogged down with techniques of visualising'.
She regretted
not having
She
to help her in these tasks.
recall
a better
of visual
material
does not produce artwork
She considers
it
but gives
as very
a detailed
important
to
trace
be able
for
to
specification.
describe
visual
images verbally.
A design director
from a large
design organisation
176
-
with
a particular
towards
orientation
the
approach to the design

and then
for
checks
industry
record
described
He writes
process.
notes
by writing
understanding
different
rather
a
while being briefed,
to
the
to
client
make
he has all the information.

he finds that ideas
Typically,
being briefed,
to be generated almost immediately
and he
start
after
If he
even described doodling on the bus going back to the studio.
in his extensive
cannot find suitable
clippings
reference
material
sure that
file,
he sends out a junior
to find
designer
ideas
Initial
scare.
are
do
not go
worked out on a very small scale and very quickly,
and
being
through many stages of refinement,
the final
often
solution
is in the final
However, it
stage of
envisaged quite
quickly.
developing
the
became the final

if
prefers,
final
that
it
truly
presentation
but
drawings
hopes that
is only when actually
work
of
producing
that
would
He
and care is devoted.
at any stage that involves
the client
accept the
will
His belief
in the form of artwork.
presented
solution
on a piece
most attention
to avoid
possible,
design
that
artwork)
special
producing
(frequently,
solution
artwork
the design
that
is
can be
resolved.
A design
another
itself,
director
large
of another
approach.
He sees the
and might
draw a diagram
but
the client,
would
never
design
expressed yet
organisation,
in
distinct
step
as a very
briefing
to identify
start
aspects
to produce
for
brief
the
of
ideas
creative
this
at
but would never

He may use a sketch to brief
point.
a researcher,
draw himself, as part of the collection
Design
of reference material.
ideas are started with lots of small drawings to 'get things moving'.
it
He finds
the quality
does not
ideas
design
of
the drawings,
Often
use colour.
and to
on colleagues
He involves
solutions.
key ideas,
to draw at this
very natural
but
relationship
'farms
with
the
out'
stage but a consideration
he feels,
these
brief
is
not
Often,
important.
he
sketches are used to test

juniors
to help develop further
first
himself
in
some of
some of this
to
juniors.
client,
of
either
highly
the
finished
drawing
up of
Depending on the
or
relatively
are used to present ideas solutions,

and these drawings
(but
He never produces artwork
are also used to brief
specialists.
the organisation
of which he is a part is large enough to have the
facility
of an in-house art-worker).
rough drawings
- 177 -
A free-lance
designer
illustrator,
reputation,
a well-established
both
described
his own particular
beginning
by
choosing
approach as
he was the best judge of
the job and his own approach to it.
He felt
the client.
type of work involves a
His particular
'on-the-spot
reference
sketching',
and the procedures of
for
what was right

deal of
great
with
and synthesis
are in no way distinct,
as a gradual sorting
more and
out of ideas occurs through drawings that becane gradually
to
He particularly
more resolved
and detailed.
voiced objections
analysis
doing
this
as
client
presentation
through
It
caused
a natural
flexibility
in
strategies.
in
appropriately
the
stage
loss
of
artwork,
from the early
that
the
It
is
variety
not
only
of
is
described
that
degree
a considerable
their
own drawing
designers
can produce
develop
but
ways,
been produced
drawn stages.
there
important
the
final
The
each respondent
individuals
way
for
presentations,
spontaneity.
having
this
although
use of drawing,
their
rough
the
therefore,
in
even
total
progression
can be seen,
drawings
or
was generally
similarities
of
drawings,
presentation
also
that
they
do
this
both in terms of the type of job they are engaged in and

in the development of the design solution
that has been
reached.
the
have been found
therefore
Designers,
tasks,
particular
or
engaged,
and strategically
different
types
freely
or fron
reference
necessary,
and strategically
with
experience,
In many instances
their
work
developed
types
on
which
own individual
and cautiously,
design
the particular
This
capacity
to
they
to
are
combining
They have been found to draw
way,
to draw from memory

and media,
task they are involved
use drawing
as
in
both
appropriately
has been found to be more marked in senior designers
than with junior
designers embarking on their career.
junior
designers
were observed
approach to drawing,
out various
appropriately
and to make changes in scale
material,
time.
of
as necessary.
or carefully
to progress
at any given
orientation
in their
of drawing
and quickly,
to use drawing
of
and anxious about their

drawing.
Senior designers,
ways of dealing
with
their
terms of the use of drawing.

- 178 -
own strengths
to
be tentative
inability
in
to carry
by caqparison,
had
and weaknesses in
/c(c
40
l\
`
.
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,_
i..
r
Figure
38a:
designers
Examples of spatial
that
graphic
conventions
employ, ink and coloured marker, reproduced with 50%
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179
-
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Figure
38b:
designers
that
Examples of spatial
graphic
conventions
50%
ink
with
reproduced
and coloured marker,
employ,
reduction
180
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39:
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the design of a logo type (David Crow
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40a:
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1984-88),
50%
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reduction
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40b:
demonstrate
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41a:
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an academic (open University
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184
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185
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41c:
in
with
drawings
conjunction
Part-of
produced
a range of
(Open
1984-86),
coloured marker
University
an academic
50%
reduction
with
reproduced
and photostats,
186
4.6
(axgs
Over
the
in the use of drawing
period
the
of
has gradually
(1989),
and Ognjenovic
the drawing board
-
profession
fron
typographer,
However,
this
require
provided
the
in
cxmputers
the
design
fron
magazine
that
has not
the facility
ideas.
adapt their
of
when, as noted by Matthias

is invading
all forms of
the corporate
study
use
groan to the point

'the new technology
A visit
ident
designer
the
illustrator.
'
changes in
the
to the
specialist
any fundamental
investigation
to
due to
the
impact
of new
designers
and Morton (1984),

to draw on paper to be able to resolve and
during the study
to Middlesex Polytechnic
to
opportunity
the
of
revealed
types of drawing usage under

technology.
As is confirmed
still
the
study
by Jankel
watch
John Vince,
one of
foremost
the
of computer graphics in the UK, drawing on a scrap of paper

to demonstrate basic spatial
concepts to a student he was instructing
in the use of a computer graphics software package.
He confessed that
exponents
he had needed to teach

use the computer for
Nevertheless,
abilities,
required
it
himself
to draw in order
the exploration
is clear
at least
that,
of spatial
to teach
students
to
conventions.
in some respects,
drawing
additional
are
abilities
or
of established
extensions
for designers to exploit the opportunities
that technological
developnents
Several
offer.
of
the
designers
interviewed
had been
for a
ccmputers to extend their drawing skills
number of years and 23 respondents thought that design courses should
drawing tuition
to help students accacmodate
provide specialised
Opinion was divided among respondents as to
changes in technology.
successfully
using
whether or not the use of a computer would improve a designer's

but the majority
capacity to use drawing effectively,
expressed the
view
that
different
with
that
established
drawing
medium provided
abilities
sufficient
would
opportunity
be
adaptable
to
to becune familiar
medium was given.
has
during
the
Another effect of technological
study
change observed
been the increasing
Two of the respondents
use of fax copiers.
for enhanced
described the opportunity
provided by fax copiers
camunication
with
clients
who were geographically

187 -
distant
and with
x},:
had previously
when contact
the
use of
working
units,
In
of some illustrators,
practices
possible
is clear
designers
Firstly,
the
findings
of
a likelihood
to
that
that
on the
and production
(Hughes, 1989).
to increase
usage can be linked

is
found
have an impact
to
likely
from
there
draw
was also
and on art-work
is
this
on drawing
effects
technology.
that
therefore,
terms,
general
It
systems was beginning
computer
and it
been restricted.
the
study
develognents
two
in
number of
a growing
the
other
aid of computers or utilise
developments
during
technological
of the
some of the procedures
for the purposes of speeding up
graphic design process, particularly
carnunication
and for the adaptation
and refinement
of images for artwork.
will
they
Hence,
with
will
designers
specialists
increasingly
will
technicians
or
range of
have to
an appropriate
and will,
therefore,
of the developing
capacities
or art-work
own understanding
develop
to
Secondly,
manipulative
skills.
'canputerate'
brief
illustration
need
when
need to
catmissioning
promote
their
of the new technology.
Thus, although it would appear that the impact of new technology will
not reduce designers' dependence on their use of drawing, the need to
be flexible
and adaptable in this use will continue to be of paramount
importance.
=
drawing
A study
brought
would provide
about
a valuable
the
of
by
the
topic
changes in
designers'
of developments
future work.
impact
for
graphic
188
-
in
use of
technology
CHRY
Abilities
Drawing
The Required
R5
the
and
Develcpment
of
TaX XXifly an the Use of Drawing

5.1
Inttocuctian
The findings
by graphic
use of drawing
on the
in the design
designers
drawing
4
of
reveal a very canplex pattern
process given
findings
fran the interview
In this chapter further
series
activity.
but
here
(described
the
in
3.3)
Section
are presented,
and case study
to a consideration
ocarents
of the respondent's
emphasis is shifted
in
relating
to
support
this
issues.
Respondents
of the development
specific
is
Attention
drawing
to
the
graphic
drawing
and drawing
to
views
on
of
both
broader
that
criteria
also
evaluative
have been found to adopt when appraising
designers
order
ability
discussion
and through
directed
their
expressed
of appropriate
questions
need in
designers
that
abilities
activity.
axnplex
to
answer
drawing
the
the importance
in
Chapter
the use of
ability.
form
in
the
then
of a
are
set out
presented
taxonany.
This taxonany presents the conclusions reached on the use
The system of
of drawing in the tasks of the graphic design process.
difficulties
described
is
the
of
employed
and
categorisation
ncmenclature encountered in its development are discussed.
so far
The findings
5.2
At an early
study,
drawing
for
it
abilities
the
of
stage
was
that
research,
that
established
both
is
to
say during
'cognitive'
were required
designers
the
and
a definition
of
context of
,
found that
this
these kinds
of abilities.
study),
by graphic
'cognitive'
terms
and as the
many respondents
When asked to
of graphic designers
drawing abilities
required
rate
the
study
described
importance
of
189
-
drawing
pilot
'practical'
and
(see Section
'practical'
need
ability
to
in
was in
it
progressed
the
the
acquire
to
1.5
the
fact
both
practising
graphic
27 of
designers,
essential
while
indicating
that
the
they
asked how important

a broad appreciation
50 respondents
the
23
remaining
all
thought
this
valued
it
they thought
type
thought
that
it
it
was
useful,
that
However, when
of ability.
a graphic designer to have

42 respondents thought it
was for
of drawing in general,
indicating
that this
was essential
and 8 that it was useful,
(see Tablel2(a)).
type of ability
was valued even more highly
Table 12 (a) :
was
cognitive
Rating of the importance of drawing ability

aryl of the
iuortanoe
of drawing to
of having a broad appreciation
practising
graphic designexs
Essential
Importance
of drawing
ability
Importance
of a broad
Useful
27
23
42
Detrimental
Irrelevant
appreciation
of drawing
[Number of respondents = 50]
When asked
remarkably
'practical'
respondents,
abilities,
definitions.
demonstrate',
to
drawing
define
similar
in
Examples
'the
in
that,
were
abilities
47 mentioned
and 46 what
ability,
in
combined
what
may
may be termed
include:
answers.
broadly
abilities
practical
to
ability
the
Of
termed
and
50
cognitive
in
discover
their
and
to
do a pictorial
of an
representation
'translation
'translation
ideas
idea',
of what's
of
onto paper',
and
down
in your head'.
This emphasis on the physical
putting
of
activity
form is echoed through many of the carrnents made
of ideas in a visual
ability
about the use of drawing
to
the
their
be
'cognitive'
both
general,
were
cannents
respondents'
in the graphic
design
process.
The importance of not only putting down ideas for the designers' awn
to
drawing
ideas
but
those
to
others was
using
of
purpose
camunicate
30 respondents specifically
also frequently expressed by respondents.
identified
communication
and the
transmission
190
-
of
ideas
in
their
definitions
drawing
of
to caranunicate
ability
dawn ideas
so that
'to
themselves',
idea'
ability.
to colleagues
get concepts
over',
drawing
described
specifically
'to
These were
have the
and 'drawing
range
should
to put
ji1
and
of concept
that
only 3 gave definitions
as being purely manipulative.
canbination
ability
of
by others who can't

visualise
an
and 'shorthand for explaining
examples of this
Of the 50 respondents,
ccmnunication.
carments
'to be able
or clients',
can be read
they
'the
like
example,
typical
are
precision'
For
'neatness
and
necessary',
be as natural
as handwriting'.
skills
in
the
be
identified
of
ability
specific
could
Thinking by means of drawing, or problem-solving,
given.
'just
by
for
10
one of
mentioned
example
respondents;
was specifically
the ways of solving
on paper'.
visual
problems'
and 'discovery
Two other
definitions
sorts
in response to
mentioned by 9 designers
'visualising
this same question.
Replies like
a range
and indicating
'the
form',
'the
down
the
to
ability
essence of
of styles',
put
knowledge of form is vital'
and 'being able to draw without reference'
'Visual
literacy'
descriptions
are interesting
Therefore,
of
the
was also
designers
important,
very
while
in
important
aspects
of drawing
the
that
said
and the possession
visually
basic
to define
when attempting
graphic
type of drawing
of this
the
addition
visual
of
ability.
drawing
capacity
to
to
ability
literacy
over
ability,
were,
cxrnunicate
resolve
for
50%
was
ideas
some, very
ability.
from the various

The abilities
given above are those identified
it
drawing
definitions
In
was also
contrast,
of
ability
given.
designers
identify
drawing
these
to
the
that
same
possible
abilities
in
drawing
from
important
descriptions
the
their
of
use
regarded as
of
the
conduct
accorded
(abilities
order
of
more
like
to develop
tasks.
specific
importance
to
drawing quickly,
and refine
Here,
it
became clear
that
they
abilities
manipulative
particular
in
drawing carefully
and precisely
visual
form,
and imitating
or simulating
initial
than was apparent fran their
qualities)
various visual
definitions.
Table 12(b) gives the number of times that various types
of
drawing
ability
were mentioned
when respondents
191
-
were
describing
:f
r
i
the use of drawing
Table 3-2(b):
in the different
procedures.
the wing
Volunteer dcc
riet-_i cna of
rac uired for the graphic design process
abilities
Ability
Procedure
Catanunicate
through
drawing
Understanding
& appreciation
of drawing
Put ideas
clam
Drawing to
develop
Drawing to
imitate
quickly
and refine
or simulate
Briefing
28 (56%)
6 (12%)
8 (16%)
Collecting
Reference
Material
16 (32%)
47 (94%)
8 (16%)
11 (22%)
6 (12%)
Develocinent
5 (10%)
Individual
Evaluation
4 (4%)
44 (88%)
2 (4%)
6 (12%)
4 (8%)
30 (60%)
4 (8%)
6 (12%)
2 (4%)
9 (18%)
10 (20%)
5 (10%)
32 (64%)
8 (16%)
12 (24%)
1 (2%)
5 (10%)
47 (94%)
5 (10%)
3 (6%)
28 (56%)
20 (40%)
47 (94%)
1 (2%)
1 (2%)
4 (8%)
4 (8%)
15 (30%)
4 (8%)
Analysis/
First
Ideas
Synthesis/
In-house
Presentation
Client
Presentation
Ca dss-
ioning
Preparing
for
Production
[The figures in the table are the number of respondents out of 50 (in
brackets
identifying
the given drawing ability
as
percentage)
necessary in that particular
procedure]
Tables 13 and 14 show the designers' replies when asked for a fixed
listed
the
under
response to the more specific
alternative
questions
has
designer
'Do
headings
think
is
important
it
a graphic
you
general
drawing abilities...?
' and 'Do you think it is important
'
that a graphic designer has the following drawing skills..?
the following
192
-
Responses to the questi en ' Do you think it is important

'
graphic designer has the following drawing abilities?
Table 13:
Question*
Yes
No
Not a drawing
ability
Appropriate
use in
cultural/historical
40
37
to adapt
Ability
found imagery
32
13
Drawing from
36
45
Drawing for
'brainstorming'
34
10
Drawing to
organise ideas
38
Drawing to
visualise ideas
45
47
29
11
10
46
43
39
45
context
Appropriate
of style
use
observation
Drawing for
analysis
to
Sensitivity
2 dimensional
organisation
to
Sensitivity
3 dimensional
organisation
Dexterity
and
manual control
Drawing for
presentation
Drawing from
memory
Drawing quickly
[Number of respondents
*Abbreviated questions:
= 50
See Appendix I(a)
193
-
for the questions
asked.
t.
Table 14:
'Do you think

Responses to the question
it
drawing
a graphic designer has the following
Question*
is important
skills? '
Not a drawing
skill
Yes
No
Handling of a
range of media
36
10
Creative
24
15
11
Calligraphic
skills
17
25
Handling
26
15
32
13
Handling drawing
instruments
30
16
Handling
38
Handling tracing
techniques
31
11
Cropping of
imagery
25
19
use
of collage
of a
range of specialist
materials
Handling
spirit
markers
air-
brush techniques

* For the sake of brevity in the table the questions
See Appendix I(a) for the full questions.
abbreviated.
have been
The data presented in Table 13 supports the findings generated by the

more open-ended question asking the designers to define drawing
it
and furthermore,
ability,
useful
additional
also
provides
information.
For example, 45 respondents thought that it
was
important designers had the ability
ideas and 45 thought
to visualise
drawing was important as an aid to analysis but, when specifically
asked, about the same number of respondents also thought that
(for example dexterity,
to present,
the ability
practical
abilities
to 2 dimensional organisation)
Not
and sensitivity
were important.
194
-
.
j
45 respondents
surprisingly
to draw quickly.
Again, it
thought
that
relation
to the cultural
important
is
appreciation
is also worth
interesting
the
of
the fact
be
to
important
able
was
to note that 40 respondents
appropriate
or historical
noting
it
that
use
use
of
inform
to
that
to be able to draw from memory than

important to be able draw from observation.
In general
thought
implying
Only
airbrush
that
handle
drawing
17 thought
calligraphic
techniques
were
of
range
media,
and those
instruments
that
thought
the
use of
creative
cropping
of imagery were not drawing
not only
thought
tracing
markers,
the
specialist
of
use
by over
to be important
to note that while 11

collage and 19 that the
24 and 25 respectively
abilities,
they were drawing
that
in
interesting
also
to
However, the ability
were thought
is
respondents
most
spirit
involved
and materials
It
some respondents
than more broadimportant
and
skills
in'.
specifically
abilities
50% of the respondents.

respondents
it
(36) who thought
important;
can be 'bought
such skills
techniques,
practice.
(39) thought
those
Table
specific
8 that
in
14 may be said to show that

less important
techniques or skills
terms,
based abilities.
just
drawing
more respondents
important
it
drawing
of
jobs was
of particular
important,
thus
style
contexts
and 37 thought appropriate

literacy
a need for visual
implying
It
thought
but
abilities
that
also
they
were important.
it
So,
be
may
investigated,
highly
and
the pattern
appreciation
different
process,
sanething
it
example,
effectively
decisions
will
to
that
the capacity
tasks
of this
has
require
found
that
combination
during
a briefing,
recall
both
of
skills
drawing
graphic
design
specific
can be illustrated.
the
the
the
of
practical
or
uses
specific
procedures
complexity
been
record
occur
and
to errploy
several
understanding
executive
of
closely
is found to be
required
of knowledge,
range
By considering
of
abilities
is
drawing
of
use
interaction
broad
and, to sane extent,
typical
ideas
the
with
and techniques.
the
when
of drawing
involving
complex,
abilities
For
that
said
of
195
-
in
of
this
order
first
to
ideas
recording
information
about
use
and
of
drawing
design
emergent
form
visual
The drawings will

and of the means of depicting
stylistic
qualities.
before another idea fozms, or before
need to be produced very quickly,
further
is required.
However, in that
with the client
carinunication
the drawing
be used for
will
later
speed must not preclude
reference,
precision.
it
Again,
greater
has been found that

is
emphasis
put
when a design
on manipulative
idea is being
typographic
that
the
and pictorial
potential
Therefore,
elements,
of
range of visual
fron
the
reference
visual
to
a sufficient
design solution
material
qualities
degree
a
drawn
of
of
finish
may be evaluated.
a range of media, to depict a wide
display
including
text
the effects
and
of
a possible
to control
the ability
Sax tikes
skills.
elements are produced by copying and tracing

and 'indications'
are produced to represent
'resolved'
qualities,
typography,
and to control the two-dimensional spatial

organisation
However, the designer also needs the more conceptual
are needed.
involved in selecting appropriate visual reference material,
ability
both pictorial
the overall visual
and typographic, and in controlling
impression in accordance with the specified
approach to the design
__
job.
The production
of
'specification'
involves
yet
another
range
of
beyond
little
abilities,
putting
emphasis on practical
skill
to work neatly,
of a limited
range of media and the capacity
control
but requiring
for specific
the ability
to conceptualise
instructions
facilities
production
such that they can be set out in a manner that
drawing
carnunicates
specific
to technicians
to a particular
operating
production
The production of artwork

involve only drafting skills
However, in
some cases,
those of artists
rivalling
to be required.
Therefore,
skills,
according
to a range of criteria
process.
has been observed in some instances to

equipment.
and the handling of specialist
a wide range of drawing abilities,
even
has been found
illustrators,
or specialist
a canplex inter-relationship
experience of the graphic
196
-
of intellectual
design process,
and practical
knowledge of
t=
z ._
types
and the understanding

of visual
conventions are
required by graphic designers if they are to use drawing effectively.
has also been found to be closely linked
In addition, drawing ability
solution
to
=
=
the
to
and
effectively
with both colleagues
Although it could
clients
and to the management of design operations.
be argued that, in the conventional
under
sense, not all the abilities
discussion
drawing abilities,
they must be seen as such
are strictly
capacity
cannunicate
in the context of this study, in that they are abilities

that graphic
designers have to develop in order to use drawing appropriately
in all
the phases of the graphic
design process.
The importance
of this
'holistic'
approach to the consideration
cannot be
of drawing ability
underestimated
development
and
indeed
of drawing
it
ability
underpins
in BA level
later
discussion
design
graphic
on
the
education.
Based on the findings
made in this study, it has been possible to make

between different
types of drawing ability
a useful distinction
and
thereby identify,
in broad terms, those drawing abilities
required by
a graphic designer.
These are listed
Table 15: The required
drawing
in table
abilities
15.
designers
of graphic
1.
Ability
to control
a range of specialist
2.
Ability
to control
a range of media
3.
Ability
to draw accurately
4.
Ability
to draw quickly
5.
Ability
to set out or lay out drawn imagery
6.
Ability
to bring together
7.
Ability
to imitate
8.
Ability
to understand how drawn imagery has been constructed
9.
Ability
to observe accurately
10.
Ability
to assess the elements of visual
11.
Ability
cultural
to
assess
or historical
of imagery
a synthesis
the qualities
equipnent
of visual
imagery
from life
the
elements
basis
- 197 -
of
styles
visual
'fashions'
and
imagery
on
.'
12.
Ability
to judge the appropriateness
13.
Ability
to conceive and depict
14.
Ability
to plan out sequences of actions
15.
Ability
to resolve
16.
Ability
to use drawing
to instruct
17.
Ability
to carnunicate
visual
18.
Ability
to conceptualise
19.
Ability
to recall
20.
Ability
to memorise visual
21.
Ability
to recall
22.
Ability
to assess the appropriate
23.
Ability
to use drawing
There is
by the
1-4
in
the
refer
involved
to
in
primarily
to
to
images
and drawing
systems
use of drawing
Rather,
the
of
in
importance
very
broad
the
of
context
intended
terms,
the
of abstraction.
to
manipulative
perceptual
relate
in
of an order
level
spatial
abilities.
Those
literacy
visual
15-18
5-6
abilities,
abilities.
to
mainly
in visualisation
essentially
potential
strategically
primarily
7-9
10-12
to others
material
list.
the
refer
and
canpositional,
referred
ideas
material
an increasing
list
others
and use conventions
in
arrangement
or images
form
and cannission
visual
forms
three-dimensional
in a visual
of course no implication
represents
order
ideas
of drawn images
and quality
refer
and carmunication.
abilities
while
to
to
13-14
abilities
19-21 refer
involving
largely
to abilities
the capacity
and 22-23 refer
of recall
to the breadth of understanding
to apply the use of drawing
required
to the solution
appropriately
of graphic design problems and to the
to use drawing in a flexible,
Part of the
capacity
adaptable way.
described
in 5.3 below.
above, when asked how they rate
the importance
used in the taxonany
system of categorisation
is based on the above list.
A.S. sham in Table 12(a)
of drawing ability,
that drawing ability
27 of
the
said that they thought

to a graphic designer and 23 said
50 respondents
was essential
-198-
that
it
is also worth noting

It
that
was useful.
a number of
interview
respondents fron both this structured
programme and from the
20 respondents
in the focused programme (described
in Section 3.3)
for a designer to cope without
said that they thought it was possible
drawing ability
that is, ways to avoid
as there were 'ways round',
drawing.
However, all these respondents,
and most notably those who
said
that
they themselves
had limited
drawing
ability,
said
it
caused
severe disadvantages.
'Difficulty
in
that
problem
drawing
ccernnunicating
respondents
Table
ideas
to
volunteered
16 indicates
others'
as being
was the
caused
most typical
by a lack of
responses given to specific

(The
questions
about problems caused by a lack of drawing ability.
full questions are given in Appendix I(a),
Item 6. )
Section III,
ability.
f i"
.
J4
Table 16:
Prableins caused by a lack of drawing ability
(,.
Generation of
ideas limited
29
Causes lack
of confidence
22
Can spoil
presentation
slows
progress
20
97
[Number of respondents = 50; several

category]
As stated
structured
designers
Can cause
sloppy
artwork
responding in more than one
above, a high proportion

of the 50 respondents in the
interview
that
programme expressed a belief
graphic
(see
drawing
Table
should have a broad appreciation
of
Again a high proportion,

42, thought it was essential to be
image makers and 8
able to judge the drawing ability
of specialist
thought it was useful.
Many of the respondents said that these
linked to drawing ability,
were inherently
abilities
and all agreed
12(a).
they were important to the use of drawing during the graphic design
33 thought that it was essential for a designer to be able
process.
to conceptualise a visual image and then describe it in words, and 17
thought that this ability
23 thought that this ability
was useful.
199
-
was linked
with
drawing
to
managerial
27 described
status,
being important
Furthermore,
ability.
to. the performance
the
of
use of
of their
28 respondents
the
drawing
ability
as
tasks.
managerial
be concluded that,
in terms of drawing, a wide range
that
it is essential
of abilities
are demanded of graphic designers.
developed,
but also that they are
not only are practical
abilities
It
may therefore
associated
intellectual
with
that
designers
able
to
develop
freely,
work
need to be
resolved drawings.
they
drawing
of drawing
a range
of the design
develop
and through
drawing,
and drawing
creative
and individualistic
During
the
drawing
that
activity,
examples
either
of
different
solutions.
of evaluative
application
drawings were both described
and
of
indicated,
of
well-developed
their
profession,
most of the respondents
thought
was essential,
designers
Before
considering
to other findings
the
albeit
with
difficulty.
and without
of the drawing
However,
ability
they indicated
exception
of able draughtspersons.
an
It
valued what they

criteria
used to
is good or not?
in some detail,
it is worth drawing attention
the research which also reveal something of the
these
fran
cope with
could
in the production
be said that almost all the respondents
can therefore
But what are the
understood to be 'good' drawing.
drawing
and
ability
an appreciation
that
themselves
drawing
and interest
judge whether
thought
some respondents
to graphic
was not essential
those without
admiration
of
or the
tasks,
managerial
of design
types
the
of
use and quality
ability
of specialists
been observed that

level
beyond this
of
canbination
support
range
has also
ability
development
As previously
requirements
drawing
use of this
appropriate
It
process.
a strategic
research,
observed.
when required,
criteria
to the
criteria
the
of
their
utility,
Evaluative
but,
detailed
produce ccoplex,
and carefully
Farther
to this development of a wide range of
balancing
both intellectual
is
and manual skills,
the awareness and understanding
5.3
be
to
able
abilities,
in the context
many designers
important
They need to
ability.
and imaginatively
quickly
is
it
Again,
understanding.
200
-
evaluative
For
that
criteria
example,
potential
about it.
initially
was later
It
interviews
the
when score of
respondents
designers
practising
denied
found that
may apply to
were being set
drawing
either
the
up,
or knowing much
was due to the fact
this
drawing.
they
that
assumed the study was concerned with an academic or artistic

approach
to drawing.
However,
once interviews
were under way, without
exception respondents were found not only to have valuable information
to contribute
use drawing
designerly
in
tasks
note that their

drawing activity
use of drawing,
performance
of at least
the
they
which
is
It
were engaged.
to
the
sane of
interesting
to
initial
the
reaction
was that they did not consider
design
the graphic
and drawings
produced during
drawing.
to be 'real'
process
discussion
During
in
themselves
but also
designers
about the graphic
designers,
about drawing
who had only
and drawing
with more junior

ability
the profession,
some (11 out
joined
recently
jF
of a sample of 20) were also found to assume an academic or artistic

interest
on the part of the researcher,
and in several instances their
They talked
comments were very illuminating.
about drawing in the
sort
of terms that
had been applied
during
specifically
foundation
their
they were at college,
while
more
In some instances
courses.
they
indicated
a feeling that they had not really done very much drawing
since those times, apart fron during life classes and other contentspecific classes on BA courses or during their awn time.
Two groups
and
status,
namely 7 out
of respondents,
8 of
those
respondents
26 who had managerial
of the
who had been working
in
the
20 years, revealed that it was because of what they

'natural'
described as their
drawing ability
in drawing,
and interest
become involved in art and design as a subject
that they had initially
profession
over
and,
subsequently,
fron
these
two
graphic
groups
recruits
to
becoming
progressively
greater
stated
practice
described
profession
less
over
Several
as a career.
what
they
the
years,
important
felt
was a
with
change
drawing
skills
and verbal
individuals
that
and,
they
as
in
ability
taking
However,
significance.
respondents
working
the
design
on
further,
these same
when questioned
drew as part of their
everyday
still
they
admitted,
201
-
so
did
their
juniors.
.=
Nevertheless,
they
did
not think of the types of drawing production

they saw around them as being 'real'
drawings in the sense of the type
of drawings they had themselves been taught to produce at college.
Some of
these
saw the
respondents only
drawings.
as 'real'
artists
findings
of these
The canbination
drawings
of
illustrators
from respondents
in a wide range of
may be seen
profiles,
age groups, and with very different

experience
fundamental
as indicative
of a rather
or
confusion
found to influence
It is undeniable
same designers.
plays a role in the working practice
of these designers,
of drawings
that
consideration
However,
they
produce
findings,
such
important
fact
drawing
activity
and drawing
graphic
design
part
designerly
activity
for
drawing
solutions
that
and
members of the design

instances
just
but highly
relevant
Drawing
activities
criticised,
for
design
jobs
forms
of
of
production
to
when thought
by clients
was also
the
be an important
for
both
given,
the
for
in
successfully
was found
and was freely
obscure
criteria
evaluative
do operate
types
Criticism
given
but the kinds
not
should
team and by members of marketing
the criticism
drawing
that
own right.
various
profession.
'double-think'
be seen by them as worthy
important
although
equally
of
may not
in their
or evaluation
and
design
appropriate
by
staff.
In sane
observed
to be not
instructive.
that
were
unnecessarily
example when designers
spent
time-consuming
details
time rendering
were
of
had not
been evaluated.
degrees of
Also various
finish
to be considered
for
were found
particular
appropriate
to
and 'over finish'
procedures,
or 'lack
was subject
of finish'
The types of drawing production
criticism.
prepared for presentation,
that
especially
'client
criticism.
For
attended
by the author,
very
confusing
to
presentation',
example,
the
were
during
inappropriate
client.
client
subject
especially
to
presentation
meeting,
was found to be
use of drawing
drawings
The presentation
had been
that implied that all aspects of the

produced with a degree of finish
design had been resolved,
The
whereas in fact this was not the case.
designer was put in the position
'it
the clients
of having to tell
202
-
look like
because they had, understandably,
that'
actually
assumed from the nature of the drawings presented that the proportion
won't
certain
of
been determined.
had already
elements
the members of the design team acknowledged

of drawing had caused the confusion.
It
was also
clear
that
all
a inappropriate
that
in the production
errors
Subsequently,
use
and
of specifications
can have particularly

serious consequences for the production
design solutions,
are
and so these types of drawing production
artwork
of
monitored
design
and criticised
team.
very
carefully
was found that
it
Again,
by
evaluate the work from caatmissioned specialists.

of image had been cannissioned,
art-work
would
the
members of
senior
designers
would carefully
type
When a specific
be accepted
not
that
did not meet requirements.

It
was noted
performance
drawing
use of
tasks.
of executive
the design
team thought
or
this
Against
a
conversely
form
respondents,
were being
thus
according
in
produced
the
it
being
on a
drawn
was voiced.
several
be
can
and during
judged
specific
examples of the ways in
by
by designers
were described
the case study
judged were observed.

collected,
as that
was not
used when passing

form of
roughly-scribbled
a confusing
background,
drawing
tasks
managerial
that when
was clear,
been
had
drawing
made,
use of
an inappropriate
'dissent'
instruction,
which
in
Nevertheless,
example an over-prescriptive
briefing,
data
the
to the same degree of open criticism
subject
for
that
it
to the following
instances
several
To su:ranarise the
may be said
that,
findings
a drawing
criteria:
Does it
contribute
Does it
play its
Does it
set out the relevant
Does it
aid analysis
to the progress of the job?

part in the overall
Can it
be 'read'
Has it
been sufficiently
visual
design process?
information?
of the design problem?
by others?
econanical
203
-
to produce?
when drawings
fran
the
can be judged
serve to evaluate an idea?
Does it
help to 'sell'
it
Will
it
Will
solution?
The
the
merits
information
necessary
of a taxamy
_t
the
of
a specific
design
a specialist
being
of
instructions?
give accurate
it convey
Will
caraniss ioned?
5.4
a client
convince
Does it
an idea?
to
oa the use of drawing
discussed above
a taxonomy based on the findings
it has been shown that
During the study,
now be described.
will
help
than
designers
drawing
in
to
use
a
graphic
variety
of ways
design
perform part of the range of tasks which form the graphic
The development
of
detail
Not every
process.
been included
in
have been identified
practices
typical
overview
summary or
of drawing
car lexity
can
most
to provide
usage but also
its
described
carconly
of
a classification
be said
therefore
findings,
the
of
the
in order
The taxonany
usage.
but
taxonomy,
the
usage has
on such drawing
findings
of the
indicating
to
only
not
integration
present
the
the design
within
process.
Table
17 set
design
taxonomy of
The table
process.
Managerial
representing
2),
this
out
divided
is
(Section
Tasks
Tasks (Section
and Self-Development
use of drawing
the
into
1),
3).
in
three
the
graphic
sections,
Tasks (Section
main
Executive
on the left
of the table,
the main phases of the design process are divided

into procedures and
into tasks.
then , in turn,
Movement dawn the table shows the broad
On the right
the use made of
sequence of events.
of the table,
drawing in each of these tasks is given, together with details
of the
types
drawing
of
in this
identified
adopted
following
taxonomy
for
the
produced
taxonomy are
described
the
required
Details
study.
subsections,
is
and
the
in
drawing
of the construction
That is
given below.
system
more
of
detail.
204
-
categorisation
Initially
abilities
and terminology
to
in
the
for
the
reasons
for
say,
adopted
the
the table into three are given in Section 5.4.1.

splitting
5.4.2,
in identifying
the problems encountered
individual
In Section
tasks
In Section 5.4.3, a distinction

sequence are explained.
between the use of drawing and the types of drawing produced,
developed for the
Section 5.4.4 the system of nomenclature
their
drawing
employed for
5.4.1
is
produced
drawing
the required
The three
In
considered.
Section
5.4.5,
the
and
is made
while
in
types
of
terminology
is discussed.
abilities
of the tax mny
secticns
for
task
described
their
use of
which the respondents
drawing could be divided
into managerial
tasks and
tasks,
executive
tasks and so similarly
the taxonomy has been divided
self-developnent
The types
into
of
to
sections
findings
the
relating
managerial
these
represent
tasks,
use
distinct
drawing
of
tasks
executive
and
types
in
the
tasks.
of
performance
self-developnent
thereby emphasising the importance

presented separately,
drawing in quite'distinct
types of designerly
activity.
designers
never
may not
involve
nevertheless
of involvement
achieve
themselves
found that
with
tasks
much seniority
in
a majority
in
their
Thus,
the
of
such
tasks
are
of the use of
Although
or may
profession,
self-developmental
tasks,
of respondents
described
some
it
was
some sort
in each of these categories.
uses of drawing were apparent in the performance

Receiving and understanding the briefing
of many managerial tasks.
fron the client
Drawing was
were aided by the use of drawing.
Highly characteristic
be
to
used in the planning of the progress of jobs through
observed
the design studio,
and again for planning the overall
approach to
design solutions which was generally found to be the responsibility
of
for
the
Drawing was seen to be crucial
personnel.
canrninication of ideas, information and design solutions to the design
team, for caranissioning specialists
and for convincing the client.
These duties were found to be generally,
although not exclusively,
senior
managerial ones in the majority
of design organisations
205
-
researched.
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.i
A range of procedures
and these will
problems
in the
the
of their
and the
themselves
or lesser
to a greater
or
material;
solutions;
can be broadly
tasks
briefing
the
manager
as
degree,
orientation
particular
responding
summarised as follows:
the design team by the designer
to
as caranunicated
reference
personnel;
assembling
appropriate
design
design
the
problem;
potential
analysing
analysing
developing,
design solutions;
evaluating
and resolving
marketing
design
solutions;
chosen
for production;
and, in some
specifying
All these tasks were observed to depend on
presentations;
preparing
cases, producing
art-work.
drawing
for
activity
their
individual
Designer's
refining
specialists;
ccrmnissioning
perfonnance,
improve their
to
efforts
to different
albeit
extents.
have also
abilities
because, although they
in the categorisation
of tasks
were generally
conducted in respondent's
own time,
by them to be an essential
considered
nevertheless
been included
tasks
Such self-developmental
following
reasons: to
visual
form;
ideas;
to improve
figure
drawing;
to
aid
outlets,
and looking
the development
exhibitions,
drawing
through
the
were
part
of
for
the
a collection
of
media
visiting
of the broader
in specific
example
and specific
provided by the respondents
they
involved
venues,
books,
television
aspects
for
techniques,
that
of visual
or
own style
ways,
appropriate
at magazines,
to
and sensitivity
designer's
the
of
ability
revealed
of
language
visual
explore
be performed
to
development
The descriptions
of such tasks
types
in
development
the
and to
solution
found
were
develop
their
example calligraphy.
conduct
assist
to
material;
reference
they
practice.
professional
the
of
work.
These executive
to
described
respondents
in these executive
tasks
participating
level of seniority
depending on their
of most design
solution
to engage in a series
the designer
require
All
tasks.
executive
be involved
will
for
observation
for
of
of
example retail
etc;
literacy
as well
as
by visiting
museums etc.
Although the relationship
to the. phases and procedures of the graphic

211
-
design
was relatively
process
executive
tasks,
generally
not
that
was apparent
develop
table
to
those
phases
are of particular
abilities
of
and
case the managerial
for self-development
were
jobs.
specific
tasks
and procedures
importance.
it
However,
conducted to
in the
are listed
were
often
and so they
and abilities,
skills
against
the progress
self-developmental
specific
the
above tasks
as explained
linked
in
clear
where
skills
such
and
complications
arise if an attempt is made to describe all
the tasks of a 'designer manager' under managerial tasks.
This is due
have a dual role,
being responsible
to the fact that many designers
for both designing
the executive
Therefore,
and managing design.
Inevitably,
the
designer
that
tasks
managers were found to perform are not repeated in

(and so that
task category
of the taxonomy
section
managerial
be taken
not
should
performed
its
on
awn to
designers).
by senior
In
the
designers
design
teams, both managerial
and executive
by the
same person.
necessity,
performed
found that
in many organisations
of the design
tasks
5.4.2
to
specific
executive
task
but,
As indicated
the
these
avoid
procedures
or
organisations
were found to be, of

it
Conversely,
was quite
to
again
small
tasks
free-
was also
for
other members
or
manager on a briefing
usual
repetition,
are
not
the
managerial
included
in
the
category.
of the graphic
tasks
I1
it
very
team to accompany a designer

session
presentation
in
working
tasks
of
range
independent,
case of
lance
and those
the
represent
design
process
in Chapter 1, the terns 'task'
is used here to denote a

The task
undertaking to be carried out.
piece of work, a specific
that has
represents the level of operation within designerly activity
been the main subject of scrutiny in this study.
Therefore, the use
of drawing involved in the performance of tasks represents the core of
the taxonany.
A complication
the
tasks
4
tasks
of
in
the
the
development
design
are not necessarily
process
of
a systematic
fron the
arises
conducted
-212-
sequentially,
categorisation
finding
that
but will
of
such
frequently
during
be performed
the progression
session, designers will
simultaneously
example, during a briefing
aspects
job
the
of
received
and
through
doodles
while
first
the
recording
and rapid
to produce basic visual

check for understanding
visual
making
ideas
by
pranpted
information
the
of
the
occasion
They may also find it

descriptions
of solution
scribbles.
or schematic
necessary
types
to
the client.
with
'simultaneity'
This
notes
For
of a procedure.
be querying various
phenomenon of
found to be very influential
or
both
in
parallel
has
processing
the designer's
terms
been
use of
of
that graphic
drawing and in the development of the drawing abilities
designers need.
It has beccene clear that,
not only is it necessary
that designers are able to produce a wide range of drawing types, but
that
they
are able
of
circumstances
involved.
that
However,
design
particular
limitations
the
has not been possible
it
tasks
the
'strategically'
these
to carbine
have been presented
procedure
the
of
to show this
in
the
order
in
they
which
form
tabular
carmonly
are
have meant
Hence, the
simultaneity.
most
to the
according
described
by
respondents.
5.4.3
The use of drawing aril the types of drawing Pprodaced.
the use
separately
because
is
drawing
drawing
the
types
This
not
and
of
produced.
of
drawing
drawing
involve
types
of
use
of
a number of
only can a given
but a given type of drawing (here meaning the product of a
production,
drawing
be
different
drawing activity)
For
to
example,
can
put
uses.
In the taxonomy,
drawing
communicating
the re-use
re-use
has been necessary
can be used as an aid
activity
and the
it
of
the
thereby
idea
to
produced
to
others.
the
to classify
designer's
thinking
processes
may then be used to as an aid

(See Section 4.3 for findings
to
on
In the taxonany a dash is used to denote a

of drawings .)
drawing in the 'Type of Drawing Produced'
column in the
table.
5.4.4
rksoesclature flayed
While brief
descriptions
for
the types
of drawing
Produced
are given in the taxonany to describe

213
-
the use
task, specific names have been given

made of drawing in any particular
to the types of drawing produced.
This has been done to try to
further discussion.
characterise the drawings and facilitate
However,
considerable
attributing
specific
It
need to
than that
occasioned
for
terms
of drawing produced.
themselves have very little
these
by carenunication
in
encountered
types
various
designers
practising
specific
adopt
initially
were
names to the
that
was clear
problems
drawing
various
types,
other
among themselves.
the
to
case study particular
attention
was given to trying
that they
names fron designers for both the drawing activities
elicit
were engaged in and for the drawing types that they were producing.
that
they had terms for
It, was apparent
some of the particular
During
activities,
example to
especially
'trace'.
especially
that
development,
type
not
fran
types
the initial
for
much of
with
the
in
produced
the
creative
the
the
changing,
the designers
insight
An interesting
by talking
these
advertising
respects
nature
the
of
still
into
to a junior
types
of
)
profession.
one
almost
name the
design
drawing
process
production,
Although
this
designer
problem
educated
Germany.
what
being
herself
which a high quality
of craftsmanship
When being briefed
could
of nanenclature
in
to
many
to
be
was obtained
She described
the appropriate
used
in
be seen
referred
producing
it
to
to then as 'roughs'.
with
neat should
the
were
produced
she had experienced

she termed 'neatness',
of presentation.
task,
a specific
of
production
drawings
the problems
of
of
idea-
all
organisation
roughs and then finished
were also found to be used for
case study
in
in
the members of the design team in the

them as 'first
roughs, more
were to describe
(The terms 'scamps' and 'sciies'
roughs'.
fron
responses
particularly
the
phases
production,
involved
tasks
distinguish
clearly
drawing
their
for
others,
These drawing
types
another.
to as 'roughs',
and when asked
referred
exclusively
drawing
did
they
to instruct
was necessary
However,
associated
drawing
of
where it
level
a system
for
at all stages
was a prerequisite
by a senior designer to carry out
"haw
would
she
ask
activity,
be" as her way of determining
the type of drawing she
with
its
allied
drawing
214
-
was being required to produce.

This
to
reference
she was expected
'neatness'
did
to
it
take;
just
not
was not
to the amount of care
refer
just
about
neatness
in
the
to the purpose of the drawing.

sense, but also referred
For example, if the work were to be part of an early presentation
to
the client
and therefore
part of an evaluation
of a number of ideas
produced by several members of the design team, it was necessary that
conventional
her work be of an equivalent

degree of resolution,
or in her terms
'neatness',
to the others.
She even talked about agreeing to produce
'neat roughs',
this apparent contradiction
not only making good sense
to herself but also to the senior designer who briefed
her.
Whenquestioned about this

did they not have different
practice, designers indicated that not only

terms for these types of drawings but that
they did not think that there was any need for them to have such
be assumed that the term 'rough' has came
terms. It must, therefore,
to have a generally
if rather
ill-defined,
agreed broad-ranging,
meaning among the ccmnunity of graphic designers.
illwas apparent that other terms in cannon usage had similarly
defined meanings.
Confusion was found with the term 'visualising'.
Although the graphic designers all used the term to mean 'putting down
they were also in general agreement that they
one's awn idea',
It
employed the term to describe

that is a specialist
visualiser,
designer's behalf.
A broad-ranging
systematic
far
at
types.
activities
of a professional
brought in to present ideas on a
in
approach was adopted

method for
and consistent
as possible,
the
the
reflected
same time
allowed
to arrive
naming drawing
the terminology
for
order
a greater
finally
types
at a
which,
as
used in the profession,

between
differentiation
but
the
Where possible,
interviews.
terms were identified

fron the scripts
of the
In sane instances,
were asked to think
when designers
about terminology,
many of them were able to contribute
more carefully
terms for either
when an actual
drawing
drawing
activities
activity
or
or type
215
-
for
drawing
could
types,
especially
be used as a point
of
Once a list
of potential
names had been established
the distinct
types of drawing identified
in the study, this
for
reference.
all
was then checked with
a number of designers
as the
It
case study.
desirable
this
to try
could
to name every
essential
each quite
in
distinct
from the organisation
the
type
type
classification
or even
necessary,
of drawing produced as
However, it
system.
to
study to try
Table 18 gives a list
kinds of drawing
the different
context
of
of drawing.
the
of the terms used in the taxonomy for

Also given, as a help to understanding
produced.
drawing activity
Table 18:
these
DRAWINGACTIVITY
and types
of drawing
prodLlced
TYPE OF DRAWINGPRODUCED
To note information
Visual note
To pass on information
Instruction
To produce a schematic
Schematic
representation
To express three-dimensions
Projection
To plan approach or
production
Plan
To plan out the contents
of a magazine or book
Imposition
To plan out the contents

of time-based
terms,
by which they are produced.
Drawing activities
used
been considered
conceivable
lead to an over-canplex
was considered
identify
has not
list
Story
media
To draw from observation
board
Sketch
To copy
COPY
To trace
Trace
To doodle
Doodle
To scribble
Scribble
To visualise
Visualisation
To indicate
Indication
216
-
is
the
To lay out
Layout
To outline the content

of photographic material
Key-line
[Outline]
To render
Rendering
To demonstrate
type of
illustration
illustration
Trial
To demonstrate type of
lettering
To produce mock-up of
relationship
of elements
Day
To specify
Specification
To demonstrate for
of camnissioning
purposes
Demonstration
To draw up artwork
To refine
Draft
Refinement
aspects of artwork
To produce artwork creatively
'visual
The term
lettering
Trial
a designer
note'
is
Resolution
is used to describe
recording
information
the drawings
about
visual
produced
aspects
when
usually
Fig. 2 shows an example of this type of

employed during a briefing.
drawing.
The term 'instruction'
is used for the particular
type of
that a senior designer uses when
canbined drawing and oral description
passing
on a briefing
of this
type.
The terns
that,
for
'schematic'
example,
to a junior
is
for
used
a designer
types
to
the
client
the
Fig.
3.
and to
briefing.
4 shows an example
Fig.
diagrammatic
to analyse
produces
and an example can be seen in

solution
designer.
basic
Schematics
check
for
type
of
drawing
types
solution
are used to
understanding
show
during
They are also used in consultancy

reports,
or to 'show back
the implications
to the client'
The
of the job based on the briefing.
'projection'
describes
ter
the type of drawing produced when the
Figs.
38(a) and 38(b)
of three-dimensions
expression
are involved.
shows examples of
'projections'.
217
-
A 'plan'
the half-drawn,
describes
sane designers
that
to plan
half-written
chart
work, or design managers use

is used in the
The term 'imposition'
use to organise
of a job.
the progress
or flow
listing
their
to describe the early plan for the layout of a magazine, it

profession
is a particular
type of drawing plan,
Fig. 4
as is 'a storyboard'.
shows a roughly drawn 'imposition'
or plan.
The drawings
information
from observation
used to record visual
are
to as 'sketches'.
The types of drawing referred
to as 'copy'
referred
to
the
tasks
are frequently
and 'trace'
employed for
related
develognent
in
important
very
the
development
Fig.
of design
and resolution
collection
literacy.
of visual
6 examples of 'copies'
of drawing
types
fron
that
is
most difficult
characterises
free
of very
thoughts
are
or casual
beginning
to
during
descriptions)
early
drawing
that
form,
often
briefing
the
accompanies
adaptations
is
the
are being
of
the mind',
very
quickly
in an attempt
Fig.
12 shows examples.
The
terns
'visualisation'
effort
so lots
to
view,
9(a)
free-ranging
idea
stage,
of small
record
has
been
this
the
of
the
such doodles
can
out
shows an example)
lists'.
activity
that
The
often
and
many ideas
and 'the hand cannot
when
drawings
rapid
is
shopping
by the designer
considered
keep up with
concentrated
early
difficult
uses when first

to designer's
or when a designer
used to show the

sort
tackle
a designer
(according
studio.
'scribble'
an analysis,
of
to
'toying
is used to describe
In accordance with the popular

'backs
be
found
the
(Fig.
on
even
of envelopes'
'intermixed
or as one designer described
with
term
However,
and playful
attempt
the
separate
ideas.
stages
'doodle'
Hence, the term
problems.
to
creative
and deliberate
more purposeful
conceptual
design
it
5 shows examples of 'sketches',

7(b) examples of 'tracings'.
produced when developing
ideas
with
the
type
Fig.
use is also
and in the
their
information
visual
has been made between the free-ranging
distinction
around'
of
and Fig.
been indicated,
As has already
but
solutions,
have to be produced
conceptual
activity.
the more
used to describe
to put down ideas or 'give form to an idea'.
It
218
-
has
been
found
'visualised'
design
the
individual
designer,
be
to
facilitate
ideas
once
team,
design
these
developed
and
made,
manager,
in
resolved
have
solutions
'visualisations'
is
selection
by a designer
or
evaluation.
24 and 29(a).
been
to other
by
either
the
design
of promising
detail
in order
more
Examples of 'visualisations'
further
in Figs.
for
through
and ca nunicated
members of
ideas
that,
to
are given
Once a considered attempt to express specific,

stylistic
qualities
and
detailed
is
drawing
canpositional
arrangements
made,
activity
slows down and becomes more painstaking.
generally
The term
'indication'
is used to describe
the type
of drawing
made to
demonstrate
the effects
and 19(b)),
and the
of specific
term 'layout'
(see Figs. 19(a)

qualities
to describe drawings produced with
visual
the more specific
intention
integration
and typographic
The term 'keyline'
or
17(b)
the
of resolving
spatial
elements,
as shown in Figs.
'outline'
is used to describe
of pictorial
and 17(c).
sort
drawings
of
when working
generally
designers
that
with
produce
photographic
found in editorial
particularly
and the
organisation
design.
as part
material,
Fig.
of
and
a layout,
that
are
16 shows an example.
become more resolved and presentations

are made,
drawings are produced where the details
more careful
of imagery and
typography are defined.
The term 'rendering'
is used for this type of
(see
Fig. 26).
'trial
In some instances
illustrations'
production
are
As design
produced
design
solutions
by designers
look,
will
the resolution
'presentations',
an example of
drawings,
to show a client
and the term
of lettering
these
showing
types.
the
magazine or pack design.

to wrap round a tin
'trial
and logos
30(a)
Figs.
as clearly
lettering'
that
is
designers
used to describe
produce
and 30(b), and Figs. 22(a)

A 'durrany' is a drawing,
relationship
Figs.
23(a)
of
elements,
and 23(b)
how a
as possible
for
for
these
and 22(b)
or
series
example
show drawings
show
of
in
produced
to form a 'dumiy'.
has been agreed in detail

once a design solution
is
production
'demonstration'
term
The
has been used to describe the type
arranged.
of drawing a designer may produce when cannissioning a specialist
to
- 219 -
that
ensure
particular
in
contained
produced for client
qualities
the
are
artmissioned
More carnonly drawings

presentation
and
but Fig. 35
even early 'visualisations'
are used during carmissioning
A
shows a drawing that has been specially
produced for this purpose.
'specification'
is a type of drawing produced to instruct
a typesetter
piece.
or printer,
technician
or other
involved
in
36
and Fig.
production,
shows an example.
'draft'
The term
(often
drawing
is
describe
used to
utilising
of
equipment) employed in the

in Section
4.4,
As indicated
camera-ready art-work.
treat the production
of artwork as a creative
procedure
can work in detail
on specific
elements,
or collage
and
where they
edit elements
been used to
together
in a controlled
describe
this
shows a piece
'refinement'.
of art-work
very
form
controlled
drawing
specialist
production
of
sane designers
instances
highly
the
The term
type
that
drawing
a 'draft'
'resolution'
when the production
creative
is
of
that
37(b)
has
37(d)
Fig.
production.
has been subject
has been used to describe
of the artwork
way and Fig.
'refinement'
The tern
way.
itself
is
shows an example
to
those
in a
conducted
this
of
type
of
drawing.
5.4.5
I1 categorisation
Having
categorised
different
the different
types
of
drawing
of the role
characterisation
is to try
of the required
to describe
drawing abilities
uses of drawing,
the
produced,
of drawing
and identified
final
in the graphic
the corresponding
drawing
stage
design
abilities
the
in
the
process
required.
Table 15 in Section
5.2 above specifies

the different
types of drawing
identified
in the study.
In order to employ this list
ability
as the
basis for describing
the required
drawing abilities
in the form of a
taxonomy,
representing
it
was
the
first
'essence'
necessary
of
the
to
ability
select
given
a
in
succinct
term
15.
Table
Table
19 sets out these terms.
That is to say, for the sake of brevity

format it was necessary to use short,
220
-
and facilitating
but
succinct,
a tabular
nevertheless
explicit
describe
terms.
describe
the ability
for
ability
the
the
For example the

to
ability
terns
draw accurately,
organise
lay
and
has been used to
'speed'
has been used
'composition'
and
to draw quickly
to
'precision'
out
drawn
to
has been used

imagery.
Where
retained.
describe
has been
description
original
For example the terns 'conventions'
has been used to
the ability
to use conventions
Also
and drawing systems.
'recall'
has been used for
possible,
terms
an
Table
intended
are
reference
Table 15.
abbreviation
to
the
the ability
to recall
visual
The
material.
be
to
but where necessary

self-explanatory
description
is possible
via Table 19 and
original
19: Succinct terms

taxoncmy
the
of
to describe
cloyed
1. * Technical
control
2.
Media control
3.
Precision
4.
Speed
5.
Composition
6.
Synthesis
7.
Imitation
8.
De-construction
9.
Observation
10.
Flair
11.
Visual
12.
Judgement
13.
Spatial
14.
Planning
15.
Visualisation
16.
Instruction
17.
Camtunication
literacy
221
-
drawing
ability
in
the
18.
Commissioning
19.
Conventions
20.
Visual
21.
Recall
22.
Appropriate
23.
Strategic
memory
use
use
*The numbers here correspond

in Table 15.
abilities
'Appropriateness'
and 'Strategic
each of the three sections

by these terms were found
of drawing
they
are
is
not
drawing
by various
factors.
use
terms,
involved
and
typical
in
this
their
in
the
to
to all
has
try
as the
found
Nevertheless,
to
drawing
fully
abilities
drawing
other
a particular
drawing.
be
very ccxnplex and

as demonstrated above, in
can be analysed in terms of the tasks

it
has been possible
to identify
the
the types of drawing usage and for the
practice
way
both for
required
abilities
types of drawings produced in the performance of these
has been made in constructing
step
an important
framework
application
but
process,
allocate
involving
to
represented
design
graphic
the tasks
been
at the end of
The abilities
for the entire
application
reasonable
of
the
affected
general
in
Rather they apply
position.
Thus,
device
drawing
of required
Use' have been included
to be important
as specific
and it
abilities
in the list
in the taxonomy.
as a procedural
not
to those
characterising
of graphic
the
use of
designers.
222
-
drawing
tasks.
a
Hence,
theoretical
and the
required
QIAP.ER 6
The Organi.satirn
and Content
of Drawing
Ti tim
in BA level
(k
is
designers
in
the
Design Eclucatiai
6.1
Intnocuctian
The findings
ccnunercial
required
on the
use
drawing
of
by
graphic
drawing
environment
and on the corresponding
have been given in chapters
4 and 5.
abilities
this
In
chapter,
in an investigation
obtained
results
of drawing
of the acquisition
and the current provision
abilities
of drawing tuition
at over 50% of
BA level graphic design courses in the UK are given.
the
Further,
of
range
attitudes
various
in
in
the
groups
respondent
issues
expressed
1, Section
1.2,
and the relationship
investigation,
which
the
about
of
this
part
methods
questions
with
findings
the
of
drawing
3, Section
of
of
various
the
data
the
and
intention
to
education
is
to
to
provide
terms
an
the
the
In
raise
in
practice
not
to
of the
issues
the
of
exhaustive
system.
the
rationale
views
were
about
and methodology
Recapping
were given.
collection
eliciting
part
secondary
provision,
educational
is
described.
practice,
ability
3.4,
study
to the study
with
below
of
of the educational
In Chapter
and the
and background
between this
concerned
relationship
development
account
is
concerned
part,
presentation
by the
tuition
are described
study
the motivation
were discussed
primary
drawing
are discussed.
raised
In Chapter
to
relation
briefly,
containing
was included
tuition
for
a number of
A section
employed.
drawing
adopted
in
the
for the structured

interviews
script
with practising
graphic designers
(see Appendix I(a),
Section IV).
A postal questionnaire
was sent to
BA graphic design courses (see Appendix 1(b)),
and questionnaires
were
conducted with graphic
the list
of questions
interviews
II.
In
design
students
A list
used).
and of those completing

addition
to
this
(see Appendix
of
the
respondents
questionnaires
more formal
223
-
and (d)
I(c)
system of
is given
data
in
for
these
in Appendix
collection,
focused
series
of
depth,
with
interviews
involved
individuals
drawing
or with
education
was
conducted,
in
in
sane
considerable
various
ways either
Visits
were made to
tuition.
design
with
BA centres
(see Appendix IV for

where graphic design educators were interviewed,
of respondents).
of these centres and Appendix II for a list
a list
in the Faculty of Art
Educators fran the range of design disciplines
Manchester
and Design,
Polytechnic
in related
number of acknowledged experts

a list
of these
level
design
graphic
Designers
on the
views
has also
courses
drawing
courses
in
been undertaken.
of graphic design
Section 6.2.
In Section
abilities
interviewed
individuals
this
secondary part
6.2
The
to
or
consulted,
abilities
of
drawing
6.4,
Section
opinions
of the study
drawing
In
are given.
relation
of degree
of prospectuses
and of new graduates are given in

findings
to the provision
made in relation
graphic design
are discussed
as were a
(see Appendix III for
areas,
An analysis
respondents).
interviewed,
were also
students
6.3, the
tuition
on BA
same findings
the
by some of the
expressed
during
and the issues raised
are sunnarised.
of
design
graphic
students
arx1
graduates
interview
of the structured
as part
progranine,
practising
designers
they thought
design
that
were asked if
graphic
graphic
demonstrated
in
based on
general
adequate drawing ability,
students
their experience fron working with students on placement or with newly
When,
designers,
graduated
did
they
said
the opinion
expressing
were
drawing
and not
respondents
graduates
in
specified
imitative
students'
felt
that
were
drawing
students
of
current
styles
and 32
given
Some thought
and not practical

that
they
abilities
did
not
- 224 -
that
and
Other
and new
too slow,
illustrative
enough,
had reasonable
for
and fashions,
jobs.
to particular
a way appropriate
lack of skill
students
saying that
were too self-indulgent
messy.
design
graphic
they did
literacy,
visual
saying
one respondent
'no sense of history
drawings'
in their
they were too
that
another
too
sufficient
demonstrated
students
that
Score respondents
inadequate.
demonstrate
or
not
9 said that in their

experience
(see Table 20).
Various reasons
but that
skills,
general their
drawing
their
typefaces
of
drawing was neither
was weak and that
accurate nor controlled
in
enough.
When, as shown in Table 20, these
same respondents were asked whether

they felt
graphic design students demonstrated
an adequate awareness
design
in the graphic
of the appropriate
application
of drawing
they did and 34 they did not.
process, 5 said that in their
opinion
Again,
and a lack
self-indulgence
as reasons why some of

drawing was inappropriate.
of control
were given
and precision
felt
that
respondents
use of
students
the
However,
in
felt
that
others
students drew in too tight
a way and would tend to get 'hung up' on an
inappropriate
style of drawing,
using drawing in a way that did not
help them in the various procedures of the graphic design process.
In
contrast,
the respondents felt

inappropriate
this
general,
use of drawing was
because graphic design students had not developed sufficient
foresight
to be able to use drawing in an appropriate
They
way in context.
would
confuse
generally
visualising
with
poor at ccmnunicating
Table 20:
presentation
their
The drawing ability
ideas
through
and
were
drawing.
of students and new graduates
Do students demonstrate
adequate drawing ability?
Do students dEnonstrate
adequate awareness of
the appropriate use of
drawing?
95
Yes
No
Don't
techniques,
know
32
34
11

Table 21 shows the responses of the same group of 50 practising
drawing ability
they
graphic designers when asked what particular
themselves had found it most difficult
It is particularly
to acquire.
interesting
to note that 7 respondents described drawing fron memory
and 6 drawing
figures
from
memory as
225
-
causing
therm difficulty.
Moreover, when asked at what stage they learned the visualising

and
presentation techniques they now employ, 33 said that it was through
working in practice and 7 said it had been a continuous development
through school, college and work.
The drawing
Table 21:
Technical
7
6
Handling media
Presentation
techniques
Drawing fron reference
Drawing from observation
Drawing for artwork
Drawing quickly
Nil response
10
that
importance
and is
in
be encouraged
should
they
should.
agreement
(discussed
in
memory should
tc)
= 50]
students
said
visual
drawing
Drawing human figures

from memory
respondents
educators
found most difficult
Drawing f ran memory
[Number of respondents
When asked if
designers
acquire
ability
'at college'.
Only 3 specified
be
with
Section
6.4
considered
that
the
is
of
views
below)
in
draw fron
finding
This
the
to
memory,
of
particular
a number of
development
the
provision
34
for
'key'
of
drawing
tuition.
In the short
to talk
progranme of focused
about their
views
on the
interviews,
importance
used drawing, what sort of drawing abilities

