INTRODUCTION

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a principle stating that the genetic

variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the
absence of disturbing factors. When mating is random in a large population with no
disruptive circumstances, the law predicts that both genotype and allele frequencies
will remain constant because they are in equilibrium.
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can be disturbed by a number of forces,
including mutations, natural selection, non-random mating, genetic drift, and gene
flow. For instance, mutations disrupt the equilibrium of allele frequencies by
introducing new alleles into a population. Similarly, natural selection and nonrandom mating disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium because they result in
changes in gene frequencies. This occurs because certain alleles help or harm the
reproductive success of the organisms that carry them. Another factor that can
upset this equilibrium is genetic drift, which occurs when allele frequencies grow
higher or lower by chance and typically takes place in small populations. Gene flow,
which occurs when breeding between two populations transfers new alleles into a
population, can also alter the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Because all of these disruptive forces commonly occur in nature, the HardyWeinberg equilibrium rarely applies in reality. Therefore, the Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium describes an idealized state, and genetic variations in nature can be
measured as changes from this equilibrium state.

OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate an ideal Hardy Weinberg population by conducting an
experiment under an ideal condition.

MATERIALS

PROCEDURE

RESULT
Table 1: Individual A
AA
F1
F2

Aa
1

Aa
1

AA

Aa
1
2

Aa
1

AA
1

Aa
1
1

Aa

AA

Aa
1

Aa
1
2

AA
1
2

Aa
1

Aa

Aa

Aa

Table 2: Individual B

F1
F2

Table 3: Individual C

F1
F2

Table 4: Individual D

F1
F2

Table 5: Individual E

F1
F2

Table 6: Small group population

AA

F1
F2

2
4

5
3

3
3

Table 7: Large population

F1
Gene frequencies
F2
Gene frequencies

AA
18
18/62=0.29
16
16/62=0.26

Aa
24
24/62=0.39
28
28/62=0.45

Aa
20
20/62=0.32
18
18/62=0.29

Total
62
1
62
1

Table 8: Hardy Weinberg

Allele A (p)

F1
(18x2)+24=60

F2
(16x2)+24=56

Allele a (q)

60/124= 0.48
(20x2)+24=64

56/116=0.48
(18x2)+24=60

Total

64/124=0.52
0.48+0.52=1

60/116=0.52
0.48+0.52=1

DISCUSSION
Hardy Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies in a
population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of
other evolutionary influences. If an infinitely large, random mating population is free
from outside evolutionary forces, such as mutation, migration and natural selection.
Then, the gene frequencies will not change over the time and the frequencies in the
next generation will be p2 for the AA genotype, 2pq for Aa genotype and q 2 for the
aa genotype. The Hardy Weinberg principle describes an ideal condition against

which the effects of these influences can be analyzed. The genotype proportions p 2,
2pq and q2 are called Hardy Weinberg proportions.
From the experiment, for F1 generation, the frequencies for AA, Aa and aa
genotypes are 0.29, 0.39 and 0.32 respectively. Meanwhile for F2 generation, the
frequencies for AA, Aa and aa genotypes are 0.26, 0.45 and 0.29 respectively. The
total frequency for both F1 and F2 generations is 1. This proved the Hardy
Weinberg equation,
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (1)
Which p2 represents as the frequency of genotype AA, 2pq as the frequency of
genotype Aa and q2 as the frequency of genotype aa.
As for the frequency of allele A in F1 generation is 0.48 while the frequency of
allele a in F1 generation is 0.52. Whereas for F2 generation, the frequency of allele
A is 048 and the frequency of allele a is 0.52. When the frequency of allele A is
added with the frequency of allele a, the total of frequency is 1 for both F1 and F2
generations. Thus, the Hardy Weinberg equation that used in this situation is,
p + q = 1 (2)
Which p is the frequency of allele A and q represents the frequency of allele a.
The sum of all genotypes is the binomial expansion of the square of the sum
of p and q as it represents the total of all possibilities that must be equal to 1.
Therefore,
(p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

There are seven assumptions underlying the Hardy Weinberg law which are
the organisms are diploid, only sexual reproduction occurs, generations are nonoverlapping, mating is random, population size is infinitely large, allele frequencies
are equal in the sexes and there is no migration, mutation or selection. The
violations of the Hardy Weinberg assumptions can cause deviations from
expectation. For example, when the random mating assumption is violated, the

population will not have the hardy Weinberg proportions. A common cause of nonrandom mating is inbreeding, which causes an increase in homozygosis for all
genes. If the population violates one of the following four assumptions, the
population may continue to have the Hardy Weinberg proportions each generation
but the allele frequencies will change over the time.
1. Selection causes allele frequencies to change often quite rapidly while
directional selection eventually leads to the loss of all allele except the
favored one and some forms of selection such a balancing selection lead to
equilibrium without loss of allele.
2. Mutation will have a very subtle effect on the allele frequencies. Recurrent
mutation will maintain alleles in the population, even if there is strong
selection against them.
3. Migration genetically links two or more populations together. The allele
frequencies will become more homogeneous among the population.
4. Small population size can cause a random change in the allele frequencies.
This is due to a sampling effect and is called genetic drift. Sampling effects
are most important when the allele is present in a small number of copies.

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES