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Training and development remains an important human resource (HR) practice of interest
to researchers, managers, governments, and
employees. Training research is of substantial
interest and reviews show its enormous and
continued growth (e.g., Aguinis and Kraiger,
2009; Ford and Kraiger, 1995; Goldstein,
1980; Goldstein and Gessner, 1988; Latham,
1988; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001;
Sonnentag et al., 2004; Tannenbaum and
Yukl, 1992; Wexley, 1984). Training is of
major interest to practitioners and managers in
order to update employee skills, improve job
performance and productivity, and develop
the competencies employees need to meet
the strategic objectives of their organizations
(Sugrue and Rivera, 2005; 2006). Training
is of significance to governments who facilitate its use to provide the capabilities a
country needs for economic growth and to
address skill shortages in a highly competitive
global economy (Aguinis and Kraiger, 2009).
Lastly, training is important to employees
for whom it increases employment duration
and continuity, pay, and career advancement
(Tharenou, 1997).
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APPROACHES UNDERLYING
RESEARCH INTO TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT
Four major approaches underlie research into
training and development in organizations:
those of human resource management (HRM),
industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology,
labor economics, and industrial relations.
The earlier field of personnel management
considered training as one of several separate
HR practices and focused on identifying
and implementing training models in a
series of steps to improve individuals job
performance. By contrast, in the HRM
approach, HR practices, including training
and development, are used to improve
organizational performance, help implement
an organizations business strategy and
meet its objectives, and help build a
sustainable competitive advantage that
creates financial performance (Becker and
Huselid, 1998; 2006; Lepak et al., 2006). The
approach is strategic in terms of managing
human resources to meet the organizations
objectives.
The theoretical basis for the strategic HRM
approach includes the resource-based view
(RBV) of the firm (Barney, 1991; Barney
and Wright, 1998). High-performance work
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Designing training
Research on designing training has focused
on the learning principles that need to be
incorporated for training to be effective
(Kraiger, 2003; Noe and Colquitt, 2002;
Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). It has not
examined how to design training to be a
part of systems of HR practices (HPWS) or
to meet or help implement the needs of the
business strategy. There has been a major
change to the design of training through
the incorporation of principles gained from
cognitive psychology on how people learn
(Howell and Cooke, 1989; Kraiger, 2003;
Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992).
From the I/O psychology literature, training
comprises a series of steps that design a
plan of instruction based on well-supported
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support a diverse workforce, to be more receptive to diversity) (e.g., De Meuse et al., 2007;
Sanchez and Medkik, 2004); and training in
cross-cultural competencies facilitates managers success on international assignments
(Littrell et al., 2006). Meta-analysis supports
the effectiveness of management development (Burke and Day, 1986) and managerial
leadership development programs increase
managers knowledge strongly, improve their
job behavior/expertise but less, and increase
systems results/performance outcomes less
so though moderately (Collins and Holton,
2004). Cross-cultural training of expatriate
managers increases their performance and
adjustment (e.g., Black and Mendenhall,
1990; Morris and Robie, 2001).
Training is effective for older employees,
as shown by meta-analysis. Results continue
to find that older adults are able to learn
new skills but that they show less mastery of
training material and take longer to complete
training tasks and programs than younger
adults (Kubeck et al., 1996). The three instructional methods of lectures, role modeling, and
active participation and the two instructional
factors of self-pacing and smaller group size
are effective for older learners, resulting in
high training performance, especially when
older employees can self-pace (Callahan
et al., 2003).
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THE FUTURE
Although there has been dramatic progress in
the development of the science and practice
of training, issues need resolution. Many of
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