10 of these
when they had learned them.
for three years or less.
profession
226
-
20 designers
of drawing,
they required
designers
were asked
the way they
and how and

had been in the
Most of these respondents thought that drawing ability

but a small number said that it was possible
to 'get
albeit
difficulty.
with
most thought
Again,
the use of drawing
that
in every stage of a designer's
was important
was important,
by without
it',
work,
Respondents
of ideas.
and expression
joined
described
the profession
difficulties
recently
Several
described
abilities.
some drawing
a fear
development
in front
unprofessional
drawing
forms,
of colleagues
three
to represent
and accurately
work quickly
6
context.
in
only
acquiring
ability
of
to use appropriate
were also
said that,
respondents
the importance
estimated
dimensions,
of
had
who
appearing
because of a lack of
to render letter
and clients
a lack
Furthermore,
ability
in the
particularly
media and to
mentioned in this
they had overstudents,
and 4 said that initially
specifically
as
of self-expression
was hampered by an inhibition

caused by their
need to produce 'good' drawing in an academic sense.
work as designers
their
own mistaken
6.3
The
provision
drawing
of
tuition
BA
on
Graphic
Design
Courses
data
the
Much of
in
given
following
the
three
was
sub-sections
BA level Graphic
through a postal questionnaire

sent to
collected
in the majority of cases,
design courses in the U. K. and, therefore,
the findings are presented in the order in which the questions were
list
full
A
of these questions is given in Appendix I(b).
out.
set
There was a response
addressed
rate
of over
to Heads of Department
by -a member of academic staff

the
or for
conduct
planning
Leaders,
were fine
to graphic
designers,
design
a true
the
important
to
artists
with
responsibility
drawing
Lecturers
with
Thus,
of staff
and conduct
emphasise
of
that,
or
knowledgeable
227
-
either
tuition.
the
the
20
Lecturers
or
Of
Lecturers.
for
2 of the
teaching drawing
and the
staff
representing
be c mpleted
for
responsibility
drawing
it
tuition.
the respondents
in
that
6 were Principal
3 were illustration
staff.
cross-section
planning
9 Senior
and
respondents
graphic
a request
of
which was
questionnaire
with
5 were Heads of Department,
respondents,
Course
50% to this
may be said
about,
others
to represent
and interested
However,
this
were
interest,
it
is
in,
also
they do
not necessarily represent the views of other members of graphic design

Thus, the sample may be said to be biased towards those
staff.
members of academic staff who have a particular
concern with drawing
tuition.
to data
In addition
from a questionnaire
of first
also
of similar
design
year graphic
This
given.
in
collected
enables
the
postal
construction
fron
students
the views
of
findings
questionnaire,
administered
Manchester
educators
to a group
Polytechnic
are
be
to
and students
Further,
a short section
contrasted.
eliciting
views about graphic
design education was also included
in the structured
interviews
with
graphic designers,
and so a comparison may be made with
practising
too.
However, although
these findings
in many respects
similar
I
i
i
is
were asked of each of these respondent
groups and it
questions
it is important
to realise
that there
useful to compare the results,
differences
in the form and content
were essential
of some of the
important
It is also particularly
to bear in mind the
questions.
different
procedures
adopted
in
the
selection
of
respondents
in
each
of the groups.
3
The student
graphic
respondent
group
BA level
course.
design
canprised
first
They were selected
year
cohort
on
because access was
In
so a questionnaire
could be administered
available
efficiently.
fact,
a 100% response was achieved fron the 14 students in the group.
The questionnaire
first
was administered
at the end of the students
year
when
terminology
experience
thereby
While
they
were
applied
sufficiently
and the
of both graphic
forming
a useful
topics
design
contrast
to
experienced
covered,
education
to the
yet
understand
had only
and the design

other
the
limited
profession,
respondent
groups.
a fairly
rigorous
selection
procedure was adopted for the
(as described in
respondent group of 50 graphic design practitioners
in Section 3.3.2)
detail
so that the designers form a broadly
from
the profession,
the educators do not in a
sample
representative
sense, as we have said above, represent a cross-section

of
but
form
a group biased towards those' concerned with
rather
opinion
drawing.
The student group form a numerically
limited
sample of
strict
- 228 -
design
graphic
statistically
students
in
ccoparison
UK.
they
group,
meaningful
interesting
the
the
with
Without
being
do
nevertheless
views
of
in
themselves
provide
practitioners
an
and
educationalists.
frcm a short questionnaire
conducted with a group of 7 third
who were asked to go through
year students fron Manchester Polytechnic
their folder of work for Final Assessment are also given at the end of
Findings
6.2.2,
Section
6.3.1
but the data is not included

of the develcpnent
The iuportance
in the tables.
of drawing
abilities
The responses given by the 3 respondent groups when asked to rate the
importance of drawing ability
to practising
graphic designers are
From these results it could be concluded that,
shown in Table 22.
was at the
although all the respondents thought that drawing ability
very least useful, and none of the respondents in any of the groups
thought that drawing ability
was irrelevant
or detrimental,
a higher
of educators and students thought that it was essential
proportion
than did the designers.
However, it
should be remembered that, as is

(84%)
12(a),
42
designers
thought that
in
these
Table
of
same
shown
having a broad appreciation of drawing was essential.
Table 22:
Rating of the inortance

graphic desicneis
Essential
of
Useful
Educators
15 (75%)
5--
Students
11 (78%)
3--
Designers
27 (54%)
23
drawing
Irrelevant
ability
to practising
Detrimental
--
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, Students = 14, Designers = 50]

As with
above),
ability
the respondents from the design profession

(see Section 6.2
graphic design educators stressed the importance of drawing
for both the development and the camuiication
of ideas.
229
-
Typical
views expressed were 'design
is
visible
the
through
sign
thought',
of
'it
problem',
is a thinking
'drawing
is
is
the
way
process
an aid
designers
and drawing
to thinking
their
carr=icate
'a
in short it is their
language',
is
it
means
and
Drawing
to provide a visual indication
of an idea to a third
party'.
in tears
as being a basic skill
was described
of the professional
designers,
for
to draw
of graphic
example 'the
practice
ability
thoughts
and ideas,
enables
the
designer
to
visualise
with
draft
clarity,
out
designs
the individual
a freedcrn of expression and the

to take on a broad approach. ' Several educators stressed
opportunity
the importance of drawing for the all parts of the design process,
and gives
successfully,
'fron
doodles
research
to roughs and layouts,

drawing
require
all
presentations,
client
When asked
selected
it
for
limited
extend
expressed
drawing
their
drawing
the
course made it
the
students
drawing
ability
ideas.
importance
drawing
of
the view that
students
would be able,
ability
of
matter
drawing
established
was
as a way of
in
ability
students
courses, 13 of the educators considered

that they had already
developed a broad range of
it
Several
whereas 7 felt
would be useful.
ability,
respondents
of drawing
student
design
BA graphic
was essential
drawing
the
about
The
skills'.
importance
the
stressed
respondents similarly
down and catmunicating
putting
to finished
to visuals,
if
ability,
since
difficult
when taken
it
the pressure
in
to
be
fact
for
essential
onto a course
onto a course with
help,
staff
others
did
students
concern
considered
with
However,
ability.
very
caning
to develop
held
the view
not
already
fron
other
them to
for
and 5 thought
that
it
have
an
aspects
of
improve.
students
it
and
to
9 of
have
was useful.
This data is set out in Table 23.
As shown in Table 24, when asked if graphic design students need to

drawing
broader
than other art and design
range
a
of
abilities
acquire
students, 12 educators though that they did, whereas 5 thought they
did not.
Again, 11 of the students thought they did and 3 did not.
However, all the educators thought that graphic design students should
be given a broad range of drawing experience,
as did 13 of the
When questioned on the importance of graphic design
students.
- 230 -
developing
students
of
the
important.
it),
put
caanission
specialists
director
designers.
was
seen
and
by
Students
into
these
the
of
selected
established
the
is
the
of drawings,
very
of
'procedures
(as
conventions'
important
ability
The ability
to
act
one
to
as an art
for
respondents
as essential
graphic
findings
that the
would seem to indicate
the
importance
of
this
aspect
iTrrn*+anc e
drawing
ability
of
for BA graphic design courses
Useful
13
that
and quality
the understanding
for
appreciate
Essential
Educators
through
also
further
However,
Rat,inlg
students
it
drawing,
to be
thought
this
students
would help both in improving
and experts.
students did not fully

developing judgement.
Table 23:
the
felt
The educators
students own drawing capacity
for
encoding
and decoding
of
the purpose
11 of
and
educators
respondent
appreciation
and judge
to understand
ability
all
a broad
Irrelevant
of
in
Detrimental
7--
95--
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, Students = 14)
Table 24:
'Yes'
respmse
drawing ability
to the need for

breadth
for students
and tuition
Need for broad

range of drawing
ability
in
aspects
Need for broad

range of drawing
experience
Need for broad

range of
appreciation
Educators
12
20
20
Students
11
13
11
of
Educators = 20, students = 14]
When asked if they thought

drawing tuition
specific
that
for
graphic design students

the
drawing
skills
231
-
should have
needed for
19 of the educators
as graphic designers,
practice
They linked the acquisition
they should.
of specific
the capacity to gain employment, to develop designerly
professional
thought that
with
skills
and to support efficient

students also thought such a provision
capacities,
Purpose for
Table 25:
drawing
tuition
Educators
P
i
ranked first
Students
Designers
97
18
Skills needed
for professional
practice
37
13
Appreciation and
understanding
4-7
Artistic
creative
s
r
12 of the
working practices.
important.
and
4-
All of equal
importance
12
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, students = 14, designers

of this
In spite
for
a preparation
creative
practice
professional
understanding
'artistic
cited
for
drawing,
the
of
more highly
designers
that
9 educators,
were the
practice
drawing
the
of
for
tuition
the
when
relative
artistic
skills
and
in
needed
of the appreciation
7 students
and
and 18 designers
of
itself
students
thought
232
-
important
most
In
ability.
of drawing
first.
and understanding
the
ordering
25 above,
as
as being most importance.

thought the specific
and 13 designers
a broad appreciation
than drawing ability
none of
Table
ability
development'
ranked the provision
of appreciation
in
of
the development
7 students
of
rank
of
development
and creative
development
drawing
and for
professional
importance
note
of
3 educators,
needs of
give
of the provision
for
development,
importance
indicated
as
drawing
to developing
carinitment
practice,
asked to
were
respondents
only
apparent
= 50]
drawing
spite
to
is
the
rating
designers
12(a)),
to develop
tuition
that
of
graphic
(see Table
It
requirements
only
this
sort
also
interesting
to
provision
to
develop
4 educators
appreciation
was important.
and understanding
and 12
designers made a particular
that they felt
point of stating
all three
of these types of drawing ability
were of equal importance.
The replies
importance
including
given
and are not representative

of graphic design
they do indicate
a polarisation
of emphasis in
(this
on the one hand and drawing on the other,
are small
as a whole,
educators
were asked to rank order the

tuition
for various
specific
subjects,
below in Table 26.
Although the numbers
respondents
for
of provision
drawing, are given
of respondents
respect
when the
of typography
during
same of the attitudes
mirrors
expressed
interviews
that are discussed later in Section 6.4).
Table 26:
iticn
for subject
82
Photography
--
Technology
13
Business
studies
-2
Drawing
87
Nil response
3-
visits
and
ranked most important
Educators
Typography
the
Students
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, students = 14]
6.3.2
Stint
views cn their
vim devejormmt
of drawing
ah{1i
The student respondents were asked if they thought that their drawing
had
improved while on the course and if their present level of
ability
drawing ability
was adequate. The replies,
which are set out in Table
27, show that less than 50% thought that their drawing ability
had
improved on the course and over 50% though that their present level of
ability
was inadequate.
- 233 -
The replies
in Table 27 also
like
help
more
to
drawings,
7 thought
However,
10
said
acquire
that
help
27:
Table
that
in this
Stunts'
ability
4 students
only
to
ability
they were already

they would like
that
indicating
sufficient
the
the ways drawing
understanding
thereby
show that
their
project
work
help.
in
assistance
design process,
not
than
giving
help.
3 did not want additional
respect.
Present level
of ability
adequate
course
more
was
judge
and
sufficient
is used in the graphic
views
oa the level
and the need for further
Ability
improved on
appreciate
receiving
even
they would
said
drawing
t of their
drawing tuition
Need help to
understand
use for
designing
Need help
to appreciate
and judge
drawings
10
Yes
644
No
3873
Don't
know
5231

When asked to go through
their
folder
of work for Final Assessment and

describe their opinion of their use of drawing in the development and
design,
the
design
of
a group of 7 third
year graphic
presentation
fron
students
'totally
Manchester
between 5 and 7 pieces

were
satisfied
represents
finish
did
not
or presentation
These findings
the
development
ability
of
that
generally
use
of
drawing
in
9.
the way they wanted it to, or a lack

technique had 'let the idea down'.
although
practical
to use drawing
their
as either
look
show that
of
with
themselves
The reasons they gave for being

'it
looks the way imagined'
or 'it
and the reasons for being dissatisfied
were
out
the idea well'
the design
that
described
'satisfied'
or
satisfied'
Polytechnic
in all
the
drawing
the
students
234
-
concerned
namely about
design
the
process,
of
abilities,
stages
were
of
about
their
they
were not
so aware of
abilities
of
indicate
that
part
a designer's
of
continue
6.3.3
The o
curriculum
Also
they were not fully

on their
given
ni sation
drawing.
of
catmission,
for
in professional
the
This may
of judgement as
have to
to
expecting
own drawing ability
presentation
and
practice.
of drawing
and c xcrhict
t uitim
on the way drawing tuition

is organised on the
of those courses fron which questionnaires
were returned.
are findings
about 'how' and 'by wham' drawing tuition
is
are given
In the postal
conducted.
development of
aware of the role
to
capacity
purposes when working
Here findings
their
of
judgement and understanding
to rely
production
importance
the
questionnaire,
educators
were asked detailed
questions about the planning of drawing tuition

that were not included
in either
the questionnaire
for
the
students
or the interview
for the designers.
Hence, the findings
structure
in this
presented
sub-section
are only based on data fron the postal questionnaire.
All
20
for
arrangements
11 respondents
illustration
indicated
students
second
for
offer'
that
illustrators
to
graphic
different
for
drawing
the
design
tuition
design
tuition
for
both
the
second and the
third
they
made for
This
students.
in
the
was
early
and sometimes in
and
tuition
year,
specific
curriculum.
were
illustration
drawing
if
in
year,
additional
students
made
provision
in the first
particularly
although
in
courses
arrangements
graphic
was mandatory
year,
but
students,
than
their
drawing
of
that
to mean that
stages of the course,

the
that
the planning
found
generally
indicated
educators
design
was organised
it
themselves
was only
thought
'on
they
needed it.
When asked who was responsible for the planning and conduct of drawing
tuition
on their
courses, the educators gave a wide range of
Table 28 indicates
the frequency with which specific
responses.
individuals
or groups were identified
as responsible for the planning
of drawing tuition
and for the conduct of drawing tuition.
235
-
Table 28:
Those responsible for the planning

drawirxg tuition
and conduct of
Planning
Conducting
10
Head of School
Year Tutor
15
Head of Department
Course Carirnittee
or Area
Specialist
Drawing
Tutor
Staff
from other
Departments
[Number of
]
category.
respondents = 20, several
responding
in more than one
to note that 15 out of 20 respondents indicated that

drawing
had
tutor
for conducting drawing
responsibility
a specialist
In addition to the 4 educators who indicated that staff from
tuition.
It
is interesting
other
departments
had this
responsibility,
8 indicated
that
the
drawing tutor
was either an illustration

specialist
or a fine art
Therefore, on over 50% of courses staff who were not graphic
tutor.
designers had some of the responsibility
for conducting drawing
A number of respondents indicated
had
particular
staff
of
responsibility,
members
took a share in the conduct of drawing tuition
tuition.
that
although
certain
the majority
of staff
at some point during
the course.
When asked about the specific
arrangements made for drawing tuition
for each year of the course, all
20 respondents indicated
that
mandatory drawing classes were organised for first
year design
19 respondents stated
that
classes were also organised for

second year students, although in many of these cases the classes,
for
illustration
mandatory
students, were optional for design
although
indicated
7
that classes were organised for
respondents
students.
students.
236
-
third
year
but
students
At
students.
year design
in
cases
all
same time,
the
students
were optional
indicated
respondents
most
on drawing
instruction
received
for
design
that
third
these
through
projects
and seminars.
year student drawing tuition
was found that first
was time-tabled
for periods between 1 and 2 days per week and for second year students
hours were slightly
less but again tended to be
the time-tabled
It
When classes were scheduled for third

somewhere between 1 and 2 days.
day or a full
day in
a half
year they tended to be for either
Table 29. sets out these figures.
duration.
(However, as stated
the
represent
arrangements
made for courses,
above, these figures
of design
attendance
Table 29:
Sch
being
students
in score cases. )
optional
il i *g of drawing tuition
of courses
in 1st,
Courses making
specific
arrangements
2nd and 3rd Years
Less than
two days
per week
Two days
per week
or more
1st Year
20
11
2nd Year
19
11
77-
3rd Year
(Number of respondents = 20]
6.3.4
Mettnds
opinions
on
elicited
fran
below,
given
content
of teaching
various
methods
respondents
together
of drawing
drawing
with
in
three
all
the
views
the
of drawing
drawing
conducting
of
tuition
expressed
were
findings
and the
groups
class
on the
are
appropriate
classes.
13 of the educators indicated

that
programmes,
conveyed via lecture
(12)
and the content
respondents
implied
information
although
that
237
-
this
relating
in
type
the
to drawing
majority
of
of
information
was
cases
was
actually
3 of
only
by History
provided
the
students
be given
should
the
expressing
preferred
other
of Art
thought
that
lectures,
via
that
view
or Critical
information
12 of
they
the
which
to
relating
in
respondents
found
lectures
involved
that
generally
methods of teaching
departments.
Studies
drawing
this
group
boring
or
in practical
work.
to 19 of the educators,
programme, but in fact
According
teaching
it
that
the
these
most of
in the
was given
indicated
respondents
was at times of assessment and during

when most critique
was little
opportunity
projects
there
of drawing
critique
indicated
students
be
should
educators'
given
in
responses
of
for
that
the
the evaluation
of design
drawings
took place,
student
since
such teaching at other times.
8 of
they
teaching
thought
on their
designers
on which of the methods should
Table
30:
the
with
30
sets
views
of
out
tuition
students
and
be provided.
' Yes' response given when questioned on what methods

of
teaching and learning about drawing are or should be used
Educators
Information
lectures
Students
Designers
in
Critique of
student drawing
Encouragement
of individual
drawing
Table
drawing
of
the methods of drawing
provided
along
critique
programme.
when asked about

courses,
that
style
Keeping sketch
books
Copying drawings
13
NA*
19
NA
10
15
19
13
40
87
29
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, students = 14, designers

= 50]
*NA denotes data was not elicited
respondent group.
on this
238
-
topic
fran
the particular
As can be seen from Table 30, opinion was divided aircng educators
be
develop
to
individual
encouraged
an
should
students
whether
about
style of drawing, whereas only 4 of
designers thought that they should.
the
and 15 of
students
that their
Almost all of the educators replied
books,
13 students
to keep sketch
while
both
in
cases, indicated
majority
considerable
the
students are encouraged

and 40 designers,
a
that
that
thought
they
should be encouraged to keep sketch books, although in fact

on what they meant by keeping
when most of the respondents elaborated
became
it
books,
that it was 'notebooks'
than
evident
rather
sketch
These notebooks were described
sketch books in most instances.
as
students
'a
being
invariably
ideas'
of
repository
containing
As the respondents
observation.
prefer
to
rather
than make sketches.
visual
collect
Sane specific
are
students
rather
'collection
or
small
indicated,
reference
amount
ccmments made by educators

