Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
ii
Cover photo credits from top left: HRM, Sean Zera, Hutter Auctions, Lisa Call, Sean Zera, Clive Reid, HRM, Olivier Pauwels, Nathan
Gibbs. Inside cover photo: Victor Loehr.
Thomas Leuteritz
iii
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund (Project
Number 12055390), the Conservation International Foundation and Turtle Conservation Fund
(Project Number 63321), the Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, and Minnesota
Society of Herpetologists. This work does not necessarily represent the views of our project
funders.
The authors would like to express our gratitude for the support and encouragement of Dr. Brian
Horne, Dr. Russell Mittermeier, Dr. Anders Rhodin, and Dr. Peter Paul van Dijk. We hope work
conducted in Togo as part of the IUCN Red List Assessment will be a start of great things for
chelonian conservation in Africa.
A special thank goes to Dr. Donald Broadley who has contributed greatly to the pioneering
work on Kinixys and was a great inspiration for the development of this document. Dr. Broadley
has been a helpful resource along the way and an asset to Kinixys conservation. We are also very
grateful to Jim Harding for providing access and use of his personal library of books on African
reptiles and turtle conservation.
We are very grateful for the wonderful resources and information those working with Kinixys have
provided along the way. Thanks goes to Dr. William Ahrens, Dr. Phil Allman, Dr. Laurent Chirio,
Tomas Diagne, Dr. Adrian Hailey, Dr. Margaretha D. Hofmeyr, Dr. John Iverson, Dr. Dwight
Lawson, Dr. Luca Luiselli, Dr. Olivier S.G. Pauwels, Dr. Fabio Petrozzi, Dr. Gabriel Hoinsoude
Segniagbeto, and Dr. Jean-Franois Trape as well as others who have contributed to Kinixys
research and helped expand our knowledge and understanding of these incredible tortoises. This
work will build on your incredible efforts. Thanks also goes to all those who paved the way and
inspired us all to be passionate about turtles and tortoises.
Numerous individuals have contributed information, translation of manuscripts, photographs,
and resources instrumental in the creation of this publication including, Dr. Ernst Baard, James
Badman, Dr. Patrick Baker, Richard Bartlett, Ruth Basham, Chris Bednarski, Anat Belasen, Mary
Bohling, Gary Brown, Karol Chlopecki, Mallory Clark, Andre Coetzer, Gehard Diedericks, Kurt
Edwards, Megan English, Eric Fouchard, Chris Gertiser, Piet Grobler, Russ Gurley, Cris Hagen,
Ed Hammer, Jennifer Hammer, Dr. Michael W. Hance, Curtis Hart, Toby Hibbitts, Richard Hay,
Chris Hobson, Brian Horne, Dr. Chris Howe DVM, Rick Hudson, Kelly Hull, Neels Jackson,
Jovita JovskiRush-Morgan, Dr. Ross Kiester, Terry E. Kilgore, Sheena Koeth, Barry Lambert,
Dwight Lawson, Christine Light, Dr. Day Ligon, Dr. Thomas Leuteritz, Victor Loehr, Mark M
Lucas, Dr. Bruce G. Marcot, Liana May, Mick Mittermeier, Matt Muir, Jacob Mueti Ngwava, Paul
Rabiega, Reginald T. Mwaya, Dr. Terry M. Norton DVM, Michael Ogle, Paul Rabiega, Wayne
iv
Rawlinson, Dr. Sam Rivera, Ben Santhouse DVM, Simone Swiel, The Turtle Conservancy, Ryan
Van Huyssteen, Chris Woodley, Sean Zera and the participants of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and
Freshwater Turtle Specialist Groups workshop on Conservation Status of the Tortoises and
Freshwater Turtles of Sub-Saharan Africa.
We would also like to thank the Turtle Survival Alliance and the IUCN Tortoise and Freshwater
Turtle Specialist Group for their support in providing a venue for the First Kinixys Conservation
Taskforce meeting at the 11th Annual Symposium on the Conservation and Biology of Tortoises
and Freshwater Turtles. This forum allowed for Kinixys researchers, conservation groups, zoos,
hobbyists, and concerned citizens to meet to discuss the current state of knowledge on Kinixys and
develop objectives for things to accomplish. We are also appreciative to the Turtle Survival Alliance
for their help in setting up assurance colonies for K. homeana and K. erosa and their dedication to the
protection of Kinixys in Africa.
Though recognized above we would like to thank those individuals who were willing to review
and provide comment for the document including Donald Broadley, Jim Harding, Brian Horne,
Dwight Lawson, Christine Light, and Sean Zera. Your comments and edits were incredibly helpful
and much appreciated.
Every attempt has been made to integrate feedback from the professionals and organizations listed
above. Their participation however does not suggest the endorsement of every recommendation
or professional opinion in this manual. This document was created using the best available
information available at the time of publishing and as new literature and research becomes
available, modification may be necessary.
We would like to recognize our HRM team members for their help on this report. Thank you Tricia
Green Brockman for taking your personal time to make such descriptive and colorful depictions of
these tortoises. Special thanks also go to Hailey R. Brown for her time, organization, and technical
skill in processing data and document layout. We would also like to thank Brittany Price for her
help and patience in compiling resources and helping develop range maps for the genus.
On a personal level, David would like to thank his mother Mary Mifsud and wife Rachel Mifsud
for whom their great love, support, and understanding of having a son and husband passionate
about tortoises conservation. You have helped me succeed in life and profession.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary..................................................................................1
Overview...................................................................................................3
Objective ...............................................................................................3
Data Analysis and Approach ..................................................................4
Kinixys Tortoises.....................................................................................5
Taxonomy and Phylogenetics..............................................................6
Population Estimates...........................................................................7
Critical Areas and Zones of Sympatry..................................................7
Threats ...............................................................................................7
Habitat loss......................................................................................7
Agricultural conversion.................................................................9
Fire . ............................................................................................9
Fragmentation............................................................................10
Mineral and Oil Extraction .......................................................11
Deforestation and Timber Harvesting.........................................12
Animal Trade.................................................................................13
Kinixys homeana................................................................................. 18
Kinixys erosa....................................................................................... 26
Kinixys belliana.................................................................................. 36
Kinixys nogueyi................................................................................... 42
Kinixys spekii...................................................................................... 48
Kinixys zombensis............................................................................... 55
Kinixys natalensis............................................................................... 63
Kinixys lobatsiana.............................................................................. 68
vi
Executive Summary
Status
Threats
Hingeback tortoises are faced with multiple stressors that continue to reduce their range,
population size, and overall species viability. Habitat degradation and loss are likely major
causes of declining Kinixys populations. Factors contributing to the loss of high quality
habitat across Africa include fragmentation caused by infrastructure (i.e., roads, fences),
climate change, unsustainable land management (i.e., agricultural conversion, intentional
use of fire), mineral and oil extraction, and timber harvesting. Additionally, significant
numbers of Hingeback tortoises are unsustainably collected (both legally and illegally)
from the wild. Kinixys face extensive pressures from collection as they are hunted for
consumption and trade in bushmeat and fetish markets while others are exported for sale
in both the legal and illegal international pet trade.
Richard Penryn
2. Introduction
Overview
Gabriel Segniagbeto
Objective
1. Deforestation and
conversion of habitat to
agriculture is a common
sight throughout west
Africa as seen here in
Adl, Togo.
Thomas Leuteritz
2. Endemic to
Madagascar, K. z.
domerguei is potentially
vulnerable to heavy
illegal collection,
incompatible land
management, and
habitat loss. The
subspecies is known
to inhabit secondary
growth forests as seen
here in Nosy Faly.
Richard Stupart
Meg English
1.Land management
in Africa frequently
involves burning to
convert the land for
agricultural use.
2. Nearby controlled
bush fires have created
a haze of smoke
through the Olifants
West Nature Reserve in
South Africa.
Range maps are based on best available data and should be used
as a starting point for further refinement of the ranges for Kinixys
species. Evaluation and depiction of species ranges were based on
2
published literature, museum records, and unpublished, but often
photo-vouchered observations from researchers and volunteers.
An implied degree of spatial uncertainty is assumed with the range maps, as presently available
information is inadequate to accurately depict current ranges for the genus. These maps include
historic ranges and likely do not represent current distributions.
Spatial analysis was conducted using the most recent publically available land cover data for
Africa to assess potential available habitat within species ranges. GlobCover Land Cover v2 was
used for the analsyis. This dataset is a global land cover map with 300 meter resolution and land
cover classes defined within the United Nations Land Cover Classification System (LCCS). Data
developed by the ESA GlobCover 2008 GlobCover products are based on the ENVISAT satellite
missions MERIS sensor (Medium Resolution Image Spectrometer) The GlobCover Land Cover
v2 data was derived from a time series of MERIS composites covering the period December
2004 to June 2006. This data was queried to display specific land cover classification types
within Sub-Saharan Africa that represent potential community types associated with targeted
Kinixys species. These land cover types were grouped to provide an approximate available habitat
count and spatial distribution. This assessment was intended to serve as a coarse-level analysis
based on assumed historical distribution overlaid with land use data. These ranges and associated
potential habitats do not account for heavy collection pressure or other factors that are not
measureable in available GIS-based datasets. Based on trends and impacts across Africa in the
Liana May
Wayne Rawlinson
4. Savanna Kinixys
prefer more open
habitats such as coastal
forests and miombo
woodlands. For this
document, spatial
analysis was performed
for each species to
better estimate the
amount of suitable
habitat present within
their range (Appendix
B).
3. Omnivorous Kinixys
have an extremely
variable diet compared
to other tortoises and
are known to consume
a substantial amount of
live prey.
Curtis Hart
2. X-rays demonstrate
the unique physiology
of K. homeana.
Tyrone Ping
Kinixys Tortoises
Neels Jackson
Terry E. Kilgore
Liana May
Population Estimates
1. Areas of continuous
open woodlands
provide critical habitat
for multiple Hingeback
species.
2. Deforestation
leaves large gaps
in the canopies
of mature forests
drastically altering these
ecosystems as seen here
on Mount Gorongosa,
Mozambique.
Threats
Habitat loss
Philip Powell
Jacob Fahr
2
1. The range of K. spekii, one of the
largest among Hingebacks, will likely be
affected by climate change.
2. Variation in climatic patterns has
resulted in less productive crop yields
across Africa and more people are
converting tropical forests to agriculture
than ever before.
Climate Change
Africa is experiencing recurring droughts, crop failures, and water
scarcity and has been identified in many climate change prediction
models as the most vulnerable populated region of the world. Ongoing
clearing and degradation of vegetation is likely contributing to increases
in temperatures and wind speeds and decreases in precipitation and
relative humidity thus creating warmer and drier climates (Pricope et
al. 2013). In southern Africa where populations of K. lobatsiana and K.
natalensis occupy small ranges, the clearing of vegetation contributes
greatly to desertification. This type of land degradation that occurs in
arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas is a large constraint on Africa
where only 14% of the continent is free of soil moisture stress (Reich et
al. 2004). Dry and windy conditions have left lands previously used for
agriculture unsuitable for crop production, forcing locals to further alter
their landscape in order to grow food. This will become a significant
problem as models are predicting more extreme rain and drought
events in the future that will make farming even more unreliable
(Conservation International 2014). Localized alterations in the rate and
frequency of precipitation have also been reported in tropical regions
where significant logging has occurred. Even portions of protected areas
will experience altered landscapes due to changes in precipitation if
significant portions of an area are cleared (Weber et al. 2001). Wildlife
in Africa faces major obstacles in the future as their habitats dwindle
not only because of climate change but also from the actions of humans
who are adapting to a shifting climate as well.
Simone Swiel
H. Sinica
1. Conversion of land
for grazing livestock is
a contributing factor to
habitat loss in Africa.
2. Savanna landscapes
are intentionally burned
for a variety of reasons.
3. The shell of this
Hingeback tortoise has
been damaged by a fire.
Agricultural conversion
A large portion of Africas economy is supplemented by agriculture
which employs 65% of the continents labor force and accounts
for 32% of the gross domestic product (The World Bank 2013).
As human population densities grow exponentially throughout
sub-Saharan Africa and climatic variation continues to contribute
to declining crop yields, communities are converting natural
landscapes for agricultural use at alarming rates (Maitima 2009).
Typical agricultural practices include the use of shifting cultivation
which is characterized by the shift between fields rather than
between crops on the same field. As a result, patches of land are
used for a short period of 1-3 years for crop production followed
by 15-30 years of a fallow period (Nasi et al. 2012). As demand
for food increases, less and less time is being allowed for fallow and
soil regeneration to occur resulting in soils that are degraded with
heavy weed infestations and depleted seed banks and unsuitable for
crop production. Even more damaging than the overuse of fallow
fields is the establishment of permanent agriculture (Rainforest
Conservation Fund 2014).
Clive Reid
10
1. K. z. zombensis
crossing a road in
Imfolozi-Hluhlu,
South Africa. Roads
serve as population
sinks due to deaths
from vehicle collisions
as well as increased
exposure to predation
and collection.
2. In addition to
the direct mortality
of wildlife, roads
fragment the
landscape and limit
the movement of
animals.
Michael Ayers
11
1. Fences are a
common sight across
the African landscape.
Electric fences are
known to cause direct
mortality to tortoise
species including
Hingbacks.
2. These retention
ponds in Sudan
are used to contain
contaminants
produced during oil
extraction. Pools such
as these can infiltrate
groundwater and
pollute local water
sources.
Jason Taylor
12
Allison M. Jones
Marko Laakkonen
Tomas Diagne
4. K. homeana are
often collected during
logging and brought
back for sale in the pet
trade or for food as
shown here in Ghana.
Russ Mittermier
13
1. In order to transport
natural resources to
local villages, vast
infrastructure such as
roads is constructed.
2. Extensive logging
opens up previously
inaccessible areas
to hunters and puts
species like K. nogueyi
at risk of overexploitation.
for up to forty five years after logging has occurred (Weber et al.
2001). Within these forests, timber trees are killed directly during
the cutting process and as the large timber fall, they indirectly kill
numerous smaller trees and saplings. Additional vegetation is also
removed during the construction of logging roads (Weber et al.
2001). Large gaps created by logging reduce canopy cover within
a forest and increase the amount of sunlight penetrating the forest
floor. These large gaps in the canopy encourage the establishment
of quicker-growing, light-dependent species which can outcompete
the seedlings and saplings of the resident tree species. In many
logging regions, selective logging is utilized as a means of obtaining
1
sustainable yields of timber and is often promoted as a compromise
between completely destroying a forest versus leaving it intact. This
method does not guarantee a forest will sufficiently regenerate; in the Kibale Forest in Uganda 20
years after selectively logging, there does not appear to be any evidence of regeneration in logged
areas, particularly where large gaps were made (Weber et al. 2001).
Similar to mining and oil operations, landscapes surrounding logging concessions are indirectly
threatened by the infrastructure built to support the industry. These developments generally
include large numbers of new roads and expanding urban centers built to support large influxes
of migrant workers. A study of five logging towns in the Congo basin revealed that development
of the logging industry in these areas led to a 69% increase in the towns populations and 64%
increase in the demand for bushmeat. The illegal exploitation of wildlife is greatly increased in
those areas where previously inaccessible forests have been opened to hunters (Bushmeat Crisis
Task Force 2009, Poulsen et al. 2009).
Animal Trade
For decades it has been well known among African conservationists and national governments
that their wildlife is facing significant threats from hunting and collection of animals for
bushmeat markets as well as the legal
and black market pet trade. Although
data has generally focused on megafauna (e.g., elephants, rhinoceros, and
gorillas), smaller animals including
Hingeback tortoises are also targets for
hunters and collectors alike.
Tomas Diagne
14
Tomas Diagne
15
Matt Muir
1. Hingeback tortoise in
a bushmeat market in
Equatorial Guinea. To
guarantee fresh meat for
consumption, tortoises are
kept alive until purchase
and are often prepared by
being dropped alive into
boiling water (BBC News
2012).
2. A fetish market in
Lom, Togo displaying
a wide array of wildlife
including multiple
Kinixys species.
16
Eric Fouchard
from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, the primary markets for
these animals are in North America, Europe, and Japan (Laidlaw
2005). Although this spectrum of the pet trade may be legal,
regulations in native range countries are often loose and animals
are known to be held and shipped in unsanitary and inhumane
conditions without food, water, or appropriate environmental
conditions. Recently at a Johannesburg airport in South Africa, a
large shipment of 1,600 amphibians and reptiles was discovered;
nearly 400 of these animals had already died due to dehydration
and improper shipping (BBC News 2014). This shipment of
animals was a legal export destined for the United States and
cases such as this although less frequent than historically, are
not uncommon. Though legal exportation of animals produces
large revenues across the globe, the illegal pet trade industry
generates substantially more. Interpol has recently estimated
illegal animal trade to be worth more than $10 billion annually
which is second only to the drug industry (Laidlaw 2005). A
large proportion of illegally obtained wildlife and their parts
(e.g., elephant tusk, rhinoceros horn) are brought into Asia to
feed an enormous demand for animal products used for food
and medicinal purposes. There has also been a historically high
demand for chelonian species and products within Asia and
it is very likely that Kinixys are highly valued (Laidlaw 2005).
Within these cultures, the rarer a species is, the higher its value.
This unfortunate belief leads collectors to aggressively search for
species that are rapidly declining in the wild. Corruption, weak
judicial systems, and light sentences are allowing dangerous
international crime networks to exploit natural resources
throughout Africa at alarming rates.
Historically Hingeback tortoises have been common in the pet trade industry. Prices vary greatly
for tortoises depending on the location, species, and rarity. Recently Kinixys have been priced at
over $150 each, with some species selling for up to $1000. K. homeana is the exception to this rule
with prices that have been low historically; however, due to increased difficulty in collection, the
prices have increased. In the United States K. nogueyi, which has been banned from importation
since 2001, sells for $300 to $800 per animal although exporters from Togo list these at $10
apiece. In Europe an adult K. erosa typically sells for $350-500 and pair of K. homeana can sell for
up to $500. As it is anticipated that the status of Kinixys species will be increased to a minimum of
Vulnerable with others elevated to Endangered, it is likely that the demand and therefore prices of
these tortoises will increase significantly.
17
Species Summaries
John Lewis
18
2. Introduction
Kinixys homeana
Toby Hibbitts
Description
Richard Bartlett
Ivory Coast: The range is limited to the southern portion of the country within the coastal regions
of Bas-Sassandra, Sud-Bandama, Lagunes, Agnebi, and Sud-Comoe. The species has been recorded
in all of the forested regions of this range, for instance around Aboisso (Iverson1992).
Ghana: Historically found in the southern region of this country (Iverson 1992) and more recent
19
observations include the Muni-Pomadze Lagoon near Krua (Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000,
Luiselli and Diagne 2013). Multiple specimens were observed by Luiselli et al. (2003) in markets
within the states of Greater Accra and Eastern with very few specimens found in the field, indicating
that occurrence in this country is becoming uncommon.
Togo: The potential range includes the hilly montane forests bordering Ghana in the Plateaux Region.
Localities have recently been recorded near Badou, Kpalim, and Tomegbe (Luiselli and Diagne
2013). Historically this species may have occurred across much of southern Togo, though absence of
vouchers and significant land use changes limit our ability to accurately predict historic range.
Benin: This species potentially occurs in the southeastern tip of the country. Observations were
recently recorded in Oueme near the Nigerian border. Specimens are also often found in bushmeat
markets. Similarly to Togo, prior to land alteration and collection pressure this species may have
occurred over a larger area of the country.
Nigeria: Found only in southern regions of the country (Iverson 1992). Long-term studies by
Luiselli et al. (2000, 2003) and Luiselli (2003a, 2003b, 2003c, 2005) have revealed much about the
distribution within this area of its range with some of the results recorded below by state.
20
Kinixys homeana
Size
Male: 211mm
Female: 223mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
21
Delta: Severe habitat loss and active hunting has left the species
very endangered in this state. Once found along the Etiope River
in swamp forests in 1982, the population has since declined and
no tortoises have been observed recently (Lea et. al 2003).
Richard Bartlett
John Lewis
22
Tomas Diagne
Tomas Diagne
23
Tomas Diagne
24
25
Will Ahrens
Kurt Edwards
Terry E. Kilgore
26
2. Introduction
Kinixys erosa
Forest Hingeback Tortoise, Serrated Hingeback Tortoise, Eroded Hinged Tortoise, Schweiggers Tortoise
David Korte
Description
Tomas Diagne
Senegal: Observations are not reported for this region and distribution is unknown. Suitable
habitat for this species is limited to the extreme southern coastal region.
Guinea-Bissau: There is no locality information reported from this region. The species may
potentially occur throughout the country.
27
Ivory Coast: Here the range is limited to the southern portion of the country within the coastal
regions of Moyen-Cavally, Bas-Sassandra, Sud-Bandama, Lagunes, Agnebi, and Sud-Comoe.
Observations have been reported from the forests around Abidjan in Lagunes from Iverson (1992)
and Maran (2004).
28
Kinixys erosa
Size
Male: 323mm
Female: 260mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
Matt Muir
29
Bruce G. Marcot
Benin: The species has likely been extirpated from much of this
country, however they are known from a restricted range along the
southern region of the country near the Nigerian border (Trape et
al. 2012).
Olivier Pauwels
1. A dorsal view of K.
erosa showing its plastron
protruding past the
carapace.
2. Several K. erosa for sale
at a bushmeat market in
Equatorial Guinea.
3. Newborn K. erosa,
showing the egg tooth,
in Gamba, OgooueMaritime Province,
southwestern Gabon.
30
1.Potential habitat of
K. erosa in the Plateaux
Region of Togo.
2. Young K. erosa from
Bopolu, Liberia with
heavily serrated marginal
scutes--a likely defense
against predation.
31
2
1. K. erosa are known to be
semiaquatic, spending considerable
amounts of time in water
foraging, traveling and even
mating. Maintaining clean, clear,
watercourses with canopy cover is
essential in providing the critical
habitat feature for this declining
species.
2. Mushrooms are an important
food for Kinixys. Seasonally they
make up a significant portion of a
tortoises diet.
Angola: Here the range is limited to extreme northern regions of the country.
Observations were reported from Posto de Lvua, Perto de Rio Camualua (Dundo),
North Lunda, and Cabinda. A photographic record of an individual traded in a market
in Cambulo (Luiselli 2005) indicates that the species is hunted in this area.
Central African Republic: K. erosa likely occurs in the extreme southwest portion of
the country with the majority in Sangha-Mbrare and the extreme south western tip of
Mambere-Kadei.
Uganda: Found through the central portion of the country with a limited range in the
state Eastern. Absence of observation from well-preserved forested habitats suggests
that this species is uncommon here (Vonesh 2001) or perhaps significantly collected.
32
Cris Hagen
2. Though typically
crepuscular or even
nocturnal, K. erosa can
with time become
more active during
the day in captivity.
Russ Mittermier
The range of K. erosa is sympatric with K. homeana increasing the potential for interspecific
competition due to similar diet composition, habitat, and geographic range (Lawson 2006, Luiselli
2008). The density of K. erosa is likely low in even in areas with highly suitable habitat due to the
territorial nature of these tortoises. Studies have shown a high degree of competition between males
who will force others out from their home ranges that may exceed 0.5 km2 (Lawson 2000, 2006).
Research in Cameroon indicates that home ranges between all
specimens have considerable overlap; however, analysis reveals
little overlap occurs in the core areas that tortoises occupy the
most (Lawson 2006). On a local scale, competition between
the tortoises results in one species that is dominant over the
other (Luiselli 2006c, 2008). K. erosa tend to inhabit forests
that are wetter than those inhabited by K. homeana (Ernst
and Barbour 1989) except in Nigeria where the opposite is
generally observed (Luiselli and Diagne 2013). Analyses of
the diets of these two species suggests that at least within
parts of their range, K. homeana is more of a generalist than
K. erosa (Luiselli 2003a, 2003b). Within heavily altered
mature forests, the diet composition of the two species
becomes more similar.
2
Olivier Pauwels
Gabriel Segniagbeto
33
34
is worshipped Luiselli (2003). In Cameroon the estimated mean annual harvest rate is 0.7 to 0.8
animals per km2 in the sites with high habitat quality and low human densities (Lawson 2000).
Populations of K. erosa are likely declining in areas where the tortoises are under pressure due to
hunting.
2. Multiple K. erosa
shells at a fetish market
Lom, Togo.
Tomas Diagne
35
Kelly Hull
1. Captive breeding
via assurance colonies
both in situ and ex situ
will be an important
tool in conserving
Kinixys.
2. An increasingly
rare site to see in west
Africa: a young K. erosa
found in Tai National
Park, Ivory Coast
Alex Krohn
2. Introduction
Kinixys belliana
1. K. belliana from
Yabello, Ethiopia
traveling. This species
has the largest, most
diverse range, occuring in
a wide variety of habitats.
2. Ornately patterned
K. belliana from Uganda.
Though the most
commonly known, K.
belliana is one of the least
studied Kinixys. Their
status throughout Africa
is unknown.
Description:
This species can reach up to 230mm in length. The carapace has convex scutes, giving the shell
a domed appearance in contrast with the square shape of K. homeana and K. erosa. The carapace
has a radiated pattern with color ranging from beige to brown with surrounding darker circles
and seams that are cream or whitish. The plastron can vary from uniformly light in color to
darker with black markings that radiate outwards. Coloration and patterns can vary greatly
between individuals (Broadley 1989).
This species is known to occur in Cameroon, Central African Republic, South Sudan, Sudan,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and
Angola and may occur but it is not confirmed in Burundi, Djibouti, and Tanzania. Predicting the
range and distribution of K. belliana is problematic due to a lack of verified locality information.
The range map below was created based on available data. A potential alternate or additional
corridor where this species may occur extends from Central African Republic to Angola were
animals may travel down the Congo River system (D. Broadley, personal communication, April 7,
2014).
Cameroon: Locality information is not available for this
country. Species may potentially occur in a small region
extending through northern portions of East and Central
states.
Mark Stanton
36
37
Vladimr Trailin
Kenya: Within this country, a large portion of the species potential range occurs along the
western border extending as far south as Nairobi and east to Meru. The range potentially
extends from the southern tip of Somalia into the states of Garissa, Tana River, and
Kilifi. It is not likely that the species is found in central portions of the country. Specimen
observations have been recorded around the Winam Gulf near Lake Victoria and Tana River
near the southern coast (Spawls et al. 2002).
38
Kinixys belliana
Size
190-220mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
39
Jaime Traynor
V.Socha
1. K. belliana from
Welkite, Gurage zone,
in Western Ethiopia.
Historically (and as
recently as the 1990s),
upwards of 20% of this
region was covered in
forested habitat, though
much of it has since
been developed.
2. Grassland habitat
in Uganda. These
grasslands, although
ideal for K. belliana, can
serve as a population
sink when these areas are
aggressively burned.
Tanzania: Although this species has not been recorded in this country, it is likely to occur in the
northernmost region surrounding Lake Victoria.
Burundi: No locality data is currently available for this country; however it is likely that this
species occurs in the northern tips of the country, north of Lake Tanganyika.
Within its range K. belliana prefers to inhabit areas that are sandy with savannah, dry bush, or
grassland (Bonin et al. 2006). This tortoise is crepuscular and most active in the early morning
or late afternoon during the coolest times of the day. Activity peaks for this species during the
wet season while they are known to estivate during the dry season. During periods of heavy rain,
the tortoise is known to use waterways to disperse by floating. Unlike most tortoise species, this
species is omnivorous and prefers to eat a variable diet of plant matter, fungi, invertebrates, and
is also known to feed on small animal carcasses when encountered (Broadley 1989).
Nesting is known to occur from November to April and females typically lay 2-7 eggs in a single
clutch though more than one clutch may be laid per year. Data on reproduction of K. Belliana
Tomas Diagne
40
Vladimr Trailin
Patti Murray
1. K. belliana habitat.
2. K. belliana can be
distinguished from other
Kinixys by its highly
domed shell.
3. A young adult
specimen of K. belliana
from Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
41
42
Kinixys nogueyi
2. Introduction
Description:
This species is unique among Kinixys tortoises in having only four claws on each front limb. Its
domed shell is similar in appearance to K. belliana. The carapace varies between patterns with
areolae that are uniformly brown or yellow with dark borders. The plastron is uniformly colored
or sometimes has dark blotches (Broadley 1989).
It is known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Mali,
Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central African Republic.
Russ Mittermier
Senegal: Here the range is limited to the south with a majority of the
provinces Louga and Matam excluded.
Gambia: No locality information is currently available for this country
however it is likely that the range of this species extends throughout the
country.
1
Mali: Here the range extends through the southwestern region of the
country and ends near the southern border of the Mopti province.
43
44
Size
Kinixys nogueyi
200-300mm
Digits
Forelimb: 4
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
45
Tomas Diagne
Tomas Diagne
1. K. nogueyi in Benin.
2. Various K. nogueyi
showing incredible color
variation.
46
Eric Fourchard
47
1. Conversion of
grassland to agriculture
and aggressive use of
fire negatively impact K.
nogueyi populations.
2. Captive bred K.
nogueyi displaying color
variability even as very
young animals.
3. This young female
K. nogueyi was collected
in a small village near
Kpalim Togo and
offered for sale.
Beyond limited habitat protection of this species, there are no specific conservation actions that
are currently being taken to protect K. nogueyi. Throughout a majority of its range, this species
is likely in decline and immediate conservation actions are needed to prevent further population
decline or eventual collapse.
K. nogueyi is currently listed on CITES appendix II, which restricts the legal exporting
of specimens, presumably limiting the harvest to the point that a wild population should be
sustainable, though within-country collection and use may be unregulated. Further legislation
should be developed to protect this species on both international and national levels. The species
was recently elevated from data deficient to the draft designation of Vulnerable in August 2013
following an IUCN Red List assessment targeting sub-Saharan chelonians. Effort needs to be
made to get a better census on population size, age structure, and distribution locally by country
and rangewide. In order to protect it on a national level, this species should be included among
the protected fauna in each country of occurrence.
Currently, very limited effort to conduct research on K.
nogueyi is under way. Future research should be focused on
assessing populations, monitoring habitat loss and how these
changes in the environment affect local populations. More
ecological studies in the wild are encouraged to gather a
better understanding of the species behavior in the natural
environment.
Will Ahrens
48
Kinixys spekii
2. Introduction
1.Large female K.
spekii from Limpopo,
South Africa, showing
its characteristic flat
carapace.
Description
Richard Hay
Victor Loehr
49
50
Kinixys spekii
Size
Male: 181mm
Female: 200mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
51
Bernard Dupont
Curtis Hart
Adriane Ohanesian
K. spekii is a crepuscular species that uses the early morning and late afternoon hours to forage
while seeking refuge from the heat during the middle of the day (Spawls et al. 2002). This
species often finds shelter in rock crevices (facilitated by the flattened carapace) and horizontal
3. Typical savanna habitat tree trunks (D. Broadley, personal communication, April 7, 2014) During the dry season, the
for K. spekii.
species spends most of its time estivating under cover. Hailey and Loveridge (1997) notes that K.
52
Liana May
3. K. spekii resting in
the shade of a shrub
in Masebe Nature
Reserve, South Africa.
53
David Beadle
This tortoise is collected from the wild by humans for consumption and trade. Locally, the
tortoise is traded for food and traditional medicines where the meat is consumed and the shell is
often used for tools. There are reports of this species in turtle markets in Hong Kong however it
is only sold in the pet trade whereas other Kinixys species are included in the food trade which is
ten times larger (Cheung and Dudgeon 2006). This species is sought after and has also appeared
on multiple Japanese and U.S. websites for sale as a pet selling for hundreds of U.S. dollars per
1. A hinged carapace
is unique to the genus
Kinixys.
Brian Horne
54
Ozan oanguen
55
Kinixys zombensis
2. Introduction
Jo-anne Hounsom
Description:
K. zombensis zombensis
K. z. zombensis reaches up to 220mm in length. The carapace is
domed with sloping sides and flattened dorsally with broad black
radial patterns. The color patterns can vary between individuals from
brown to yellow. The plastron is very dark in juveniles and lightens
in color with age. (Broadley 1989).
1
K. zombensis domerguei
The subspecies K. z. domerguei is extremely similar in appearance
to K. z. zombensis and can only be distinguished from the mainland
relative by a fragmented frontal scale.
Thomas Leuteritz
56
Craig Gibbon
South Africa: Range extends into the far northeastern region of the
KwaZulu-Natal Province and specimens have been reported to occur in
St. Lucia Park.
Madagascar: The subspecies K. z. domerguei is endemic to Madagascar.
Currently the range is presumed to be limited to Nosy Faly, a small island
off the northwest coast of mainland Madagascar, as well as the adjacent
peninsula. The largest density is found in the central and western regions
of Nosy Faly (Pedrano 2008).
57
Thomas Leuteritz
58
Kinixys z. zombensis
Size
Male: 206mm
Female: 217mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
59
Kinixys z. domerguei
Size
Male: 194mm
Female: 196mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
60
Andy Dasypeltis
Data on the population of this species is lacking in part due to the recent
change in taxonomic status. Based on studies and observations of other
grassland Kinixys, it is presumed that density of individuals is rather low.
Work should be conducted to better assess population structure and
density to better assess overall population health.
Margaret Hardaker
Thomas Leuteritz
particularly vulnerable
to road-related mortality
after rain events as they
drink water from road
puddles.
Thomas Leuteritz
Megan English
61
1. Roads serve as
physical breaks in the
landscape, increasing
exposure to predators
and vehicle-related
mortality. Opportunistic
collection and targeted
poaching can often occur
in conjunction with other
illegal wildlife trade.
2. Conversion of habitat
into agricultural land has
a significant impact on K.
zombensis. Depending on
the crop, tortoises may
be killed as pests as they
may feed on the plants,
flowers, or fruits.
The subspecies K. z. domerguei is especially at risk due to the extremely small range it inhabits.
Within this range, bush fires are a common practice used for agriculture and land clearing.
This method is known to be a direct cause of mortality and areas that are frequently burned
currently support very few or no individuals. Within the restricted range, as little as 500 hectares
of suitable habitat remains (Pedrano 2008). Fortunately for the tortoise, in the Ambanja region
of Nosy Faly locals believe them to guard royal spirits and do not kill them directly. However,
in other regions of the island with
different culture the tortoises are not
worshipped and often are collected for
consumption (Pedrano 2008).
Megan English
62
Will Ahrens
1. Noticeable break
(hinge) of K. z. zombensis
on this specimen from
Kenya.
2. Though once
imported in large
numbers, K. z. zombensis
is rarely found in U.S.
private or institutional
collections due to
concerns of potential
disease transmission
to cattle via ticks. It is
imperative to establish
assurance colonies by
consolidating remaining
captive animals before
they succumb to old
age. This species is also
relatively uncommon in
European collections.
Victor JT Loehr
63
2. Introduction
Kinixys natalensis
Natal Hingeback Tortoise
Victor JT Loehr
Description:
Richard Boycott
1. The diagnostic
tricuspid beak of a K.
natalensis from KwazuluNatal, South Africa.
2. This is the smallest of
all the Kinixys species.
South Africa: Here the species is limited to small band along the far
eastern region of the country. The range begins in the north east of
Mpumalanga and extends into Kwazulu-Natal.
2
Mozambique: The range is limited to the extreme southwestern tip of the country.
This tortoise species is restricted to the inland region of south eastern Africa. Within the
KwaZulu-Natal Province they are generally absent from coastal regions preferring to inhabit
mountainous landscapes to the west and north. It occurs in rocky grasslands, savannah, and
64
65
Kinixys natalensis
Size
Male: 125mm
Female: 155mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
Tricuspid
Andreas Karsten
Darglec Cnservancy
66
1. Fire as a form of
management and
conversion of habitat
to agriculture both have
a negative impact on
K. natalensis and other
Kinixys species.
2. Electric fences have
been shown to result in
mortality to K. lobatsiana
and are suspected to
impact other Kinixys
including K. natalensis in
southern Africa. These
fences also serve as a
physical barrier.
Currently this species is protected in a number of game reserves and national parks throughout
its range including, Kruger National Park, Manyeleti Game Reserve, Mbuluzi Nature Reserve,
Mlawula Nature Reserve, Ndzindza Nature Reserve, Itala Game Reserve, Pongola Nature Reserve
and Weenen Nature Reserve. Beyond this standard management in protected areas, there are no
specific conservation actions that are being taken to further protect the species. Less than a fifth
67
Megan English
1. Conversion of natural
landscapes for grazing
livestock and agriculture
reduces the amount of
available K. natalensis
habitat and reduces
population connectivity.
At this time there is no known effort to conduct new research on K. natalensis. Monadjem et
al. (2003) had proposed to continue distribution surveys in Swaziland to determine population
density and localities. Little is known on the captive husbandry of K. natalensis and work with
captive tortoises can be beneficial for better understanding behavior of the animals while also
establishing valuable assurance colonies abroad. There are no known assurance colonies in the
2. Protecting large
United States and the number of captive animals in European collections is uncertain though
contiguous tracts of
likely small.
habitat is essential for the
long-term conservation
of this species. Adaptive
management is
important when
conserving these
and other vulnerable
Kinixys species.
Lisa Call
68
Kinixys lobatsiana
2. Introduction
Victor Loehr
Victor Loehr
Description:
1. Plastral view of K.
lobatsiana showing the
serrated marginal scutes,
a diagnostic characteristic
for this grassland species.
Botswana: Here the species range is restricted to South-East District from Lobatse to Gaborone
(D. Broadley, personal communication, April 7, 2014).
2. K. lobatsiana from
Limpopo, South Africa.
South Africa: The range covers the north of North-West Province, the southwest of Limpopo,
Guateng, and the northwest of Mpumalanga. Observations have been reported from multiple
nature reserves within Ohrigstad, Loskop, and Nylsvley (Bonin et al. 2006).
69
Megan English
70
Kinixys lobatsiana
Size
Male: 162mm
Female: 167mm
Digits
Forelimb: 5
Hindlimb: 4
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
71
1.Savannah bushveld
habitat of K. lobatsiana.
Paul Rabiega
Megan English
Paul Rabiega
72
Will Ahrens
1. Though relatively
uncommon in captivity,
this species is known
to be offered for
sale in Japan and the
U.S. Exportation has
increased in recent years
and these tortoises are
often listed for more
than $1,000 U.S.
SA Reptiles Forum
2. Though locally
uncommon, K. lobatsiana
has been found in
highveld grassland on
vertical rock crevices, at
elevations of 1510m.
73
Habitat Protection
Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation are among the most serious causes of
current and future population declines among Kinixys and other chelonians ( Bhm, Collen et al.
2012, Klemens 2000, Swingland and Klemens 1989). Based on the degree and rate of habitat
conversion and loss, the fragmentation of African landscapes and wildlife populations is occurring
at an alarming rate. Fragmentation can result in increased mortality, reduced genetic diversity,
increased predation pressure, increased edge habitat, reduced habitat quality, alteration to local
weather and humidity, and invasive species colonization. Habitat protection is the single most
important action that can be taken to assure Kinixys have a contiguous high quality landscape to
maintain viable populations in Africa. Though some species have relatively large theoretical ranges,
available suitable habitat within these has been reduced over the last 30 years and this decline is
expected to continue and worsen.
Connectivity is therefore essential
for long-term viability of Kinixys
populations on a landscape level.
In an effort to maintain population
viability, increasing the number
of protected lands within the
Kinixys range would be beneficial
in preserving connectivity of high
quality habitat. Protected lands
are generally established with
the consideration that exclusion
of land users is necessary to
conserve habitat and biodiversity
while appropriate uses include
tourism and scientific research.
Although these conditions are
ideal, different approaches are also
necessary to ensure that protected
1
74
1. Conversion of habitat
(including on protected
lands) to agriculture
degrades the overall
landscape, fragments
remaining habitat, and
displaces Kinixys and
other wildlife.
Liana May
2. Fire, though
a natural part of
African ecosystems,
is manipulated and
frequently set by
humans. Overuse
impacts habitat integrity
and exposes Kinixys to
greater risk of firerelated trauma and
death.
75
Tomas Diagne
Trade
Trade in Kinixys has been ongoing since at least the 1960s with
tens of thousands of animals exported out of Africa since that
time. Since 1975 nearly 200,000 Kinixys were reported as being
exported from Africa. During this time period, over 81,500 K.
homeana were exported with the three major exporting countries
being Togo (43,324), Ghana (20,572), and Benin (16,041) (CITES
Trade Database 2012). Most of this trade has occurred since the
1990s and in general has increased in volume over time. In recent
years some species have declined in export and it is speculated by
multiple sources this may be the result of a decrease in availability
1
of animals. For some species such as K. natalensis and K. lobatsiana,
the number of animals exported has increased in recent years.
This may be attributed to the relative uniqueness and small ranges
of these species. This may also be the case for K. z. domerguei
which has had some limited export from Madagascar. In total,
nearly 350 individuals were legally exported between 2000 and
2001, which coincides with mass collection and exportation of
Pyxis from Madagascar. Though the volume of exported animals
is relatively small when compared to other Kinixys, this species
occupies an extremely small range. Population estimates for K.
z. domerguei indicate approximately 5,000 individuals remain with
total available habitat of less than 500 hectares (Pedrano 2008).
This amounts to a potential 7% loss of the population in two
years time through legal trade. It is known that illegal trade of
tortoises occurs throughout Madagascar despite efforts to stop
2
it (Razafison 2014). There is an increasing variety and volume of
chelonian species being sold as pets on the internet and Kinixys
species have recently been found for sale on websites in Japan. Retail prices for Kinixys range
from $80 to over $1,400US depending on the species and country the animals are for sale in.
It is likely that even relatively inexpensive species such as K. homeana will rise in price due to
elevated global status and increased difficulty in obtaining animals.
Based on the life history traits and our understanding of Kinixys threats, it appears that
there are no means for sustainable harvest of this genus that would not result in decline and
eventual localized and regional population collapse. Elimination of quotas for wild collected or
ranched animals for K. homeana and K. erosa are strongly recommended. Significant reduction
in quotas for all other Kinixys species is strongly recommended. Due to the demand and interest
in these species, migration toward greater emphasis on captive bred animals and facilities and
elimination of wild collected Kinixys from trade is encouraged. This shift can reduce collection
pressures and still provide revenue for locals within range countries.
Currently all species of Kinixys are listed under appendix II of CITES. Review of elevating
target Kinixys species to CITES I should be considered with species that experience significant
exportation or those with small ranges reviewed as a priority. Care must be taken as this stricter
designation often results in increased valuation and black market sales of rare species. This
designation may also increase difficulty in international collaboration and moving animals back
into range countries if reintroduction is ever proposed. Furthermore, limiting the trade of these
species will only work as part of an overall conservation strategy that also includes additional
habitat protection and improved management.
76
Tomas Diagne
1
1. One of the strongest
conservation tools we
have is engaging the
local community in the
role and importance
of biodiversity and
conservation. This
has been shown to
be effective, but
local partnership and
engagement is critical .
2. Multiple K. erosa.
offered for sale in a
bushmeat market in
Equatorial Guinea
Adaptive Management
Vin Crosbie
Matt Muir
3. Barriers, including
electric fences, fragment
the landscape and can
result in direct mortality.
Effort to allow
passage of tortoises
would minimize this
unintended impact.
Restoring connectivity
and identifying priority
corridors for protection
is an essential part
of long-term species
management.
77
Dwight Lawson
Tomas Diagne
Assurance Colonies
1. Adaptive
management requires
the ability to adjust to
various situations. Here
founder stock for a
K. homeana assurance
colony is set up to be
cared for by zoo and
veterinary staff while
working with various
partners to accept
animals.
2. Range country
assurance colonies are
an essential part of
genus conservation
as they also
provide educational
opportunities for locals
to help engage them in
species protection.
To date, no formal assurance colony program has been established within range countries though
effort is underway at an existing facility in Senegal to establish multiple West African Kinixys
species. Ex-situ conservation programs on various Kinixys species including the establishment
of assurance colonies have recently been initiated in the U.S. to better understand these unique
tortoises behaviour and husbandry and to help protect wild populations. The first Kinixys
assurance colony established was for K. homeana in 2013 following the IUCN Redlist workshop and
recommendations. In total approximately 100 founder animals have been incorporated into the
assurance colony. Significant work still needs to be done for other Kinixys species though additional
assurance colonies are being developed for K. erosa and K. spekii. Recently studbook coordinators
78
1. Proper husbandry
and record keeping
are key to successful
assurance colonies of
Kinixys. Little is known
about these species in
the wild as well as in
captivity. Collaboration
and communication are
vital components to
successfully managing
and expanding assurance
colonies.
2. Increased interest
in the conservation
of Kinixys and the
development of
better communication
mechanisms for those
working with the species
in various ways are
important in developing
stronger partnerships
and tangible success.
Jim Harding
Reintroduction Programs
79
Sean Zera
Genetic Management
Research Needs
80
Appendices
Appendix A:
Species Table
Forelimbs/
hindlimbs
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
Range
5/4 claws
(Swingland and Convex, scutes raised;
M+F: 190Klemens 1989) radiated pattern on
220mm
No tubercles
carapace, areolae
(Boycott and
on buttocks
brown with light ring
Bourquin
(Boycott and surrounding (Boycott
2000)
Bourquin 2000) and Bourquin 2000)
Kinixys homeana
M: /323mm,
F: /260mm
(Swingland
and Klemens
1989)
81
M: /211mm,
F: /223mm
(Swingland
and Klemens
1989)
Kinixys erosa
Min/Max
Length
Kinixys belliana
Species
Min/Max
Length
Forelimbs/
hindlimbs
Carapace
Plastron
Hinge
Beak
Range
Kinixys spekii
Kinixys z. zombensis
5/4 claws
(Swingland
M: /181mm, and Klemens
F: /200mm
1989)
(Boycott and No tubercles
Bourquin
on buttocks
2000)
(Boycott and
Bourquin
2000)
Kinixys z. domerguei
82
Kinixys nogueyi
Species
M: 19.4cm, F:
19.6cm
(Pedrono
2008)
5/4 claws
Flattened, scutes
relatively flat with
well-defined annuli;
M: Uniform color,
F: Uniform to short
radiations (Swingland
and Klemens 1989)
Flat dorsal
Front lobe may be
Unicuspid; frontal
surface,with unflared
Northeastern Madagascar (Vetter
slightly notched and Well developed, scale is fragmented
marginal; Variable
2011)
projects beyond btwn 7th and 8th and the width of
in color from yellow
Nosy Faly (satellite island) (F.
carapace; uniform marginal (Boycott the frontals is less
to brown, darker
Andreone and Raxworthy 2003),
light color or black
and Bourquin
than the width of
radiated pattern in
Ambato peninsula (Pedrono 2008)
splashes radiating
2000
the prefrontals.
adults. (Pedrono
outward
(Pedrono 2008)
2008)
Kinixys natalensis
5/4 claws
Front lobe, may projMod convex, Poste(Swingland
ect slightly beyond
rior forms gutter
E Transvaal, South Africa and MozamM: /125mm, and Klemens
carapace, male has Poorly developed,
w/ slight serration,
bique, S through Swaziland to Natal
F: /155mm
1989)
distinct concavity; btwn 7th and 8th Tricuspid (Swingwell-marked annuli;
midlands at Pietermaritzburg (Swing(Swingland No tubercles
yellow centers and marginal (Boycott land and Klemens
concentric pattern on
land and Klemens 1989); Mozamand Klemens on buttocks
margins, 2 black
and Bourquin
1989)
each scute with brown
bique, Swaziland, and South Africa
1989)
(Boycott and
rings on abdominals
2000)
areolae (Swingland
(Vetter 2011)
Bourquin
(Swingland and Kleand Klemens 1989)
2000)
mens 1989)
Kinixys lobatsiana
5/4 claws
(Swingland
M: /162mm, and Klemens
F: /167mm
1989)
(Swingland No tubercles
and Klemens on buttocks
1989)
(Boycott and
Bourquin
2000)
83
84
Appendix B: Maps
1. Sub-Saharan Africa land cover classification types.
2. Sub-Saharan Africa elevation displaying in meters above sea-level
3. Locations of Sub-Saharan Africa mining sites and type of method practiced including: unknown mining methods,
open-pit or surface mines, surface mines with underground component, underground mines with surface operations, and
underground mines.
4. Locations of Sub-Saharan roads, mapped in black, and population density centers (people/square km) with 2.5 km
spatial resolution. The combined range of all Kinixys species is included in pink.
5. K. homeana range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
6. K. homeana range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014. The
colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as many
as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many as 5
fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
7. K. erosa range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
8. K. erosa range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014. The
colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as many
as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many as 5
fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
9. K. belliana range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
10. K. belliana range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014.
The colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as
many as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many
as 5 fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
11. K. nogueyi range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
12. K. nogueyi range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014. The
colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as many
as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many as 5
fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
85
13. K. spekii range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
14. K. spekii range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014. The
colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as many
as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many as 5
fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
15. K. zombensis range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
16. K. zombensis range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014.
The colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as
many as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many
as 5 fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
17. K. natalensis range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community types
associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
18. K. natalensis range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014.
The colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as
many as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many
as 5 fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
19. K. lobatsiana range with available potential habitat defined by the presence of suitable land cover and community
types associated with this species. Range area and available habitat given in hectares, and percentage of available habitat are
provided as well.
20. K. lobatsiana range with fire density and frequency. Fire intensity data was recorded from May 2013 - February 2014.
The colors represent a count of the number of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show as
many as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many
as 5 fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day.
Map 1
86
Map 2
87
88
Kinixys Conservation Blueprint
Map 3
Map 4
89
90
Map 5
Map 6
91
92
Map 7
Map 8
93
94
Map 9
Map 10
95
96
Map 11
Map 12
97
98
Map 13
Map 14
99
100
Map 15
Map 16
101
102
Map 17
Map 18
103
104
Map 19
Map 20
105
108,128
100,000
Kinixys exported
80,000
60,000
33,161 34,474
40,000
20,000
2,194
3,311
6,317
Benin
17%
Togo
56%
Ghana
18%
The table to the left contains the total count of Kinixys exported
from African countries. This count includes only primary
exportation and excludes re-exports between countries to produce
a more accurate number of tortoises leaving the country. The top
bar graph comparatively illustrates the top six exporters of Kinixys,
while the pie chart illustrates the countries responsible for the
largest amount of Kinixys exported.
107
Kinixys Exports 1975-1989
Country
# Exports
Lesotho
1
Sierra Leone
1
Guinea
2
Nigeria
2
Somalia
2
Burundi
16
Dem. Rep. of Congo
16
Cameroon
16
Mozambique
20
Rwanda
20
Zimbabwe
23
Liberia
29
South Africa
34
Tanzania
1,912
Kenya
2,961
Ghana
3,832
Togo
23,352
Total = 32,239
Country
# Exports
Sierra Leone
1
Angola
2
Guinea-Bissau
2
Lesotho
2
Ivory Coast
4
Gabon
9
Cen. African Rep.
10
Dem. Rep. of Congo
28
Nigeria
28
Burundi
37
Uganda
53
Mali
110
South Africa
119
Madagascar
148
Zimbabwe
197
Burkina Faso
200
Kenya
350
Cameroon
566
Zambia
765
Tanzania
1,059
Mozambique
3,258
Ghana
13,073
Benin
18,427
Togo
49,191
Total = 87,639
Country
# Exports
Equatorial Guinea
1
Malawi
3
Nigeria
6
Gabon
7
Niger
52
Rep. of Congo
66
Uganda
150
Cameroon
152
Tanzania
152
Dem. Rep. of Congo
172
Madagascar
201
South Africa
222
Guinea
267
Zimbabwe
488
Mali
630
Chad
820
Ivory Coast
852
Mozambique
3,039
Benin
14,734
Ghana
17,569
Tanzania
152
Togo
39,181
Total = 78,916
The above tables detail the total exports per country over
approximate decade time constraints. Since 1975 there
has been a steady increase in both exports and countries
exporting however it peaks between 1990-2000, with 20012012 onward experiencing a slow decline in later years.
49191
39181
45000
40000
35000
23352
30000
13073
17569
18427
14734
25000
20000
15000
Tanzania
Mozambique
Kenya
3832
2961
350
0
3258
3039
20
1912
1059
152
Ghana
Benin
1990-2000
2001-2012
10000
5000
1975-1989
Togo
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
2010
2005
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
109
7000
6000
5000
Togo
4000
Ghana
Benin
3000
2000
1000
2011
2006
2001
1996
1991
1986
1981
1976
The above graph details total Kinixys exports for the top three ranking countries in Africa for Kinixys export. Togo has
been exporting Kinixys since 1977 and has in general maintained a high count with its export numbers peaking in the
year 2000 with 7,066 exports. Ghana has been exporting Kinixys since 1978 and peaked in the year 1989 with 3,360
exports. Ghanas trade numbers seesaw with Benins, which started exporting in 1991 and hit its peak in 1997 with 4,612
exports while Ghana hit record lows. Similarly, Ghanas trade increased between 1999 and 2001 while Benin hit a low.
The record low for Benin also corresponds with the record high for Togo in the year 2000, implying the trade from Benin
shifted largely to Togo. Another rise in Ghanas trade numbers between 2004 and 2008 corresponds with a period of low
exports for Benin, implying that periods of trade alternate between these two counties.
Tanzania Kenya
4%
2%
Mozambique
4%
Zambia
1%
Ghana
9%
Benin
17%
Togo
63%
59733
60000
50000
4044
3311
2179
949
402
360
348
281
202
200
151
150
66
10000
42
20000
8929
30000
16422
40000
111
K. erosa 1975-2012
Country
# Exports % of total
Gabon
1
0%
Equatorial Guinea
1
0%
Nigeria
1
0%
Zambia
1
0%
Sierra Leone
2
0%
Zimbabwe
2
0%
Central African Rep.
10
0%
Burundi
11
0%
Rwanda
12
0%
Liberia
27
0%
Mali
50
1%
Uganda
53
1%
Cameroon
134
1%
Guinea
159
2%
D. Rep. of Congo
214
2%
Benin
698
8%
Ghana
3,471
38%
Togo
4,257
47%
Total = 9,104
Cameroon
1%
Guinea
2%
D. Rep. of the
Congo
2%
Benin
8%
Togo
47%
Ghana
39%
The table to the left and the corresponding bar graph below detail the
total numbers of K. erosa exports from African countries between 19752012. The above pie chart illustrates the percentage of countries making
up the bulk of K. erosa exports between the top 7 exporters.
K. erosa Exports
1975-2012
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
4257
3471
698
1
10
11
12
27
50
53
134
159
214
K. homeana 1975-2012
Country
# Exports % of total
Guinea-Bissau
2
0%
Nigeria
3
0%
Gabon
12
0%
Niger
52
0%
Zambia
55
0%
Guinea
110
0%
Mali
200
0%
Cameroon
277
0%
Ivory Coast
451
1%
Chad
460
1%
Benin
16,041
20%
Ghana
20,572
25%
Togo
43,324
53%
Total = 81,559
Chad
1%
Benin
20%
Togo
54%
Ghana
25%
The table above and the corresponding bar graph below detail the total numbers of K. homeana exports from African
countries between 1975-2012. The above pie chart illustrates the percentage of countries making up the bulk of K.
homeana exports between the top 5 exporters.
K. homeana Exports
1975-2012
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
43324
16041
12
52
55
110
200
277
451
460
20572
113
K. lobatsiana 1988-2012
Country
# Exports % of total
South Africa
51
100%
Total =
51
K. natalensis 1994-2012
Country
# Exports % of total
South Africa
14
50%
Zimbabwe
14
50%
Total =
28
K. spekii 1993-2012
Country
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
Zimbabwe
22%
Mozambique
77%
# Exports % of total
10
1%
335
22%
1,171
77%
Total = 1,516
The tables above detail the total numbers of recorded K. lobatsiana, K. natalensis, and K. spekii exports from African
countries between 1975-2012. K. lobatsiana wasnt accounted for in this data until 2008, K. natalensis in 1980,
and K. spekii in 2006 as the species became differentiated in trade data. As such, the numbers do not represent an
accurate picture of the trade over the entire data set and the majority of them were included under K. belliana. The
majority of K. belliana trade from Mozambique was most likely K. spekii judging by known locality. The above pie
graph illustrates the countries making up the highest percentage of K. spekii trade. K. natalensis are exported from
South Africa and Zimbabwe, while South Africa is responsible for all recorded K. lobatsiana exports.
K. spekii Exports
1975-2012
1400
1171
1200
1000
800
600
335
400
200
0
10
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
Togo
Ghana
1%
4%
4%
10%
26%
40%
55%
K. belliana
K. belliana
K. homeana
K. homeana
K. erosa
K. erosa
unknown spp.
unknown spp.
60%
Benin
Mozambique
2%
17%
50%
48%
K. belliana
K. belliana
K. homeana
K. spekii
19%
unknown spp.
K. erosa
64%
The above pie charts illustrate the majority species composition of the total Kinixys exports of four African countries.
Togos exports are largely K. belliana complex, likely K. nogueyi (55%), Ghanas are mostly K. homeana (60%), Benin
strikes a close 50:50 between K. belliana complex (likely K. nogueyi) and K. erosa, and Mozambiques exports are largely K.
belliana (which is likely to be K. spekii as well).
115
117
As Kinixys become increasingly rare in the wild and pressures continue to threaten their existence,
measures both in-situ and ex-situ measures should be taken to preserve these species and reduce
the risk of species collapse or extinction. Development of assurance colonies is one component
to an overall conservation approach to safeguard these imperiled species. These guidelines are
general in nature and do not necessarily apply for each situation or tortoise. Observations of
your colony, location, and their responses to various husbandry techniques will help best direct
how to approach their care. As the different species occur over an expansive range encompassing
a majority of Africa and a variety of climatic zones and ecosystems, care should be tailored to
their specific needs. Though this husbandry summary covers all Kinixys (both tropical forest and
grassland), specific needs for a species are noted when warranted .
Housing
Indoor Enclosures
Depending on the geographic location of an assurance colony, Kinixys can
be maintained in either indoor or outdoor environments. Kinixys colonies
in most parts of the U.S. and Europe will require indoor facilities for at
least part of the year due to cold winters.
Enclosures should be spacious with at least three square feet per inch of
shell. If kept in groups, sufficient area must be provided. Cypress mulch
or hardwood mulch are generally readily available products that are
good bases for substrate. In addition peat or coconut fiber are beneficial
as additives that provide more natural substrate texture and moisture
retention when mixed with other base substrates. A mixture containing
large proportions of peat can become too saturated or soggy and it is
recommended that it be supplemented with sand to aid in maintaining
aeration. These mixtures provide quality substrates that allow tortoises to
express natural burrowing behaviors and provide optimal indoor nesting
substrate. Sphagnum moss is another substrate that is effective at retaining
moisture; however, care should be taken to use material that has been
119
Ruth Basham
1. Enclosures should
contain ample hiding
areas which can be
created using various
materials including
plastic plant pots.
2. This K. nogueyi
hatchling is soaking
itself in a water dish. To
ensure proper hydration,
tortoises should
always have access to a
source of water and be
maintained in a humid
environment.
Hatchlings do well in a mixture of coconut fiber (coir) and play sand, which is easily moisture
regulated. Hides need to be provided as these young tortoises prefer a place to find shelter
and can include materials used for adult enclosures scaled down in size. Plastic flower pots cut
into halves or terracotta pots buried halfway on their sides provide simple and ample hides.
Additionally, an overturned plastic basket with an entryway cut into it or a hide constructed of
wood can provide suitable shelter.
Kinixys are most active and healthiest when maintained at 60-90% humidity though grassland
species can be maintained on the lower end of this range. This can be achieved by misting
several times daily or use of a fogging system. In addition partially covering the enclosure with a
plastic tarp and/or incorporating nontoxic live plants can help maintain higher humidity levels.
As a general rule, temperatures should be kept between 70- 85F for day temperatures and
60-70 F at night. Though Kinixys will bask, ambient temperatures seem to be sufficient for
1. To achieve optimal
daytime temperatures of
70- 85F, multiple heat
sources can be used
including incadescent
lights and ceramic heat
bulbs.
2. In regions where
Kinixys can be
maintained outside,
enclosures with high
walls should be utilized
as these tortoises are
capable of climbing.
Diet
Kinixys are omnivorous and should be provided with a varied diet including high calcium
green leafy plant matter, fungi, vegetables, high fiber fruits, and animal protein. Kinixys relish
earthworms, are known to consume snails, and most will also aggressively take thawed feeder
mice. Young can also be given a variety of invertebrates such as crickets, mealworms, and
waxworms for protein and enrichment. Leafy weeds and greens like kale, chicory, clover, endive,
dandelion, escarole, mustard greens and red leaf lettuces are preferred. Note that rainforest
species of Kinxys, K. homeana and K. erosa, are more reluctant to feed on greens in general and
Christine Light
121
Terry E. Kilgore
incorporating them into mixes has been more effective. Plant matter
like squashes, bell peppers, tomatoes, and zucchini can be offered along
with vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes. Plant matter that is
high in oxalic acid such as kale, spinach and turnip greens are safe to
feed as part of a varied diet. If fed in large quantities over a prolonged
period of time, oxalic acid can be harmful as it binds with calcium and
prevents absorption of it. To avoid calcium depletion when feeding out
these items, calcium supplement can be a beneficial addition to their
diet. Hatchlings in particular should have a diet low in oxalic acid in
order to ensure they are absorbing all the calcium they need. It has been
observed that young Kinixys raised on a higher percent protein diet
have healthier growth rates and tend to be more active. In addition to
earthworms and other invertebrates, another excellent source for protein
is mushrooms which Kinixys seem to ubiquitously love.
Studies of wild and captive Kinixys have shown mushrooms to be an
important part of their diet as fungi are high in protein and preferred by
this omnivorous tortoise genus. We have observed the greatest growth
rate during periods where mushrooms make up a larger percent of their
diet. For our collection this has been timed to the increase in misting
to simulate the rainy season and the period when mushrooms would
be most readily available. Mushrooms are best offered quartered unless
enrichment is an objective and they can also be scattered whole in an
enclosure to promote natural grazing behaviors.
Animal proteins can be best provided through mice, pinkie mice, snails,
or live earthworms. Live invertebrates form an important part of the
2
wild Kinixys diet and they are known predators of millipedes, however
such a treat is difficult to provide in captivity. Cooked liver or poultry
can be offered sparingly, but raw beef should be avoided.
Cris Hagen
Fruits in general are best fed sparingly or as an occasional treat, as many are high in sugar and
low in fiber, leading to impaired gut function and increased lactic acid levels that promote
parasite activity. A high fruit diet is composed of sugars that ferment quickly in the gut and
compromise the natural gut flora in the process,
potentially leading to complications such as liver
abscesses. High sugar and low fiber fruits such
as berries, ripe bananas, and melons should be
avoided or used sparingly especially with wild
collected animals. However, since Kinixys are
attracted to brightly colored foods; if a tortoise is
a picky or reluctant eater, brightly colored food
items can be an enticing treat to tempt them into
eating. Kinixys can be introduced to a balanced
3
diet by slowly mixing treats that they will eat into
Will Ahrens
1. It is important to
monitor the feeding
of captive colonies so
that any behavioral or
physical issues can be
addressed immediately.
2. To avoid
complications from
impaction of ingested
mulch or sand, it is
suggested that captive
animals be fed on paper
plates or trays.
Care should be taken when feeding to avoid direct contact with substrate to avoid potential
impaction especially when sand is incorporated. Paper plates can be used as a simple and quick
feeding surface, though on occasion Kinixys may eat part of the plate if juices or color from food
items saturates it. Disposal is also an issue and we recommend composting these when possible.
Plastic trays are an effective alternative though great care must be taken to properly clean and
disinfect them.
Health
Kinixys maintain a reputation as being incredibly difficult animals to establish and maintain in
captivity. If dealing with recent imports, the quicker that individual can be set up and stabilized
the better. Hydration is key to setting up newly arrived tortoises. These tortoises are often
severely dehydrated after the long journey that typically includes multiple trips from a collector,
to an exporter, to an importer, to a pet shop, and finally an assurance colony. Immediate and
frequent soakings are essential in helping to stabilize Kinixys. We suggest a somewhat hands off
approach and to handle animals only when necessary. Recent acquisitions should be maintained
in low-light enclosures with plenty of hides and cover to help reduce stress. Kinixys also display
123
1. Thorough health
inspections and
substantial quarantine
periods are critical
when working with
newly imported
tortoises. Periodic
evaluations will help
track health and
animal condition.
Alain Soula
2. Inspections of new
animals for parasites
is vital to maintaining
healthy colonies.
Ticks are common
among Kinixys as
seen on this K. spekii
from the Masai Mara
Manyatta Camp in
Kenya.
Health conditions are often treatable and can be prevented by proper husbandry and early
detection. It is imperative that all new tortoise arrivals be quarantined from existing populations to
prevent cross contamination. Different species should also never be housed together. Wild caught
Kinixys are particularly prone to heavy parasite loads of worms and protozoa, although a proper
diet can maintain healthy gut flora and decrease the severity of parasites. It is important to note
that small numbers of worms and protozoa may be normal gut residents potentially providing
some benefits to the animal. In stressed or immune compromised animals
this balance can become disrupted. Though both are problematic and can
result in the decline or death of an animal, protozoans have likely historically
been the major killer of imported Kinixys. Diet can be key in minimizing and
controlling these organisms. Evaluation of the need for treatment for parasites
should be done on a case-by-case basis and under the supervision of a qualified
veterinarian with demonstrated experience working with tortoises. Excessive
or unnecessary treatment of Kinixys for parasites may damage gut health and
efficiency. Coccidia can be particularly problematic and lethal with this genus
and detection of it prior to any treatment for other parasites is important.
Examining the stool is a good indication of how balanced the tortoises diet
is. Scat should be firm and contain little undigested food. Diarrhea and loose
stool indicates a diet that is possibly too low in fiber, too high in fruit or water
content, overfeeding, or illness.
Rodney Lewis
Reproduction
125
Will Ahrens
Mallory Clark
more. During this time, males will stretch their necks and with a wide
gaped mouth, emit a number of high pitched grunts. Females have been
observed to pseudocopulate, presumably to assert dominance as well
as to potentially attract the attention of nearby males. With K. spekii,
this behavior along with aggressive pseudocourtship activities has been
observed in gravid females especially those looking for nesting sites.
1.Radiographs are a
beneficial tool when
assessing the health
and reproductive state
of captive and newly
imported tortoises.
2. Kinixys hatchlings
can grow at incredible
rates. These K. homeana
hatchlings are roughly a
month apart in age.
3. It is believed that
all Kinixys species
have developmental
diapause. Future work
with assurance colonies
and field work with
Kinixys will help better
determine the extent
of this developmental
characteristic and how
to break it.
Following successful mating it can take two to three months for a female
to fully develop the eggs and nest. Nesting can occur year round for some
species, though it tends to occur from November through May, which
coincides with the rainy seasons in their respective ranges. Nests can be
rather shallow for species like K. homeana, or at depths of 10 or more
inches as in K. spekii. Clutch sizes vary from 3 to 8 eggs for most species,
though K. erosa can lay up to 10 eggs per clutch. Kinixys can lay multiple
clutches under optimal conditions.
Kinixys, being omnivorous and opportunistic, will eat their own eggs
and those of other females. Both K. spekii and K. homeana have been
observed consuming eggs. On at least one occasion a captive female
K. spekii was observed watching another female K. spekii nesting and
attempted to consume her eggs.
1. Enclosures with
multiple hatchlings
should be monitored
for signs of territorial
disputes as smaller
individuals can
become stressed and
stop feeding.
2.-3. When kept in
proper conditions
and monitored
closely, it is possible
to maintain healthy
and robust captive
groups of Kinixys.
The establishment of
both ex situ and in situ
assurance colonies
will likely be a critical
component in the
conservation of this
genus in the future.
multiple young animals as territorial disputes can arise and smaller animals may stop feeding and
become highly stressed. Housing of juveniles of various sizes is discouraged unless ample space,
hides, and feeding areas are available. Growth can be fairly rapid and hatchlings which are about
1.5 inches can double in as little as three months for K. spekii and 5 months for K. nogueyi.
Maintenance
The mulch of enclosures should be turned by hand on an approximate monthly basis with priority
being placed on enclosures of nesting tortoises. Doing so aids in distribution of moisture and
aeration of the substrate which often facilitates the nesting process and encourages gravid females
to nest by providing quality substrate. Soaking tortoises during this task is an
effective way to reduce the stress of disturbance and providing supplemental
hydration and inspection. Spot cleaning the enclosures daily will help prevent
contamination between animals, which includes removing feces and old,
uneaten food. Colonies of pillbugs and springtails may naturally colonize
enclosures (especially if leaf litter is incorporated) and may help remove waste
and food scraps that are not collected to provide a more naturally healthy
indoor system. Water sources should be flushed and refilled every other day or
as needed to prevent contamination as these tortoises tend to soil their water
with substrate or feces. Take care to completely disinfect water dishes weekly, a
2
10% bleach solution is recommended for this.
The general appearance of enclosures should be closely maintained. Any
hides that are flipped or false plants that are uprooted should be resituated in
order to ensure the quality of the habitat and maintain low-stress levels. Spot
clean any plants or hides that may have gotten feces on them. Ensure that all
lights are properly situated and replace any bulbs that have burned out. It is
recommended that UV bulbs be changed every 6 months as the UV output
declines over time.
127
Summary Information
1) Would you like more information on hingebacks? __yes __ no
2) Can we contact you in the future for more information about your
hingebacks? __yes __ no
4) What light cycles do you use? Do you use UVB lighting on them?
__yes __no
129
130
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