'encouraged to keep sketch
in
sketch
most of these
Although
books,
assessment
or
very
that
few
respondents
indicated
any guidance
that
from
frequently
students
this
books
material',
sketches
ideas
their
and record
diary',
thoughts
and ideas'
for
in
work
the
the keeping
of
included
were
on how they should
in
encourage
they
was provided
that
were
context
as a visual
'a
individual's
books
the
repository
of
are
sketch
'provide
books
inspiration
notes
and
sketch
and
future'.
of
design
material
found
of
be
kept.
Less
than
half
of
the
thought
that
educators
students
should be
drawings
as a way of learning
about drawing,
encouraged to copy
whereas 50% or more of
students
Indeed several
expressed
educators
and designers
thought
considerable
antagonisn
'I
As one respondent
canted
copying.
life,
from
drawing
in
more spontaneity,
value
of
believe
they
should.
to the idea
there
understanding
is
of
more
form,
To work from someone else's drawing is to be influenced

by style
lead
to a weak interpretation
may
and
convention
and
of superficial
'
described
One of the students
the practice
to
quality.
as likely
etc.
'breed
bad habits'.
However,
several
239
-
other
respondents
did
believe
'a
learning',
means
was
good
of
copying
was suggested as perhaps a better word.
The generally
in
As indicated
their
are
students
31,
Table
the
taught
majority
to
'I
as a learning
this
to use the limited

prefer
approaches to drawing. ' 3 of the students
copying a useful way of learning.
present
prevailing
by one educator,
may be sunned up by an answer given

benefits
of
views on the educational
time
understand
that
view
have mixed
strategy;
at
for
available
stated
of
'emulating'
the word
although
they
other
had found
that
confirmed
in historical,
educators
drawing
contexts,
and stylistic
although 12 of these same respondents
such responsibilities
pointed out that, to a large extent,
were met by
in either
the History
Studies departh nts
of Art or Critical
staff
.
the
that
When describing
they
themselves
methods
used
when
in students,
they
endeavouring to develop this kind of understanding
cultural
emphasised
seminars
It
tutorials.
was only
to
in
particular
the
case
over 50% of the students
that
contexts
given help,
linked
again
the importance
giving
'Yes',
Table 31:
given in
of
of
and
understanding
thought
scone indication
of a broad appreciation
projects
it
a lack
and understanding
response to the questim is

developing U erstancu.ing of
they were
realisation
of
of drawing.
or should help be
drawings
Educators
In historical
contexts
stylistic
essential
of
individual
Students
18
In cultural
contexts
17
In stylistic
contexts
17
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, students = 14]

the respondents in the educator and student groups stated that
they thought that students should be encouraged to develop the ability
to judge the appropriateness
job (see
of drawing for a particular
All
240
-
Table 32).
the educators
All
and 13 of the students

the ability
should be encouraged to acquire

the
were ccmunicating
to
students
drawings
judge whether
information.
necessary
thought
However,
whereas
19
confinned that the students were encouraged to acquire the

to judge drawings to see if they were skilfully
ability
produced, only
9 of the students felt this was necessary.
Both groups of respondents
teaching methods to develop such
described a wide range of suitable
educators
(ie
understanding
seminars,
judge drawings),
to
to exhibitions
visits
and the evaluation
including
lectures,
of design
projects.
'Yes' xespmse given when asked the questicn are or should

be encouraged to acquire
to judge
the ability
students
drawings
32:
Table
the ability
Educators
Students
Appropriateness
for a job
20
14
Camunicating
necessary
information
20
13
Skilfully
produced
19
Table
33 shows the
Educators
frequency
designers
students
and
(students
and designers)
types
of drawing
of the use of
'tracing'
and
indicated
were
ability
drawing
'handling
surprisingly,
students were not

highly specialised
in
the
this
design
developed
are
taught
technique).
241
-
of
the
certain
in the
that
specific
specific
(for
several
tutorial
educators
should
investigation
process
through
or
to develop
as important
a majority
specifically
list
markers')
when educators,
(educators)
be given
graphic
spirit
= 14]
response
whether
tuition
identified
were not specifically
Perhaps not
asked
drawing
in
'yes'
of
Included
and abilities.
skills
= 20, students
example
educators
assistance.
indicated
to use an air-brush
(this
that
is
33:
Table
'Yes' response
should be given
{ tim
when questicned
whether
to develop specific
skills/ablities*
Educators
Analytical
Students
In
Designers
skills
20
45
Perceptual skills
20
36
Visualising
20
14
45
skills
Presentation
skills
19
14
43
Manipulative
skills
19
10
46
Spatial
skills
2D
-
19
10
47
Spatial
skills
- 3D
16
29
Media handling skills
19
12
36
Skill in handling
specialist
media
19
14
26
in handling
markers
12
11
32
16
12
30
13
13
31
17
Creative cropping
of imagery
12
13
25
Creative
16
24
Skill
spirit
Skill in handling
drawing equipment
Skill
in handling
or
airbrush
Skill
in tracing
Calligraphic
skills
use of
collage
[Number of respondents: Educators = 20, students = 14, and designers
=
*Educators responding 'Yes - drawing tuition
given to develop these
and students responding 'Yes - drawing tuition
skills'
should be
given' to develop these skills
and abi lities
and designers responding
'Yes- important a graphic designer has these drawing skills
and
abilities
242
-
were asked in what form drawing
When educators
18 indicated
that
individual
separate
content-specific
provision
classes
was arranged,
were organised,
17
tuition
20
was arranged
as necessary,
and all
it was incorporated
into
that
indicated
design projects.
relevant
demonstrations
Sane of these respondents also confirmed that lectures,
and specialists,
and seminars linked to the
conducted by professionals
that
were also favoured

projects,
means of presenting
information
the development of drawing
about drawing and discussing
In Table 34 This data is contrasted
with the students'
ability.
responses to the question on how drawing tuition
should be arranged.
themes of
Table
34:
design
'Yes' response when questioned

or should be arranged
cn how drawing
tuiti,
Educators
Students
Separate contentspecific classes
18
11
Individual tuition
as necessary
17
20
13
Incorporation
into design projects
[Number of respondents: Educators

responding in several categories]
Table 35 shows the
= 20 and students
an is
= 14,
some
'Yes'
responses given by educators when asked if

types of content-specific
they organised particular
This
classes.
data is contrasted with the 'Yes' responses given by the students and
designers when asked whether such various types of content-specific
classes should be organised.
interesting
to note the difference
between
particularly
in
designers
the value they accorded to classes about
and
educators
handling,
brainstorming
techniques.
and
perspective
media
it
is
243
-
'Yes' response when questioned

are or should be organised
35:
Table
whether
classes
specific
Educators
Students
Designers
17
37
15
10
34
Sketching
visits
16
38
Exploration
of media
12
44
Perspective
10
11
44
Handling
drawing
instnnents
13
36
Letterform
17
14
41
13
13
39
Life
classes
Drawing from
natural
form
Indication
and
rendering
Brainstorming
and idea generation
79
techniques
50]
Life
Educators
and sketching
classes
visits
45
= 20, students
were valued
= 14, and designers
by approximately
75% of
but by less than 50% of the students.

and designers
'training
for the eye, hand skills
'
Educators cited
and observation,
for teaching drawing from observation.
Other
as part of the rationale
include
'to
descriptions
given
encourage
observation
and underthe
educators
and truth
found
in
standing.
Detail
selective,
/thinking',
'the
the
camera',
unlike
study
'practising
graphic designers
people and drawing

represents
for
are
drawing. '
'Drawing
can be
'looking
human
form',
the
of
should be visually
sensitive
is a sure way to developing this quality',
'drawing
the most direct
any means of visual

[students]
to become visually
response to the world

thinking
or expression',
visual
and is a basis
'to
encourage
aware of what goes on around than'.

- 244 -
the use of drawing fron observation

Only one educator volunteered
as a
'helps
it
that
to develop a visual
form of 'memory training',
saying
repertoire'.
5
diet"
that
they
thought
the
of drawing
understanding
designers,
indicating
views
provided
educators
important
to graphic
systems was particularly
that. 'design
students
should be given an "extra
drawing',
'many techniques....
construction
can be
saying
of geometric
taught
usually
greatly
extend
students
natural
ability',
is taught but not as a pragmatic
set of principles',
drawing
is essential
with
established
conventions
'it
isanetric,
is important
to help students
etc',
and
'perspective
'familiarity
orthographic,
develop the ability
to
of encoding and decoding from and into established

drawing
Specific
techniques
systems used for animation
conventions'.
by
for
3 educators.
story-boards
also
were
mentioned
producing
and
10 of the
the
new and
current
drawing
required
felt
handle
types
students
expressed
technology
designers.
example, were only
fundamental
of manipulative
of
in
graphic
for
was a very
sorts
certain
of
computers,
ability
specific
the
developments
abilities
that
educators
that drawing
that
and 8 of
educators
ability
technology,
for
the
will
belief
that
affect
the
Although
another
tool
many
and
a number also felt

needed to be developed to
example 'computer graphics
skill,
generation'.
When asked if
drawing
they
tuition
of new technology
would.
thought
on Graphic
that
there
Design
14 educators,
will
courses
8 students
have to
be provision
of
to accarmodate the effects

and 23 designers said there
Several
to provide
curriculum
the future.
educators particularly
stressed that it was important
'hands on' experience
by building
into the
such activity
in order to prepare students
for professional
in
practice
They specified
own manipulative
be able to direct
that
students needed both to develop their

and to ]now sufficient
skills
about the technique to
in these production
specialists
methods.
245
-
6.4
Discussion
of issues
focused
A series
of
concerned
with,
raised
interviews
had considerable
or
some of the
programme to be discussed
design educators,
graphic
students.
III.
Appendix
The period
of
the
research,
was one of flux
years,
that
courses
interviews
for
revision
extended
graphic
design
by
the
design
over
included
disciplines,
four
approximately
Many of the
education.
educator
in
respondents
the
were found to be undergoing

by developments within
the
either
questionnaire
prompted
or by external
pressures.
Courses were found to be subject
to various
college
particular
of design education,
during
the research
other
which
described
were
and postal
changes or
from
educators
either
experts in drawing and design studies

and a small group
(These respondents
in Appendix
II
are listed
and
)
acknowledged
of
knowledge
who were
major issues
raised
in more depth. These individuals
for
allowed
individuals
with
pressures
fran
Goverment
or to increase emphasis on particular

and CNAA to introduce
subjects,
technology,
the use of computers, and business
for example information
The
time
to drawing studies was in
studies.
allocated
marketing
or
because
threat
instances
under
of the need to provide more space
many
for
these subjects,
timetable
the
and 5 of the members of staff
on
for the conduct of drawing tuition,
interviewed,
who were responsible
expressed
During
concern that
the
was being
it
interviews
at
squeezed out of the curriculum.
BA graphic
design
courses,
9 out
16
of
educators expressed a personal view that, the treatment of the subject

amongst staff,
of drawing was an area of conflict
and that there was
rarely
any general
agreement about how it
should
be dealt
with
in the
In response to the questionnaire,

fran four
curriculum.
educators
mentioned that a revision
courses had specifically
of the way they
were dealing with drawing was under review and two of these courses
were visited.
discussions
were
discussions
Although
taking
nevertheless
it
was
found
place
on
these
tended
that
some
constructive
courses,
particular
to be daninated by a polarisation
246
-
the
of
established
There appeared
attitudes.
the purpose of drawing

conflicting
views
tuition
on which
importance
the
about
be no ccrm= agreement on
to base proposals,
and rather
and the treatment
of drawing
to
were held.
tuition
general terms, different

opinions
were found to be held by the
graphic design staff,
on the one hand, and by the illustration
and
fine art staff
teaching on design courses, on the other.
Their views
between the claim that drawing ability
may broadly be said to polarise
should be developed specifically
as an aid to professional
practice
In
and the claim
that
of self-expression
fine
towards
'fine
art
development
is
important
primarily
as a means
for students.
Saue educators voiced an antipathy
while sane openly described
their
course as being
orientated'.
the
During
art,
its
interviews,
several
the
of
respondents
that
said
they
had received what they termed a 'traditional

art school
during which they had mainly concentrated
education',
on the practice
They described a belief
of drawing in various ways.
that drawing was
However, there were 3 notable
a good basis for design education.
themselves
who
educators
tuition,
expressed
it
associating
considerable
fine
with
of which they said they had resisted

courses in the early 1960s.
it
Although
and that
enthusiasm
the
devoted
life
drawing.
abilities
the
visited,
courses
encouraged,
it
time
of
to
courses.
imaginative
majority
manipulative
literacy
interviews
the
Although
also
both
the
and the
was generally
had been by 19 of
approaches
during
keeping
importance
of
of
sketch
by the
- 247 -
it
the
with
was found
classes
was
practical
and through
and
on all
short
books
and notebooks was

method of developing
visual
this
respondents
during
encouragement
projects
with
conducted
were pursued,
substantial
design
acknowledged
the
was
content-specific
The development of various
received
design
graphic
conducted
to
given
influence
and discussions
and from the observations

BA courses,
that
drawing
tuition
to
that
from
the
when establishing
and students,
educators
visits
both
was clear,
based approaches
art
drawing
towards
antagonism
to
educators
the
postal
interviewed
questionnaire),
(as
to help that
was no evidence that students were given tuition
develop effective
methods of keeping sketch books and notebooks,
and
including
them in assessment.
only 2 of the respondents described
there
were encouraged to judge the quality

of their
own and each
drawings, generally
in sessions organised for the critique
others'
of
of design or drawing projects.
work at the conclusion
Hd6mver, there
was little
evidence of systematic
methods being applied
whereby the
Students
broader
of
abilities
in
use
appropriate
the
appreciation
context
imagery
be developed.
would
was found to be vigorous,
provision
drawn
of
but biased
In
towards
and observational
of practical
abilities,
with little
development
the
drawing abilities.
to
of cognitive
given
towards
A preference
tuition
and the
several
of
graphic
design
of
education.
skills
designer's
explaining
drawing
who were
The provision
and drawing
clear
described
instruction
it.
abilities
tuition
conventions
was
on the
role
of drawing
concerned
for
the
the importance
drawing
that
by
with
teaching
considered
'learning
the
respondents,
equally,
regard
was expressed
of
But,
the development
specific
directly
not
the
short,
to the planning
approach
by 9 out of 11 of these
as 3 respondents
students
interviewed
those
specific
important
a systematic
development of
its
and
to
be
scales'
of giving
can play
'Drawing should be taught

work was also emphasised.
not only how but also why' as one respondent said.
in
a
by
to note that these 11 respondents who, while not

was interesting
involved in teaching on graphic design courses, were aware of
directly
the problems involved in planning and conducting drawing tuition
at BA
It
favoured approaches that were in score respects different

than
those that most of the educator respondents described as being
in operation.
Drawing fran observation,
currently
in
particularly
life
formal content-specific
classes,
was not accorded the same
level,
importance by these respondents as it apparently is on BA courses (see

They all indicated
that other forms of tuition
Table 35).
were
if
It was found that 5 of the graphic
not more important.
equally,
design educators interviewed during visits
drawing as part of their responsibilities.
views on the relevance of the study of
248
colleges taught life

When asked to give their
drawing to graphic
life
to
designers,
they made a strong
way of training
drawing
tutor
expressed
concern
about the
students
generally
reach
the
experience,
working
scale
included
level
in
of
benefits
in
the
However,
interview
that
achievement
life
as a disciplined
co-ordination.
the
programme,
design
graphic
drawing,
in
that,
saying
different
from their
activity
his
was so very
normal
with the emphasis on observation,
the change in
even the change in position
of working (standing
at
practice,
of working,
being very difficult
an easel),
its
and hand-eye
observation
life
specialist
case for
for
them to adjust
to.
of these respondents stressed the importance of helping

students
literacy
to develop visual
and the ability
to understand drawings in
8 of them put great
and in particular,
context
emphasis on the
All
training
and training
findings
with
about
the
this
described
been
memory, 5 specifically
of visual
aspect
above,
respondents
to
development
of various
gave no clear
of
these
design
use
the
copying
of
provision
and
types
of
in
is
consistent
that
visited
has
the
educator
importance
the
(see Table
approaches
were
The
courses
clear
literacy
of visual
method.
to
thoroughly
the
of
31),
the
they
development
integrated
with
tuition.
in their
prospectuses
their
represent
was also
analysed.
out of the 20 respondent

drawing
in
the
mentioned
prospectuses
courses
instances
other
were
skills',
drawing
tuition
in association
for
terms,
with
the
early
mentioned
in
of
tuition
prospectus,
'manipulative
15
Only 9
were available.
in
although
the
this
interviews,
research
stages
association
Only in one prospectus

produced and this was of a traditional
formulation
to drawing
At the time of analysis,
courses
introductory
stages.
during
approach
sane
'craft
example
skills'
or
intended
to represent
clearly
drawing skills.
When
for design students was mentioned,
it was invariably
specifically
was only
Finally,
on the
acknowledged
ways that
The ways in which courses
later
a learning
as
it
while
questionnaire
indication
abilities
of
development
this
associating
the
the
course
illustration
with
was a picture
life
class.
one of
of
of a drawing
issues
and
for
class
to the
central
by student
progranwe was highlighted
- 249 -
responses
indicating
that
the
acquisition
Over half of
area of concern for

depth, and many of
those
during
courses,
visits
to
them.
whom brief
with
indicated
of
drawing
students
was an
ability
interviewed
in-
discussions
were possible
the
that
on
their
occasions,
limitations
as draughtsmen and carmen not only restricted

what
but also restricted
could achieve in terms of design solutions,
they tried
to achieve.
Similarly,
described
several
educators
effects
that
inadequate
drawing
ability
could
be seen
to
In addition
250
-
what
the
have
on
the developnent
to the problems associated with

that
and presentation
of design
solutions
with
students
drawing ability
inhibition
were found to suffer,
and a general
ideas were also described.
confidence when exploring
students.
they
limited
lack
of
Chapter
Disc ussixon, Dociclusions

7.1
FU uze Work
Introduction
In Chapter 2 it
out that,
was pointed
process
of drawing tuition
provision
has never been systematically
needs of graphic designers.
The detailed
findings
Similarly,
defined
of the use of drawing
importance
and the importance

drawing
abilities.
to
aspects
of
various
the
they
to
regard
the
in Chapters
are given
fully
designers
Additionally,
on which the
higher education
specific
in the conduct
current
in
study
terms,
to graphic
appropriate
with
present
broad
in
basis
the
has been determined
made in this
and 6 above and,
process
to this study, very little

prior
design
use of drawing in the graphic
evaluation
of the
has been conducted.
systematic
4,5
for
and Suggesticns
confinn
both
of the graphic
the
design
of the develognent
of
has been given

drawing tuition
on
attention
provision
of
graphic design courses.

In
this
in more detail
discussed
adopted
are
Some important
discussed.
of
drawing
discussed
in
relation
conclusions
abilities
conclusions
of
reached
Various
tuition
to
of
some
of the research
methods
":n
As stated
is
is
in
issues
current
concerning
Design
courses
drawn on the
designers,
recommendations
based
for
the
on
the
are
this
also
required
the
overall
improvements
in
development are made. Finally,

curriculum
some ideas for future
on the broad range of topics covered by this study are given.
7.2
are
on the use of drawing
conclusions
graphic
findings

based on the
findings
on BA Graphic
the
research
the
model
are then presented.
provision
drawing
The nature
theoretical
the
of
and the effectiveness
considered.
and
re-examined
process
implications
the
chapter,
work
nature of the graphic design process

earlier,
the major emphasis of the numerous investigations

251
-
the nature of the design process has tended to be concentrated on

disciplines
other than graphic design. By focusing on an exploration
of the role of drawing in the work of the graphic designer, it has
into
been possible not only to examine the role of drawing as an intrinsic

development
in
the
of the creative process, but also to gain
element
insight into the nature of that process itself.
In
2,
Chapter
Although
discussed.
theoretical
various
the
current
design
contains
process
do
these
not
evaluation,
by sane of the aforementioned

difficult
it
is
that
often
was clear
For example,
individual
procedures.
it
was invariably
these
For
of
themselves
implied
accanpanied
by
earliest
represent
theoretical
separate the
when 'evaluation'
'revision'.
graphic
perfoanance
of
was observed,
was also found that

the graphic design process.
It
taking
of a design
may be said
there
that
the
were
synthesis
and
discrete
stages as
Indeed, it
models.
to
of the develognent
it
Nevertheless,
processes
analysis,
procedures were repeated throughout

'evaluation'
was demonstrably
example,
stages
design
has shown that
study
procedures
in
for
models
place
fran
the
solution.
a broadly predictable
For example, it has been found
is
pattern of predominating procedures.

'synthesis/development'
'evaluation/
that
generally
occurs before
designers'
is
It
that
very
clear
also
a
attention tends to
revision'.
range of procedures at any given time.
It
concentrate on a particular
be
that
than
therefore,
said
rather
stages there are phases in
may,
the conduct of a range of
the graphic design process reflecting
associated procedures.
Moreover,
procedures
when analytical
analysis
(Detailed
Chapter
of
descriptions
4,
of
representation
a design
Section
problem
of
4.2.1. )
images,
the
briefing
design
graphic
can be seen to
begin
procedures
During
were sometimes observed to conduct

problem.
were
investigated,
model was found to be unsatisfactory
the analysis/synthesis/evaluation
as an overall
specifically
the
briefing
an irrrr diate
they
They asked questions;
for both immediate and later
252
-
at
have
the
been
sessions
analysis
both
made notes,
reference;
process.
The
briefing.
given
in
designers
of the design
in
and they
words
and
sketched
'solution
solutions,
or
examples of possible
1972), based on their
experience.
both
schematically,
albeit
check the
that? "
to
for
These
sketches
their
were
in
own use and,

ie
and intention,
meaning
client's
(Hillier
types'
et al,
produced,
score instances,
"Do you mean like
In two ways these observations

may be said to favour the application
model proposed by Hillier
of the 'conjecture-analysis'
et al (1972).
that designing begins before any systematic
They indicate
analysis
can
have taken place and they show that
develop their
some designers
the
of
understanding
by
problem
analysing
and evaluating
solution
types.
These findings
have important
representative
theoretical
it
Although
takes
in
before
occur
the
this
should,
procedures
'Preparation'
and
phases during
'Main Creative
of creative
majority
in
the
and
process.
developnents
to control production.
also be included.
Thus,
have
has been adopted
been
any
during
Production
the
teens
describe
the
occur
and the
teen
to describe
the phase when the
can be said
to be made up of a
occurs.
design
process
procedures
series of phases, in each of which certain
by means of which the designer
makes progressively
predominate
defined
while
conjectures
inappropriate
ones.
Findings
indicate
also
stage
into
early
design problem.
about appropriate
that
in
to
adopted
activities
other
Moreover,
model.
innovative
particular
activity
the graphic
Therefore,
make
'Production'
Phase'
can be seen to
activity
briefing
the
must be included
these
design
of
design activity
of creative
individual
or design team have
means that
therefore,
which
development
the
graphic
designerly
that
out specifically
carried
the
of
the
after
designers
instances,
procedures
point
for
the majority
the fact
procedures
preparatory
sage
studio,
the brief,
received
model
was observed that
place
implications
designers
solution
types,
more
and
clearly
rejecting
fran an
appear to be stimulated
approach to the solution
a particular
of a graphic
Darke's (1979) description
of design as a process of
253
-
'variety
being
by
potential
solutions
reduced
external
constraints
and the designer's
own cognitive
structures,
is expanded upon by her proposition
that a 'primary
ie an
generator',
idea or even 'a group of related concepts',
form a starting
will
point
for
reduction',
with
'a way into
the designer,
the problem',
and a means of beginning

the process
Hence, this
of variety
reduction.
elaboration
of
Hillier's
model to one of generator-conjecture-analysis
would appear
to be appropriate
to the graphic
design
process.
design process as a series

of the graphic
of
but not exclusively,
occurring
within
specific
for
a basis
a system of categorisation
phases, provides
of the
tasks and attendant
drawing activity.
observed designerly
That is to
it
was found that
within
tasks
say,
each phase designerly
are
perfonr d to carry out those attendant
procedures,
and many of these
The proposed model
broadly,
procedures
tasks
are conducted
through
the
use of drawing.
Each such task
has
may be said to be a range of tasks,

with
during any particular
certain tasks predominating
procedure and phase.
The relationship
of phases, procedures and tasks may be represented by
its
purpose
the following
and so there
schema.
Task
Procedure
Task
Phase
Task
Procedure
Task
Thus, the method adopted of asking graphic designers to describe their
use of drawing during the conduct of various tasks, and of observing
for the elicitation
and analysing such drawing, has proved effective
both
information
that
designerly
represents
of
activity
the systematic
and, at the sane time, permits
The system of categorisation
presentation of findings.
outlined above
has been the basis of the Taxonomy described in Chapter 5 and set out
in Table 17.
naturalistically
- 254 -
of drawing
7.3
I1 role
By
investigating
the
role
this
graphic designers,
procedural
an intrinsic
of the tasks
its
use is
intellectual
they
in the graphic
design
drawing
of
in
study has clearly

device assisting
regularly
process
the
practices
demonstrated
that
the designer
to conduct
Moreover,
perform.
working
it
of
drawing
is
also clear
highly
the development
complex and requires
of
in
to maximise
and manipulative
skills
order
is
many
that
both
its
The cognitive
abilities
required for the understanding
of drawn imagery, and for performing
and appreciation
and directing
in ways most appropriate
drawing activity
to specific
circumstances,
important,
have been shaven to be equally
if not more important
than
effectiveness.
the practical
just
has been found that
it
In addition,
in the performance
caranunication
their
it
drawings
By observing
uses.
drawing
of designerly
is
important
that
take
drawing
experiences,
it
importance
that
to
it
apply
account
activity
of drawings.
production
of drawing is not
but in the types of
activities
thereby,
and in the development
literacy
of the visual
been shown that
the
can be conducted
that
and expression
designerly
in the actual
required
abilities
of
It
supports.
evaluative
this
has been possible
criteria
particular
and discussing
to
has also
with
confirm
for
range
of
designers
both
the
and specific
nature of the role of drawing in many aspects
development
for graphic design problems,
the
of solutions
of
and the
in the performance
support it gives to many designers
essential
of
essential
their
complex duties.
Graphic
designers
have been found
to
use drawing
strategically,
draw
to
the
they
way
meet the requirements of the particular
adapting
Indeed, it has been found that designers in all the
working context.
of the graphic design profession
major orientations
make use of
depending on the particular
drawing, albeit
to different
extents,
nature of the type of job on which they are engaged, on the type of
for
which they work, on their role in the design team and
organisation
predilections
Although not all the
on their individual
and ability.
designers in the study found drawing essential
in every aspect of
their work, all found it at least useful in sane aspects and most
255
-
(Figure
it
described
respondents
as
42 shows the preponderance

the
Therefore,
drawing
to
study
the
design
graphic
and
the
the
designers
importance
profession
within
key
several
of use that
has demonstrated
perfonned
activities
for
essential
the
over
procedures.
described.
of the use of
broad range of
particularities
these
of
activities.
in
As stated
2 (Section
Chapter
senior graphic designers

and involve the direction
been found
that
the
these responsibilities
2.2),
the
responsibilities
of
some
can include
the management of design projects

of other members of the design team.
It has
in the conduct of
use of drawing is important
in ways not hitherto
clearly
defined.
Black (1983) has described the need for designers to establish a basis
for understanding and co-operation
thinking
so that designerly
can
has
business.
been
It
observed that graphic designers use
permeate
drawing
to
communicate in
this
essentially
designerly
way with
marketing personnel and account executives, other members of

clients,
the design team and specialists
responsible for aspects of production.
Drawing can, in fact be seen as part of the language through which
designers conduct various aspects of business, over and above its use
in purely creative
terms.
That is to say, respondents have described themselves as interacting

through the use of drawing, to query information
with the client,
briefing
demonstrate
during
to
both the advantages or
sessions,
given
to convince, even to educate
the disadvantages of proposed solutions,
the client
so as to enable them to see the advantages of proposed
solutions and, when necessary, to use drawing to such an effect that a
client
can be persuaded to accept the designer's
256
-
preferred
approach.
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257
-
V-4
euo
h
has
drawing
Similarly,
communication
draw as part
been
found
between members of
of
the process
be
to
design
the
to
of passing
an
essential
team.
junior
Senior
form
of
designers
designers
both
the
in various
solutions
stages
of development
and
development.
for further
Again, drawing is an essential
instructions
and instructing
members of what may be tensed
car onent for directing
in Chapter 2 (Section
As explained
the 'extended design team'.
2.2),
form
design
of
types of drawings,
certain
namely 'specifications',
etc,
been well
documented but
has already
this
has provided
study
data on the ways drawing is used to communicate in a
additional
flexible
way when a designer is controlling
and interactive
production
through
commissioning
or passing
procedures
on instructions
to
the
use of
specialists.
In terms of managerial
it
practice,
has been found that
determine
drawing
not only the quality
can
of
design
but
by
team
the
the efficiency
produced
of their
team can
control
the
and therefore
ineffective
In other
By using
production.
drawing
organisation
and cost-effectiveness
in appropriate
and timing
time-wasting
approaches
can be evaluated
solutions
has been made in
investment
words,
wasteful
the proper use

of the design solutions
of
ways, the design

a
job
to design
and avoid
solutions.
by means of drawings
time-consuming
before
production
procedures.
is not only in the conduct of managerial tasks that the

importance of the use of drawing has been demonstrated.
Its use in
the support of creative effort has also been fully confirmed.
It has
However, it
been found to be essential to the way in which both the design team
designers
individual
stimulate and develop creative responses and
and
to the development of 'empathy' between members of the design team.
Drawing has been observed to be a vehicle for creative interchange in
group sessions, a means whereby the members of the design team both
Moreover, the 'one to one' interchange of
share and stimulate ideas.
ideas by designers regularly observed during the study is frequently
by
drawing
the
of
use
and, again, the majority
accompanied
of
described
in
drawing as essential in their own
the
study
respondents
258
-
individual
In
of ideas.
exploration
fact,
the
is
thinking
importance
of
the
demonstrated
clearly
drawing
use of
by the
in
findings
fostering
of
the
creative
For
study.
have
described
employing drawing as a type of
respondents
example,
'brainstorming'
technique,
ideas visually,
whereby they can list
or
through a canbination
notes and drawn images, maintaining
of written
a
degree of critical
Again,
evaluation
alongside
spontaneous ideation.
drawing
is used for
'rapid
the
firing
of ideas'
and for
the essential
is 'wild
and
of ideas initially
produced in a way that
evaluation
free' as proposed by Broadbent (1973).
The importance of the activity
'stored
developing
(op.
drawing
in
analogy'
cit. ) or visual memory,
of
It was also found that graphic
has also been confirmed.
designers
to impose any sort of judgmental
a reluctance
exhibited
their initial
uses of drawing in a job, thereby implicitly
non-judgmental
Designers
described
climate
to support
creative
have been found to use drawing

by
'essentially
representational
Kirby
Lockhard
modelling'
design
on
fostering
thinking.
in ways which range fran
and Lloyd
through
medium, right
of proposed
language
(1982)
criteria
solutions.
Jones
(1984)
to a use which
Drawing
is
that
as
an
is highly
the chosen
for
tasks for graphic

a great many varied
Not only is it the 'language of modelling'
(Cross [N]
designers.
the chosen foam of canmnication
1982), it is also in many respects
design
the
of
nature
solutions.
visual
about
problem-solving
However, although the importance of the use of drawing to graphic

designers has been clearly demonstrated by this study, there were at
that this use of drawing has not been
the same time many indications
by
to
analysis
any
real
members of the profession.
For
subject
designers
it
is
that
have not developed
graphic
clear
example,
drawing practices,
systematic terminology to describe their
or to
describe the types of drawing they produce for many of the procedures
design
the
for those when the
process, particularly
graphic
of
The terns 'rough' is generally
of creative thinking occurs.
applied to describe a wide range of types of drawing without
differentiation.
Moreover, a large proportion of respondents stated
majority
- 259 -
had a rather
they
drawing,
the
indicating
particular
they
that
as to
attitude
confused
had not,
their
designerly
of
characteristics
in
what
'real'
constituted
own minds,
drawing
clarified
It
usage.
was
found that,
to some extent, unexplored assumptions that drawing, or at

'real'
drawing, can only be the result
least
of artistic
production,
the attitudes
influenced
of same members of all
three
of the main
(ie
designers,
in
the
study
respondent groups
educators and students).
I1 range and develppment
7.4
drawing
the wide range of use that graphic

them to develop a correspondingly
As stated above,
drawing requires
drawing
of the requited
These abilities
will
extend
intellectual
canpetencies to broadly-based
was the importance

it
in addition,
of practical
was found that
abilities
broad
make of
range
very
of
specific
Not only
skills.
confirmed
a high proportion
designers
from
abilities.
technical
abilities
in this
study but,
thought
of designers
developing
the cognitive
abilities
of judgement and understanding
drawings
the
importance.
of
effectiveness
was of considerable
of
literacy,
Again the importance
of developing
visual
and of visual
that
manory linked
fron
was clear
cases,
the
capacity
use drawing
to
effectively,
was also
by many designers.
described
It
to
graphic
after
abilities
design students
the findings
presented in Chapter 5 that,

designers develop many of these essential
leaving college.
It was also apparent that
in most
drawing
graphic
do not consistently
demonstrate sufficient
caitrol
drawing
in
the
design
the
graphic
use
of
process and that they
over
for
in
terms of the develognent of
practice
prepared
properly
not
are
the required drawing abilities.
differences
Considerable
the
values
relative
approaches
to
evaluative
criteria
the
been consistently
drawing
courses.
tuition
Although
of opinion
of
professionally
development
appropriate
to
It
of
is
that
clear
artistically
abilities,
designerly
was a source
it
and
drawing
of
established.
by educators
were expressed
contention
in
260
-
recent
that
or
biased
and
drawing
was found
about
similarly
usage had not
the
confusion
years
staff
nature
on
of
acme
teams have
key
of
several
subjects, for
provision
the influence of rather inflexible
attitudes
their
revised
studies,
drawing tuition
example business
to the nature of
often apparent.
was still
evidence of a lack of integration

of drawing tuition
with
by the study.
the main design curriculum
was revealed
In some
development
for
the
tuition
of various
aspects
courses,
of visual
historical
in
literacy,
and cultural
especially
aspects,
was to a
In addition,
large
the
extent
History
Art
Critical
or
that
There was also
abilities
It
would
appear,
intellectual
of the
development
of
the
main provision
planning
of
for
example
in some
drawing
content-specific
for example an illustration
fostering
and
evidence
for
Again,
Department.
the
from the
little
very
of drawing
development
Departments.
Art
draughtsmanship
has been split
abilities
Fine
some instances,
in
of
underpinning
Studies
the
departments,
other
conducting
to non design staff,
delegated
was
classes
fran
tutor,
or a tutor
therefore,
fron
for
responsibility
courses,
by staff
conducted
student
practical
of
design
tuition.
for
the
continuous
designers
over
the three
may keep pace with

years of a degree course, such that these abilities
designerly
developing
although
most courses made special
ability,
for
illustration
in
this
students.
respect
provision
many respondents
Although
frcen the
educational
of the importance
and appreciation
understanding
there were found to be few,
designers,
formulated
methods specifically
drawing
required
abilities
by many educators
through
working
apprentice-like
clear
indeed
that
for
was that
any,
professional
development
develop
to
reflecting
on design projects,
system described by Cross [N] (1982),
fran
design
drawing
projects,
abilities
it
is
issues
also need consideration
other
many
drawing
development
the
of
abilities
projects
these
the
of
held
The view
practice.
will
teaching
established
the systematic
students
many of the specific
learned
for
if
sector
expressed an
of drawing to graphic
abilities
the
some extent
and while
it
was
mentioned
also
above are
that because
clear
by students
inevitably
during
these
takes
second
place.
Since the
required
drawing
abilities
261
-
are so varied
in
nature,
if
are
students
to
and
practical
acquire
a broadly-based
they
abilities,
cognitive
ccupetency,
need
developing
both
opportunity
to
drawing
how
in
learning
flexible
to
use
a
on
concentrate
practical
way, and time to develop the associated
and adaptable
'put dawn'
or
Sane respondents
mentioned more systematic

to
approaches
teaching various conventions,
etc, but the study found no evidence of
techniques
for teaching
systematic range of established
a generalised,
skills.
drawing
designerly
those
there
Therefore,
1)
would
to
appear
designers
graphic
to
carpare
with
disciplines.
be three
development
major factors
adversely
for graphic
of drawing tuition
students:
The lack
principles
tuition
drawing
2)
design
other
the appropriate
affecting
design
for
established
to
abilities
The
of a clear
philosophical
basis
from which
and broad aims of the planning and conduct

on courses can be planned and the development
be evaluated.
abilities
failure
of
courses
develop
to
the
general
of drawing
of student
teaching
appropriate
for maintaining
integrated
a fully
provision,
strategies
so that
drawing abilities,
the development of intellectual
or cognitive
drawing
abilities,
and designerly
practical
abilities
are
developed holistically
over the three years of a course.
3)
The lack of a systematic formulation of methods within

design education for teaching the specific
range of
designers
that
graphic
require.
abilities
Thus, paradoxically,
level
graphic
although
of understanding
designers,
there
was general
about the importance
the development
agreement
graphic
drawing
and a high
of drawing
of specifically
in the work of
designerly
drawing
the content
considered
was not consistently
when planning
Although the importance of drawing
and conduct of drawing tuition.
designers
to
was generally
graphic
acknowledged, the provision
ability
for its development was found to be piecemeal and partial.
abilities
- 262 -
may well
be to inhibit
appreciate
the car lex nature
of designerly
the
for
of this
The effects
reason
by graphic
designers
to
students'
capacity
drawing activity.
Part
would seem to be that,
this
drawing
use of
the
to
prior
has never
this
been
of
the
study,
systematically
as a basis for the development of drawing

Hitherto,
the importance of both developing
provision.
a wide range
while,
of specific
abilities,
at the same time, maintaining
a clear
sense of the association
of the intellectual
and manipulative
aspects
The findings
of drawing usage may not have been fully
appreciated.
of
and characterised
analysed
this
can form a basis
therefore,
study,
the development
of a more
provision.
systematic
for
Reocmoesdatians
7.5
for
airriailim
planning
regard to drawing
with
tuition
It
would be inappropriate
drawing
tuition,
graphic
design
this
factors
that
design
graphic
the
affecting
affect
all
While
BA graphic
design
is
influence
their
subject
necessary
of
recommendations
planning
taking
findings
account
both
drawing
be claimed
it
equally,
widespread
made for
re-
that
make
these
in
and
them
in
Therefore,
factors
tuition
would appear
to
improvements
these
the
graphic
were identified
of
consideration.
are
for
of
this
curriculum
the
general
of the study.
has shown that
The research
specific,
but
drawing
abilities.
the
into
courses
intention
a basis
factors
major
cannot
sufficiently
careful
section,
it
on BA
classes
been the
provision
appropriate
about
in degree level
tuition
three
students.
of drawing
to provide
of drawing
7.4,
reccanendations
has never
rather
In Section
education.
as adversely
for
but
specific
content
it
Indeed,
courses.
of the provision
evaluation
or the
methodology
to proscribe,
study
design
to make very
general
nonetheless
aim of
graphic
very
Given that
enabling
designers
wide-ranging
the
provision
students
the full
to
are required
cognitive
and practical
has
of drawing tuition
drawing
use
is
abilities
if
effectively,
to be developed
drawing
range of these required
fundamental revision
consistently,
will
need to take place.
- 263 -
to develop
currently
attitudes
caused by the contradictory
fact,
in
has,
be
The
resolved.
study
some educators must
drawing
to
both the importance
approach
of a pragmatic
Firstly,
the confusion
influencing
confirmed
linking
tuition,
designers,
its
and the
individualistic,
importance
of
However, what is of particular
It
has been demonstrated
to
the
is that
significance,
is sufficient
alone.
that
designers
of these approaches
neither
approach
graphic
working
of
needs
develop
to
students
encouraging
personal
even
the
to
closely
provision
an
use of drawing.
it has shown that
develop
must
the
for
tasks,
the
particular
performance
of
specific
abilities
for
for
drawings
the
or
presentation
client
of
production
example,
drawing
to
in
the
However,
use
capacity
a
a
specialist.
commissioning
developnent
the
been
to
has
flexible,
of
require
shown
adaptable way,
If
to
is
that
individualistic
circumstances.
responsive
approach
an
needed for
students
for
become
must
it
strategically,
pragmatism
not
articulate
and that
Drawing tuition,
therefore,
which they are fully

and fluidity.
but also
only appropriately
language' in
them a 'problem-solving
to use drawing
are to learn
of appropriateness
and the
development
express
themselves
of
can use with
needs to encorrass
to specific
aspects
in
adaptability
effectively
they
according
to
both the
of professional
such that
use,
confidence
the
work
students
can
requirements
of
circumstances.
particular
that take
criteria
are established
evaluative
designerly practice into account, such that both the appropriate and
is
It
drawing
encouraged.
and
the strategic
are
acknowledged
use of
between
type
the
is
distinction
important
that
of
made
a
also
individualism
that is appropriate for a graphic designer and the type
It
that
is
important
is
that
appropriate
for
a fine artist.
a basis for staff
would provide
criteria
in students
levels of drawing ability
remedial tuition when required.
The establishment of these

teams to agree appropriate
selected
onto courses and for
in tezms of the development of a relevant philosophical

basis fron which the general and specific aims of drawing tuition
may
be developed, it is recam ended that the two aspects that make up
Therefore,
264
-
designerly
drawing ability,
namely pragmatism and individualism,
are
and that they are
recognised by all the educators involved,
fully
given equal encouragement.

The need to get all educators involved in decisions
about establishing
to the next reca -endation.
As
aims in this way leads naturally
stated above, graphic designers are required to develop both practical
drawing
their
drawing
Moreover,
use
of
abilities.
and cognitive
the
requires
the
Therefore,
of
study
into
taking
planned
In
order
to
teaching
team
need
to
input
drawing
ability.
Further,
it
especially
is
reconnended
those
the
where
other
to
that
not
giving
to ensure that
intellectual
disciplines
to
integrate
philosophical
but also
students
graphic
designerly
basis
detail
considerable
is to be developed.
for
all
team
and
development
special
into
staff
cognitive
if
a fully
between
academics
from
adaptable
teaching
needs to
and
need to be made
be sufficiently
their
from
provision
aware of the relationship

the
courses,
need to be made
of both
While
student
staff
holistic
efforts
such an integration
by design
includes
efforts
balanced
of
design
graphic
abilities.
design may well
thinking
development
special
that
became fully
and manipulative
outside
emphasis to the
abilities,
manipulative
design,
practical
and
all
the
on
be
and to
on the
educators
that
their
contribution
unity,
teaching
is
only
intellectual
general
that
than graphic
maintained,
the
can make to
abilities.
and manipulative
to be 'holistic'
its
this
achieve
be aware of
disciplines
ensure
both
account
aspects.
individual
of intellectual
drawing needs
cwbination
methods,
the
be defined
in
integrated
curriculum
This recamiendation of a holistic

provision would seem to lend support
during the
to the established practice of developing drawing abilities
Indeed, it must be said that this
operation of design projects.
practice provides a useful way of helping students to gain experience
However, the
of the use of drawing in the graphic design process.
limitations
must also be acknowledged. Drawing abilities
are far too
complex to be taught through this method alone, and moreover, because
265
-
of
'apprentice-like'
the use of this
to develop
system there has been a failure

[N]
drawing
tuition.
As
Cross
methods of
more systematic
(1982)
for
is not sufficient
it
suggests,
designerly
practice.
to simply
educators
emulate
this
analyse
in terms of the development of
its requirements
practice,
characterise
methods of
and then develop systematic
abilities,
general and specific
fostering
those abilities.
is
It
case for
There would appear to be a strong

many of the practical
example media handling techniques,
thereby
those currently
adopted,
of
teaching
students
are
teaching
to
ability
cognitive
very
little
on the majority
development
for
methods
to memorise and the

part
development
the
of
the
has been found that
in
the
these
of
The
study.
drawing
linking
usage
with
in the taxonomy in Table
given
these
which
than
practical
generalised
investigated
such as is
abilities,
a basis from
provides
to
given
for
design
potential
essential
an
framework
a theoretical
of
the
and yet it
of courses
drawing
required
is
attention
specific
abilities
17,
of a graphic
skills
these
systematic,
designer,
ability,
'ad hoc'
graphic
acquiring
form
imagery
visual
recall
of
all
For example the ability
be explored.
also
that
ensuring
of methods
are less
in ways that
through
to
drawing
of
recommended that
is
abilities
cognitive
them
the introduction
aspects
opportunity
it
Moreover,
abilities.
should
the
given
for
necessary
may be
tuition
of
methods
planned.
The present
of
drawing
in
importance
abilities
various
executive
to play
the
work
fostering
on BA level
the
tasks,
a part
development
to
of
assist
designers
in organisational
in the development of other
to obscure
its
is
that
the
designerly
place
of
graphic
design
of
provision
for
significance.
266
-
not
in
only
their
tasks,
courses
and
like
abilities
drawing
other
in its
ability
Therefore,
of
the
drawing
required
and managerial
imagery.
ccuputer-generated
recxaanendation
the
of the use
thereby,
and,
Drawing
courses.
but also
of
importance
designers
graphic
design
graphic
secured on the curriculum

introduction
or extension
allowed
of
has been found
forms
control
important
the
of
the fundamental
has confirmed
study
final
a
tuition
is
and that
the
is
not
subjects
i am for future
7.6
The methods of research
wank
have proved
adopted
in meeting
effective
the
The canbination
of eliciting
of the study.
objectives
original
from
broadly
designerly
information
a
about
practice
and opinions
designers,
and validating
sample of working
and
representative
by
findings
thus
the
provided
a sustained
study
of
extending
designerly
one design
in
practice
a postal
courses
of
and a series
questionnaire
has also allowed a sufficiently
of drawing
provision
the findings
now be of
would
value
in
study
drawing
their
use
of
oatments about
their
and
own drawing abilities,
literacy
other
memory were
and visual
such
fran
responses
the
significant
group of such respondents.
Conversely,
the study
that
benefit
would
For example,
about the relationship

influence
their
the
awn drawing
a more
probe
of drawing
evaluative
activity
the
in
criteria
and to
that
provide
study
of
topics
several
by
of others,
more
of
visual
These,
and
series
of
statistically
for
unexplored
that
of
and heuristic
various
more
development
responses.
could
the
respondents'
development
their
applied
of
individual
to Fine Art
and has
allowed
majority
'open-ended'
the
sane of
that
way
identified
has also
to
quantitative
subsequent
an attempt
Design
study.
explore
in the
study,
in
from
to
volunteered
checklists
BA Graphic
of
in relation
to educational
study has been very broad and
of further
For example,
evaluation.
quantitative
worthy
the
of
to
visits
has posed many questions
it
aims,
considerable
findings
important
the
scope of
key topics
several
The canbination
to be discussed
initial
its
achieving
identified
It
the
However,
drawing
view of the
representative
courses to be achieved to allow
on these
tuition
about practice
provision.
while
detail.
in considerable
usage to be characterised
has allowed
consultancy,
research
approach.
assumptions
have been found to
respondents,
both
would benefit
to
fran
the
influence
Similarly,
the
of
such an approach.
residual
a study of
'Basic Design'
movements of the 1960s, and of the Sumnerson and
Coldstream Reports (as discussed
in chapter 2, Section 2.6) on the
267
-
planning
of drawing
reactive
methodology.
that,
clear
canplex
for
tuition
designers
as the
Indeed,
it
to
score extent,
with drawing
caranunities,
study
progressed
has been about

acting
as part
interactions.
these
system and thereby facilitating
'anthropological'
interesting
this
to extend
themselves.
attention
on the design ccrrrr nities
The
lack
of systematic
has been identified.
abilities
A study
methods would prove an interesting

done on re-evaluating
work already
of
the
interactions
the
of
of the carmunication
It would be very
approach
developing
for
methods
and
a flexible
it has bec ar e
would require
and
focus
drawing
designerly
development
of
such
Sane of the
avenue of research.
historical
to this
approaches
2, and a study of the potential

is
in
that
these
acceptable
way
a
methods
re-introduction
of score of
to contemporary graphic design students may also prove interesting.
being borrowed
the methods currently
Indeed, sane research evaluating
problem has been discussed
from
other
'custanised'
required
if
disciplines
methods
courses
in Chapter
leading
and
for
eventually
designers,
graphic
are to establish
a designerly
to
will
the
design
inevitably
approach
of
be
to drawing
studies.
it is worth noting that, in the opinion of many

As a post-script,
designers, the use of canputers and other technical drawing devices is
to supplant the use of drawing or the need for the
not likely
in general.
Moreover, respondents
of drawing ability
itrortant
in
indicated that the need to be able to draw was still
in
The
to
ways
which
and
effectively.
creatively
use
order
equipment
the role of drawing and the development of drawing skills
can keep
pace with rapid technological
change would also be a subject worthy
developtent
of detailed
drawing in
investigation.
the importance of the use of

has also
the performance of managerial responsibilities
been high-lighted
by the current study.
Further research could lead
to a more detailed analysis
into
relevant drawing tuition
Similarly,
integration
to
the
this
of
use
of
and
the design managementelements of degree
courses.
The study
of drawing activity
has proved an effective

268
-
vehicle
for
insights
gaining
the commercial
study
aspects
concerns
of
managers in
Similarly,
the
fully
design
of
their
in
but
two distinct
and the educational
individual
organisation
courses
drawing
into
the
from
ranging
the
introspective
the
of designer
responsibilities
of
educational
comments on
respondents'
environment,
on BA Graphic Design
of drawing tuition
have provided
met by current
to
namely
environments,
has been possible
to
direction
and conduct
abilities
It
sectors.
procedure
designers
related
important
required
in
educational
the
team and control
data
the
in
that
commercial
provision.
269
-
it
of
production.
appears
sector
are
that
not
the
being
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Address NSAE. 361-366
&
APPENDIX I(a)
Interview
for Use with Practising
Structure
Name:
Graphic Designers
Date:
Current post:
No. of years
Previous
in Graphics
Industry:
experience:
Training:
Nature of contact with Graphic Design students:
Section 1 (Drawing Ability)

are about the importance of drawing
1.
The questions in this section

to graphic designers
ability
2.
How do you rate the importance of drawing ability

graphic designers?
Essential
Useful
Please say why
4.
How do you define drawing ability?
5.
How important is it for a graphic

appreciation of drawing in general?
Essential
Detrimental
Irrelevant
3.
Useful
designers
Irrelevant
-1-
to practising
to
have a broad
Detrimental
Section II
1.
(Use of drawing in all
stages of design process)

are about the use of drawing in the
Briefing
2.
Do you use drawing during

director?
a briefing
Yes []
with
a client
No []
Don't
or an art
)mow []
Please explain:
3.
Do you use drawing in the collection
of reference material?
Yes []No[]
Design
4.
Don't knc []
Process
Do you use drawing
in the analysis
No []
Yes []
5.
Do you use drawing
in the synthesis
Do you use drawing in the appraisal
No []
and testing
Yes []
Presentati
7.
Don't know []
of solutions?
No []
Don't
}mow []
Do you use drawing to present idea stages to others?

No []
Do you use drawing to present finished

Yes []
9.
}mow []
Yes []
8.
Don't
problem?
of ideas?
Yes []
6.
of a design
stages
solutions
No []
Do you use drawing to progress solutions
Yes []
-2-
Don't know []
to others?
Don't
know []
to print?
No []
Don't know []
Elements of design
10. Do you use drawing when planning
Yes []
11. Do you use drawing
design?
when designing
Yes []
12. Do you use drawing when designing

Yes []
13. Do you use drawing when designing
Yes []
14. Is there
any other
use of drawing
grid
layout?
and
structures
Don' t know []
No []
the
typographic
No []
letterforms
of
aspects
Don't
}avow []
and logos?
No []
3d structures,
No []
you would like
Don't
know []
e. g. packs?
Don't
know []
to describe?
15. How important is it to be able to judge the drawing ability

image makers?
specialist
Essential
Useful
16. Do you use drawing to brief
Irrelevant
of
Detrimental
specialists?
Yes []No[]
Don't knc
[]
Please explain
-3\
Section
(Required
III
Drawing
Abilities)
1.

graphic designers require
2.
is it that a graphic designer

has the ability
How important
to
image, and then conmunicate an accurate
a visual
conceptualise
description
of that image through the use of words?
Useful
Essential
3.
Would you consider
that
Irrelevant
a drawing
Do you think it
drawing abilities:
drawing abilities
a)
Theoretical
c)
Ability
d)
The ability
observation
e)
use of style
to draw appropriately
(to promote ideas)
The ability
ideas
........
i)
Sensitivity
to 2D spatial
organisation
j)
Sensitivity
to 3D spatial
organisation
k)
Dexterity
1)
Ability
present
work
draw
............................
-4-
No []N.
in
A. []
Yes []
No [ ] N. A. []
Yes [ ]
No [ ] N. A. []
Yes [ ]
No [ ] N. A. []
Yes [ ]
No [ ] N. A.
Yes [ ]
No [ ] N. A. []
Yes [ ]
No [ ] N. A. []
Yes []
No []N.
A. []
Yes []
No []N.
A. []
Yes []
No []N.
A. []
Yes []
No []N.
A. []
Yes []
No []N.
A. []
[]
to
..
..
............
appropriately
drawing
to
..........................
The ability
visualise ideas .........................
to
of
for
and manual control
use
for
The ability
}avow []
from
................................
organise
h)
................
.............................
brainstorming
g)
.............
The ability
Don't
Yes []
to adapt found imagery ..........
analysis
f)
NO []
appropriate
of
context
cultural/historical
Appropriate
Detrimental
important a graphic designer has the following

(Please
say if you think any of them are not
)
N.
A.
-
appreciation
b)
that
ability
ability?
Yes []
4.
the drawing
are about
to
m) Ability
to draw from memory .............
Yes [ ]
No []N.
A. []
to draw quickly
Yes [ ]
No []N.
A. []
n)
Ability
5.
it
important
Do you think
that
has
designer
a graphic
(Please say if you think
following
drawing skills
any are
)
drawing skills
N.
A.
-
a)
Skill
b)
Creative
c)
Calligraphic
d)
in
Skill
materials
in handling
.............
a range of media
use of collage
skills
handling
....
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A.
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
[]
Yes
...
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
Yes []
No []
N. A. [ ]
......
.....................
graphics
...............................
e)
Skill
in handling spirit
f)
Skill
in handling professional
aids/equipment
markers ........
..........................
techniques
g)
in airbrush
h)
Skill
in handling drawing instruments
i)
Skill
in tracing
j)
Creative
6.
In what ways does a lack

graphic designer?
............
........................
cropping of imagery ............
of
Lack of confidence
[]
Makes presentation
inadequate []
What criteria
Limits
drawing
ideas []
ability
disadvantage
Makes working slow []
Produces sloppy art work []
do you use in assessing drawing ability?
-5-
[ ]
drawing
Skill
7.
Yes []
.................
specialist
the
not
Ttf
1.
Haw should drawing be taught to B. A. Graphic Design students?
2.
Do you think that Graphic

adequate drawing ability?
Design
students
Yes []
3.
No []
Don't
have
4.
What drawing
acquire?
5.
How did you learn the visualising

that you employ? (teach)
6.
Should students
abilities
be encouraged
you
found
No []
it
Don't
most
to
techniques
to draw from memory?

Don't
Should students be encouraged to develop an individual

drawing?
Yes []
No []
Don't
Kn z[]
style
of
Know []
Should students be encouraged to keep sketch books?

Yes []
9.
Know []
difficult
and presentation
Yes []No[]
B.
Know []
Do you think that Graphic Design students demonstrate adequate

awareness of the appropriate application
of drawing in the design
process?
Yes []
7.
demonstrate
generally
Should students be encouraged to

learning about drawing?
No [)
Don't Know []
copy drawings
Yes []
No []
as a way of
Don't
Know []
10. Do you think there will have to be provision of dsrawing tuition

on Graphic Design courses to accommodate the effects
of new
developments in technology?
Yes []
-6-
No []
Don't
Know []
11. Please rate in order of importance the provision

of specific
for the following: - (Number 1-3, with most important
tuition
marked 1)
12.
broad artistic
a)
Drawing for
b)
Drawing skills
c)
A broad appreciation
Should regular
indicated:
needed for
Life
b)
Drawing from natural
c)
Sketching visits
d)
Exploration
e)
Perspective
f)
Handling
g)
Letterforxn
h)
i)
J)
professional
and understanding
drawing
content-specific
a)
developnent
and creative
practice
..........
of drawing
classes
......
[ J
........
be organised
as
Yes []
No [ ]
....................
Yes []
No [ ]
....................
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
....................
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
....................
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
(Rendering of type,
Indication
photography etc. ) ............................
Yes []
No []
'Doodling'/'Brainstorming'
(Free play in drawing to pranpt ideas)
Yes []
No []
classes
Any other
.0.0..
0..
.................................
f on n
.........
of media .....
..............
technical
drawing
instruments
.......
...................................
.......
...................................................
4.0.....................
0.....
-7-
0...
0...
0....
000.0...
APPENDIX1(b)
Quest. ionnnire
drzwln
t: )tf
into
tititjon
Lecturer
Arts
and
Senior
Pamela
H. SchenkDepartment
of Communication
Manchester
Polytechnic
Please
a
provide
background
details:
Date:
College:
Yost
years
in
teaching:
Number of years
full
time
Number of
freelance
Section
years
in
Graphics
work
while
of
Design
Name:
Number of
brief
to : sr. l I he prciviclon
m rinin
coursca
attitude,
on Grnplilc
held:
Industry:
teaching
1)
How do you rate

the importance
to practising;
of drawing
ability*
(*I an using
'drawing
designers.
the term
to
ability'
mean
graphic
both in practice
skill,
and in appreciation
any,. and every drawing
and
understanding)
Please
ring
appropriate
word
Useful
Essential
Please briefly
Irrelevant
say why:
2)
How do you rate the importance

for the course?
you select
Essential
Please
Useful
briefly
Detrimental
of
drawing
Irrelevant
say why:
-8-
ability
in
Detrimental
the
students
Design
that Graphic
than other
abilities
3)
Do you think
range of drawing
Please
tick
Please
briefly
say why:
Graphic
that
experience?
Design
students
Yes(
briefly
should
be given
No(
say why:
5)
Do you think
that Graphic
for the drawing
tuition
skills
designers?
graphic
Design students
should have specific
for professional
needed
practice
Yes ()
Please
briefly
a broad
drawing
as
No (I
say why:
it is important
Design
6)
that Graphic
Do you think
(*By
'appreciation'
drawing?
'appreciation'*
broad
of
judge
the purpose and quality
and
to
understand
ability
develop
students
I mean the
of drawings)
Yes (j
Please briefly
7)
Please
for
tuition
a broader
No ()
Yes ()
box:
appropriate
4)
Do you think
range of drawing
Please
students
need to acquire
art and design students?
No (I
say why:
in order
rate
of importance
(Number
the following:
1-3,
-
a)
Drawing
for
b)
Drawing
skills
c)
A broad
broad
artistic
needed
appreciation
for
and creative
professional
and understanding
_9_
the provision
of
with most important
development..........
practice..
of
............
drawing............
specific
marked
( I
(
( I
1)
of importance
(Number
1-5,
-
rank in order
the fo1loving:
8)
Please
for
tuition
a)
Typography
b)
Photography
..................................................
c)
Technology
related
d)
Business
e)
Drawing
Section
the
with
of
provision
most important
"......
............................................
studies
to
Industry
"..........
".......
( J
..................
"...
"""""""""""""""(
for
drawing
II
9)
Do you make specific

planning?
curriculum
10)
Do you
specialist
illustration
arrangements
Yes (]
arrangement
make a separate
from
design
students
graphic
students?
for
that
Which
member of staff
tuition
of drawing
provision
indicate)
one person please
Head of Dept (j
No (]
drawing
made
for
tuition
for
specialist
(please
[)
12) Which members

to Graphic
tuition
Head of
Year
Dept.
Tutor
Staff
from
Other
(j
(j
(j
give
Year Tutor
details)
(please
()
Dept. [
(j
Leader
Specialist
give
Drawing
give
details
drawing
conducting
School
or
Area
()
IJ
(
......................
..............................
10
-
()
Tutor
None
for
Tutor
the
than
(j
Course Leader
Head of
Drawing
j (please
details)
of
more
.............................
Specialist
other
()
are responsible
of staff
Design students?
Course
No (I
for
the planning
responsible
(If
Design students.
to Graphic
Course Committee
Headof School or Area ()

Other
is
in
tuition
Yes II
11)
"(
..............................
...............
1)
( J
the Graphics
................
Specific
marked
None
(I
13)
Do you make specific
arrangements
year
Yes
()
No [
2nd year
Yes
(j
No (j
3rd
year
Yes
[]
No (j
'Yes'
to
1st
If
for
is
ty
any please
ear.........
give
""".
2nd
year
3rd
year ...........
brief
""""""..
drawing
details
"....
"""".
"..
".
""...
".
""
"".
".......
......................:.........................
in '13)'
tuition?
to your
what amount
of
(Please
indic ate
,
timetable)
(approximately)
time
by 'week' or by 'term'
1st year
(hrs)
per week
[j
or
per
2nd year
(hrs)
per week
[)
or
per term (days)
(j
3rd year per week (hrs)
[)
or
per term (days)
(I
relating
to drawing
Section
term
(days)
III
15)
Do you
programme?
give
information
by means of
Yes ()
16)
""""""""""""""".
"..
...........................................
14) If yes to any

devoted
to drawing
is most appropriate
for:
tuition
Do you
include
critique
of
drawings
in
the
teaching
Yes ()
11
-
a lecture
No ()
programme?
No (l
is
as
17)
the
If
Is help
following
them
enable
to
drawing
understand
Historically
Yes (j
Culturally
Yes
(I
No (j
Stylistically
Yes (j
No (j
'Yes'
to any please
for
Appropriate
Communicating
Skillfully
'Yes'
to acquire
the
methods
the
necessary
produced
teaching
say what
encouraged
to develop
to
briefly
20) Are students
21)
Are students
about drawing?
No (j
Yes (j
No (j
methods
you use:
individual
an
style
briefly
of drawing?
No (j
say why:
encouraged
to keep sketch
books?
No()
say why:
encouraged
to
copy
drawings
as a way of
Yes (j
Please
drawings
Yes (j
Yes (j
Please briefly
judge
No (I
Yes ()
Please
No
(j
Yes
information
say why:
--
12 -
in
you use:
abilities
job
a particular
to any please
19) Are students
teaching
say what
18) Are students

encouraged
to see if they are: -
If
to
to students
given
contexts:
-
learning
No (J
22)
Is drawing
specific
skills:
tuition
-
to
given
.........................
Yes ()
No ()
Yes ()
No ()
.......................
Yes ()
No ()
.......................
Yes [)
No ()
2D........
Yes ()
No [)
3D........
Yes [)
No [j
Yes ()
No (j
Yes ()
No [j
Yes
No
Yes (j
No (j
..............
Yes (j
No [)
instruments.....
Yes ()
No [)
Yes (j
No ()
Yes [j
No ()
Yes tj
No [)
Yes [j
No [)
b)
Perceptual
skills
c)
Visualising
d)
Presentation
e)
Manipulative
f)
Skills
in
spatial
organisation,
g)
Skills
in
spatial
organisation,
h)
Skill
i)
in handling specialist
Skill
materials .................................
........................
skills
skills
a range
in handling
of
media.......
graphics
j)
Skill
k)
in handling
Skill
profesional
drawing aids/equipment
....................
markers ..........
spirit
1)
Skill
in
airbrush
techniques
m)
Skill
in
handling
drawing
n)
Skill
in tracing
o)
Calligraphic
p)
Creative
cropping
q)
Creative
use of collage ...................
r)
Any others .......................................
..........................
skills
.......................
of
imagery
..............
.........
... ..................................................
.....................
.........
.......................
23) How do you generally

drawing
skills?
a)
Separate
b)
Individual
c)
Incorporation
d)
Any other
.................
the
arrange
content-specific
student
into
(Please
thcsc
any of
.........................
skills
handling
of
No (j
a)
in
dcvelopmennt
Yes (j
Analytical
skills
the
aid
classes
tuition
give
brief
details)..
13
-
for
specific
No (j
........
Yes
No
projects....
Yes
..............
design
tuition
Yes (j
as necessary
relevant
of
provision
*......................
()
No
24)
Do
a)
Life
b)
Drawing
c)
Sketching
d)
Exploration
e)
Perspective
f)
Handling
g)
Letterform
h)
'Indication
photography
i)
J)
............................
from
form................
natural
visits
of
...............................
drawing
Any other
instruments
................................
(Rendering
of type,
)
etc.
.........................
to
prompt
Yes (j
No (j
Yes
No
ideas)....
....
()
No
Yes ()
No (j
Yes
No
Yes ()
No (j
Yes ()
No (j
Yes (j
No
.....................................................
000..
000..
..
0.........
........
0000.....
0.0.0.....
IV
developments
25) Do you think
the current
the drawing
of graphic
required
abilities
in technology
designers?
Yes (j
Please
No (j
Yes (J
media ......................
technical
CIaSSCC ns indicated:
Yes
..........................
(Free play in drawing
............
Section
classes
drawing
content-specific
rrLttlar
you organise
briefly
will
affect
No t
say why:
'
11
have to be changes
Do you think
in the current
there
will
Design courses
tuition
to accommodate
of drawing
on Graphic
provision
in technology?
the effects
of new developments
26)
Please
briefly
Please
use
information
Questionnaire
Yes (j
too(j
say why:
back
the
to include
of this
sheet
is
that
to any
you feel
relevant
by the writer.
and has been overlooked
-14-
any additional
the
portion
of
APPENDIX1(c)
for
C:r; iphic
Ouc:: tionnaire
drawing
tuition
Plcase
background
brief
provide
Ueniy; n Stuclciitr.
benign
on Graphic
deLails:
nbouut the
courscu
Date:
College:
Year:
Work in
Art
Education
Graphics
............................................
Industry
..........................................
Please answer the following

(I am interested
students.
Section
of
Name:
Previous
proviUioil
questions
without
in your own opinions)
discussing
them
with
other
1)
How do you rate
the importance
to practising
of drawing
ability*
(*I
'drawing
designers.
the
term
using
am
to mean
graphic
ability'
both
drawing
in practice
skill,
and in appreciation
any, and every
and
understanding)
Please
ring
Essential
appropriate
Irrelevant
Useful
Please briefly
Essential
the importance
course?
Useful
briefly
Detrimental
say why:
2)
How do you rate
Design
to a Graphic
Please
word
of
drawing
Irrelevant
say why:
15
-
ability
in
Detrimental
students
taken
on
Ucsig; n rtudcnts
Graphic
than other
and
art
abilities
3)
Do you think
range of drawing
Please
tick
Please
briefly
that
appropriate
No (
Yes I)
box:
say why:
4)
Do you think
range of drawing
Graphic
that
experience?
Design
students
be given
should
Yes (J
Please
briefly
No
Design students
should have specific
for professional
needed
practice
Yes
briefly
()
as
say why:
develop
students
I mean the
of drawings)
Yes (I
briefly
7)
Please
for
tuition
drawing
No
6)
it is important
Design
that Graphic
Do you think
(*By
'appreciation'
'appreciation'*
drawing?
broad
of
judge
the purpose and quality
to
and
understand
ability
Please
a broad
say why:
5)
Do you think
that Graphic
for the drawing
skills
tuition
designers?
graphic
Please
a broader
need to ncquirc
design
students?
No (
say why:
in order
rate
of importance
(Number
1-3,
the following:
-
)
a. Drawing
for
b)
Drawing
skills
c)
A broad
appreciation
broad
artistic
needed
for
and
and creative
professional
understanding
-16-
the provision
of
with most important
developdent..........
practice
of
..............
drawing............
specific
marked
()
( )
(
1)
8)
Please
for
tuition
rank in order
the following:
a)
Typography
b)
Photography
c)
Technology
d)
Business
e)
Drawing
Section
of importance
(Number
1-S,
-
to
related
studies
the Graphics
Industry
..................
II
briefly
briefly
to
drawing
should
be given
Yes(]
No(I
say why:
of
drawings
be given
should
Yes (j
in
the
No ()
say why:
Do you think
drawing
understand
be
help
should
in the following
to students
given
contexts: -
to
enable
Historically
Yes (j
No (j
Culturally
Yes(I
No(J
Stylistically
Yes (1
No( I
'Yes'
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
""""""".
I)
.............................................
............
11)
If
specific
marked
..................................................
10) Do you think

critique
teaching
programme?
Please
of
provision
most important
...................................................
information
9) Do you think
relating
by means of a lecture
programme?
Please
the
with
to any please
say what
teaching
17
-
methods
you think
should
them
be used:
to
12)
Should
drawings
be encouraged
students
to
see if
for
Appropriate
Communicating
Skillfully
If
'Yes'
abilities
are: job
a particular
information
the necessary
to any please
briefly
the
acquire
produced
13) Do you think

individual
style
Please
they
to
teaching
say what
should
students
of drawing?
Yes
No
Yes (j
No (j
Yes
No
methods
be encouraged
jud
to
think
you
be used:
should
to develop
an
Yes (j
No (J
say why:
14)
Do you think
students
be encouraged
should
to keep sketch
Yes (J
Please
briefly
No (j
say why:
be encouraged
Do you think
students
should
about drawing?
as a way of learning
15)
to
copy
drawings
Yes II
Please briefly
books?
No II
say why:
16) how do you think

should be arranged?
a)
Separate
b)
Individual
c)
Incorporation
d)
Any other
the
provision
of
content-specific
student
into
(Please
classes
tuition
..............
as necessary........
design
relevant
give
for
tuition
brief
details)
--18 -
projects....
drawing
specific
Yes ()
No
()
No
Yes (j
No
Yes
.........................
skills
17)
Do you think
aspects
of drawing
that
tuition
ability?
he }; i vrn
should
Theoretical
a)
cul tural/historical
appreciation
context
b)
Appropriate
use
c)
Ability
d)
Using
drawing
well
in
observation
e)
Using
drawing
well
in
analysis
f)
for
g)
Using drawing well

(to prompt ideas)
Using drawing well
h)
Using
drawing
to
i)
Sensitivity
to
2D spatial
j)
Sensitivity
to
3D spatial
k)
Dexterity
1)
Ability
M)
Any others
found
well
Creative
c)
Calligraphic
d)
Skill
use of
skills
in handling
in
D. F;. (
No (JD.
K. (
Yes (j
No (JD.
K. (
Yes (j
No (JD.
K. (
Yes ()
No (jD.
K. (
Yes (j
No (jD.
K. ( )
Yes (J
No (JD.
K. ( J
organisation.....
Yes ()
No (ID.
K. (
organisation.....
Yes (J
No (jD.
K. ( j
...............
Yes (j
No ( J
D. K. ( j
Yes (j
No ( j
D. K. ( j
control
creatively..
..........
.............
.......
ideas.......
ideas......
appropriately......
...............
should
collage
lov in};
Yes (j
visualise
a range
fol
K. (
brainstorming
tuition
handling
b)
(J
Yes
.....................................
18)
Do you think
that
drawing
specific
skills?
Skill
eise of drawing
Yes
No
...................
imagery
work
the
No (jD.
to organi_e
and manual
to present
in
style
of
to adapt
a)
of appropriate
.....................
10 dcvc ]op
of
be given
media.......
...................
.......................
specialist
to
develop
the
following
Yes
( J
No (J
D. K. ( J
Yes
( J
No (j
D. K. (
Yes ( I
No (J
D. K. ( j
Yes
No (J
D. K. ( )
No (J
D. K. ( )
graphics
materials
.................................
e)
Skill
handling
f)
in handling
Skill
profesional
drawing
aids/equipment
....................
Yes ( j
No (j
D. K. ( j
g)
Skill
in airbrush
Yes
( j
No (j
D. K. ( I
h)
Skill
in
handling
Yes ( j
No ()
D. K"(
i)
Skill
in
tracing
Yes ( j
No (j
D. K. ( j
j)
Creative
No
D. K. (
k)
Any others
in
cropping
spirit
markers..........
techniques
drawing
..............
instruements.....
..........................
of
imagery
......................................
..............
Yes
Yes
( J
.........
19) Do
organised
you think
regular
as indicated:
a)
Life
b)
Drawing
c)
Sketching
d)
Exploration
c)
Perspective
f)
Handling
g)
Letterform
h)
Indication
classes
from
J)
" .. ".. ".. ". ". ".....

form
natural
of
..........................
media ......................
technical
drawing
instruments....
(Rendering
of type,
)
etc.
.........................
to
prompt
.................................
00009.000...
ideas)
....
classes
(]
Yes
(]
No (j
Yes
(]
No (j
Ycs
(j
No (]
Yes
(]
No (]
Yes (j
No (]
(]
No (]
Yes (j
No (]
Yes
No
No (I
....................
000000.0
.SIS0.000000000.0.0000000.
III
20) Do you think

the
the drawing
abilities
developments
current
required
of graphic
in technology
designers?
Yes ()
Please
should
Yes
Yes
................................
(Free play in drawing
Any other
................
...............................
0.0.00.0000040..
Section
. .....
visits
photography
i)
...
drawing
content-specific
briefly
will
affect
No
say why:
21) Do you think

have to be changes in the current
there
will
provision
of drawing tuition
on Graphic Design courses to accommodate
the effects
of new developments in technology?
Yes ()
Please
briefly
say why:
20
-
No ()
be
Section
22)
the
IV
Do you
course?
think
your
drawing
has
ability
Yes (j
Please
23)
briefly
Do you
say
think
No ()
briefly
your
present
level
of
drawing
Yes [j
ability
is
Dont know
()
help
to acquire
No (j
the
ability
Dont know (j
No [I
Dont know (I
say why:
.
Please
use
information
Questionnaire
to
say why:
Yes (I
briefly
on
adequate?
25)
Would you have liked more help to understand the ways drawing
in all the stages of the design process from briefing
to artwork?
Please
been
Dont know (j
No ()
Would you have liked

more help more
generally
and judge drawings?
appreciate
briefly
you have
say why:
24)
Please
while
why:
Yes [)
Please
improved
back
the
this
of
to include
sheet
feel
that
is
you
to any
relevant
by the writer.
and has been overlooked
Please
forms
return
completed
to: Pamela
M. Schenk
Senior
Lecturer
Department
Arts
of Communication
and
Manchester
Polytechnic
Design
21
-
any additional
portion
of
the
is
used
APPENDIX I(d)
Questionnaire
for
Graphic
Design students to be conducted

Version of Fo er
Name:
Year:
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
.....
Totally
satisfied
Job
.....
......................
...................
Dissatisfied
......................
Satisfied
.....
...................
Dissatisfied
......................
Satisfied
Totally
satisfied
Job
...................
Satisfied
Totally
satisfied
job
........................
Dissatisfied
......................
Satisfied
Totally
Dissatisfied
......
Totally
satisfied
Job
..................
......................
Satisfied
........................
Totally
Dissatisfied
......................
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
satisfied
Job
........................
Totally
satisfied
Job
Totally
satisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
satisfied
Job
Totally
dissatisfied
satisfied
2
as we go
............................................................
Totally
job
Final
Date:
How do you feel about your use of drawing in each job

(Name job and ring appropriate
through the folder?
words)
Job
with
......................
Satisfied
......
..................
Dissatisfied
......................
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
22
-
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
..............
Totally
dissatisfied
a)
Practising
Graphic
interview
Post Held
Design Respondents
Jerry
Cinamon
Tony Cobb
Ruth Coney
Richard Cottingham
Clive Crook
Glenn
Ford
Groups
Designers
50 repondents for the structured
Valerie Allan
Brody
Neville
Jacquie Calvert
David Case
Ben Casey
Respondent
Main
APPENDIX II:
Creative Director
Art Editor/Designer
Design Co-ordinator
Art Editor
Creative Director
Art
Design Organisation
or
Wolfe Olins
The Face/City
W.H. Smiths
Which
The Chase
Penguin
Editor
Group Art Director

Studio Manager
Graphics Officer
Creative Director
Officer
Publicity
Period
Limits
Books
Beazley
Mitchell
Royds Advertising
V&A Museum
Elle
Agency
CHIC
Nancy Fowler
Partner/Designer
Shirtsleeves
Ken Garland
Designer
Ken Garland Associates
Malcolm Garrett
David Gentleman
James Gracie
Design Director
Designer/Illustrator
Partner/Designer
Assorted Images
Freelance
Da Gama
Ian Grindle
Creative
Robin Hall
Roger Harris
Dorothy Harrison
Minale Tattersfield
Senior Designer
Senior Designer
Assistant
Designer
CYB
CYB
Vogue
Peter Heatherington
Design Co-ordinator
Open University
F. H. K. Henrion
David Hillman
Design Director
Art Editor/Partner
Henrion Design
Pentagram
Stuart Hodges
Nonnan Jones
Andrew Kay
Stephen Kent
Roger Lewis
John Lloyd
Design Director
Creative Services Manager
Art Editor
Art Editor
Designer
Design Director
Allied International
Readers Digest
Collins
Penguin Books
Imagine
Lloyd Northover
Graham McCullen
Lynn McPeake
Designer
Partner
BBC TV London
Buxton, Wall McPeake
Michael Martin
Vernon Oakley
Ian Pape
Stephen Raw
Carolyn Reed
Angela Reeves
Peter Saville
Simon Scott-Taylor
Terry Speake
Helen Stringer
David Stuart
Graphics Officer
Design Director
Senior Designer
Designer
Senior Designer
Design Co-ordinator
Designer
Designer
Senior Graphic Designer
Senior Designer
Partner
V&A Museum
Vernon Oakley Associates
Thumb Design Partnership
Letterforms
Smith and Milton
The Post Office
Peter Saville Associates
Fitch
BBC TV Manchester
Allied International
The Partners
Brian
Art
Thanas
Director
Editor
Richard Tilley
Design Director
Glenn Tutssel
Creative
Giles Velarde
Exhibitions
Director
Officer
23
-
The Radio Times

CYB
Michael
Peters
Geological
Museum
Richard Ward
Brian Webb
Richard Williams
Geoffrey Winston
20 Respondents for
Jan Adams
Steven Appleby
Steve Bateman
John Brown
Heike Dahne
Carole Davids
Steve Davies
David Elan
Graham Elliot
Alan Jenkinson
Mick Matenczuk
David Mathews
Sandie Palmer
Bill Petite
Kevin Preston
Geoff Snell
Liz Stonehewer
Mitch Walker
Damien Wayling
Elizabeth Wheeldon
CYB
& Webb
Trickett
International
Allied
Thumb Design Partnership
Senior Designer
Design Director
Group Head - Packaging
Senior Designer
the focused
interview
progranne
CYB
Assorted Images
Royds
CYB
CYB
Royds
CYB
Floyds
Freelance
Royds
CYB
Royds
CYB
Royds
Royds
CYB
Royds
Royrls
Assorted Images
International
Allied
Designer
Designer
Visualiser
Designer
Junior Designer
Junior Designer
Designer
Art Director
Designer
Typographer
Junior Designer
Visualiser
Designer
Art Director
Art Director
Junior Designer
Visualiser
Art Director
Designer
Junior Designer
b) Graphic Design Educators

20 respondents to the postal
Educator
questionnaire
Post Held
college
Senior Lecturer
Exeter College of Art
Lecturer
University
Bill Barr
Stuart Barrie
Peter Bailey
David Buss
Derek Cousins
Head of Department
Senior Lecturer
Senior Lecturer
Course Director
Head of Department
Duncan of Jordanstone
Edinburgh College of Art
Liverpool Polytechnic
Birmingham Polytechnic
Middlesex Polytechnic
Terry Dowling
Prinicpal
John Hartshorn
Michael Healey
John Hodkinson
Terry Ilott
Peter Lipscanbe
Senior Lecturer
Head of Department
Senior Lecturer
Senior Lecturer
Course Director
John Longworth
John Lord
Geoff Oakley
Senior Lecturer
Course Leader
Senior Lecturer
A. F. Richards
Cal Swann
Andy Vargo
Andrew Wright
Principal Lecturer
Head of Department
Head of Department
Principal Lecturer
Laszlo Acs
Terry
Aston
Lecturer
24
-
of Ulster
Newcastle upon Tyne Poly

Poly
North Staffordshire
Glasgow School of Art
Lancashire Polytechnic
Gwent College of H. E
Harrow College of HE
HurnbersideCollege of H.E
Brighton Polytechnic
WolverhamptonPolytechnic
Leicester Polytechnic
St. Martin's School of Art
Norwich School of Art
Manchester Polytechnic
16 Respondents Interviewed
Peter Atherton
Nick Biddulph
at BA Centres
Director
of Phase
one Studies
Senior
Lecturer
Department
Exeter
College
School of A&D
Central
Exeter
of A&D
College
of A&D
Tony Clayden
Head of
Derek Cousins
Head of Department
Middlesex
George Hollingworth
Course Leader
Senior Lecturer
Photography
Exeter
John Laing
Head of Department
Central
Alan Livingstone
Head of Department
Lancashire
Anne Magill
Visiting
St. Martin's
Sebastion
Knight
Lecturer
Polytechnic
College
of A&D
School of A&D
Polytechnic
School
of Art
Bob Rankin
Senior
Lecturer
3D Graphics
Muriel
Sharp
Lecturer
Edith Southwell
Lecturer in
Illustration
Exeter College of A&D
Cal Swann
Head of Department
St. Martin's
of Art
John Vince
Principal
Canputer Studies
George Webb
Senior Lecturer
in Typography
Andrew Wittle
Senior
St. Martin's
of Art
Lecturer
Lecturer
25
-
School
School
c) Graphic Design Students

14 Respondents to the Administered
Questionnaire
about the Provision
of Drawing Tuition
Chatterton
Sarah Jackson
Sarah Godwin
Deborah Pike
Ian
Carole
Goldstone
Roy Prescott
Philip
Ellis
Tracey Smith
Anna Sutton
Hester
Christopher
Ian Swift
Kate Holliday
Satish
Mark Zimnerli
Ladd
7 Respondents
the
to
Questionnaire
about
the
Final
Folder
Sally Marshal
AmandaDavies
Rachel Quesnel
Louise Shaw
James Westwater
Philip
Elizabeth
Keane
Wheeldon
5 Respondents for the Programme of Focused Interviews

Graham Elliot
Jackie
David Craw
Janette
Paul Kearton
26
-
Martin
Ralph
Version
of
their
APPENDIX III:
Individuals
Interviewed
or Consulted
nt
Establish'
Post Held
Name
Dean
Assistant
Faculty of Art and
Design
Middlesex
Polytechnic
Frank De Bose
Head of Visual
Carniunications
Art Institute
of Chicago
John Eggleston
Professor
Dept. of Education
University
of Warwick
Jon Frisker
marketing
Director
CYB Design
Consultancy
Marketing
Director
Michael
Dr Clive
Fiona
Ashwin
Gilmore
Dr D Jeremiah
Head of
Department
Dept. of History
Art and Design
Peters
Manchester
Polytechnic
of
Susan Lambert
Assistant
Keeper
of drawings
Victoria
and Albert
Museum
Michael
Professor
Dept. of Typography
and Graphic Communication
University
of Reading
Account Director
CYB Design
Consultancy
'I
an
Liz Wrenn
Design Educators,
Name
Faculty
of Art
and Design,
Post Held
PLC
Manchester
Polytechnic
Department
Nigel Barron
Head of Department
Camrounication Arts
and Design
John Doyle
Senior Lecturer
Three DiiTensional
Design
Roger Godfrey
Senior Lecturer
Visual Studies
CameronMaclean
Course Leader
Visual
Roy Roache
Senior Lecturer
Graphics Technology
Derek Schofield
Senior Lecturer
ammication
and Design
GrahamWorth
Lecturer
Textiles
27
-
Studies
Arts
Fashion
Individuals
Consulted
on the Conduct of the Study

Dean
Assistant
Faculty
of A&D
Middlesex
Polytechnic
Tony Clayden
Head of
Tony Connolly
Chairman of the
Graphic Design Panel
Prof.
Department
Dr Clive
J.
Ashwin
Eggleston
Ken Pearson
Senior
Dr Mantz York
Assistant
Department
of Education
Lecturer
Rector
_28_
CNAA
University
of Warwick
Dept. of Graphics
Technology
Manchester Polytechnic
Liverpool
Polytechnic
APPENDIX IV:
Venues
for
Case Study
and Visits
a)
CYB Design Consultancy

32 Dock St
London
b)
Dept. of Graphic Design

Exeter College of Art and Design
Earl Richards Road North
Exeter EX2 6AS
Street
Corporation
Preston
*Dept. of Graphic Design
Central School of Art and Design
27-29 Long Acre
Southampton Road
London
*Dept. of Graphic Design
Saint Martin's
School of Art
107 Charing Cross Road
London WC2HODU

Cat Hill
Barnet
Herts
*At the time of the visit the courses at The Central School and St
degree
in
(icons)
Graphic
BA
joint
course
Martins were running a
Design
29
-

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THE NATURE OF THE GRAPHIC DESIGN PROCESS WITHIN THE

COMMERCIALENVIRONMENT, WITH PARTICULAR REGARD TO THE

No portion of the work referred to in this thesis

OF THE (PAPHIC I)ESIGff PSS

WITHIN THE COMMERCIAL

Pamela Margaret Schenk

Many of the essential tasks by which the graphic design

The use of drawing is affected by a complex range of

In order to maximise their

Designers themselves can fail to realise

I would like to record my particular

I am very grateful to those who have allowed their drawings to act as

and Jane Preston

have helped not only with

Finally my sincere thanks go to my husband Victor and my son Daniel,

The Baclgxvmd and Outline

of the terms used in the study

The use of drawing

and the role

The conduct of the research into graphic

The conduct of the research into drawing tuition

The use of drawing in the 'main creative

Changes in the use of drawing

the use of drawing

The develognent of a taxonomy on the use of drawing

The drawing abilities

Reccmnendations for curriculum

Use of drawing while accepting briefing

The use of drawing

The use of specific

The use of specific

The re-use and use of drawings for the purpose

and idea generation

The uses of drawing in the procedures of production

Respondents' use of drawing in

12(a) Rating of the importance of drawing ability

Problems caused by a lack of drawing ability

Taxonomy of the uses of drawing,

produced and the drawing

Rating of the importance of

'Yes' responses to the need for breadth in

ranked most important

Students' views on the development of their drawing

Scheduling of drawing tuition

in 1st, 2nd and 3rd

'Yes' response to the question is or should help be

'Yes' response given when asked the question are or

and types of drawing produced

and new graduates

for the planning and conduct

are or should be used

response when questioned

Drawings from "An Introduction

Drawings produced to check understanding

Drawing produced to pass on the briefing

Drawings used to collect visual reference material

Worksheet showing development of ideas

Ideas drawn in notebook (CYB 1984-88),

Early idea sheet (CYB 1984-88), pencil

Double spread from notebook (David

Adaptations and revisions to drawings (David

Use of small scale drawings for early ideas

Drawing from photostats

17a - 17c The development stages of a magazine spread