Endocrine system: Hormones

Function of endocrine system (specific chemical control at cell, tissue, and organ level)
o Endocrine system = make hormones = specific control of all target cells of that
hormone.
Definition of endocrine gland, hormone
o endo = within, crine = to secrete
o endocrine glands secreting hormones into surrounding tissue fluids.
o endocrine vs. exocrine, autocrine, paracrine

endocrine: hormone, no duct, acts long distances

exocrine: non-hormone secretions into ducts.

autocrine: local chemicals, act short distances on themselves

paracrine: local chemicals, act short distances on other cells

o hormone = chemicals that regulate metabolism and function of cells.
Major endocrine glands (names, locations, products)

o
o

o
o
o

Hypothalamus: Releasing hormones for the pituitary, ADH and oxytocin.

Releasing hormones/factors stimulates pituitary to release its hormone.

GnRH = Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone = stimulates pituitary to release

FSH and LH.

CRF = Corticotropin Releasing Factor.

TRH = Thyroid Releasing Hormone.

Dopamine = inhibits prolactin release.

GHRH = Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone.

ADH = Antidiuretic Hormone = Vasopressin = increase water reabsorption in

kidney = conserve water, increase blood pressure.

Oxytocin = stimulates uterine contractions during labor, also milk secretion

during suckling.
Pituitary: makes FLAT PEG, stores ADH and oxytocin.

FSH = Follicle Stimulating Hormone = Stimulate ovary follicles to mature,

testis to produce sperm.

LH = Luteinizing Hormone = LH surge triggers ovulation, stimulates testis to

produce testosterone.

ACTH = AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone = Stimulates adrenal cortex to release

glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

TSH = Thyroid Stimulation Hormone = Stimulate thyroid to release thyroid

hormones.

PRL = Prolactin = Stimulates breast to produce milk.

E = Endorphins.

GH = Growth Hormone = Stimulates growth of muscle, bone, burns fat.

Pineal: makes melatonin, which makes you sleepy at night.
Thyroid

Thyroid hormones: increase metabolism, requires iodine.

Calcitonin: turns blood Ca2+ into bone. Lowers blood Ca2+.

Parathyroid: makes Parathyroid Hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca 2+ by bone
resorption, dietary calcium absorption, and calcium reabsorption in kidneys.
Thymus: Thymus hormones (thymo-, thymic), stimulates T cells to develop.
Adrenal

Epinephrine and norepinephrine = fight or flight response

Mineralocorticoids = aldosterone = increase Na+ and water retention, raises

blood pressure.

Glucocorticoids = cortisol = stress hormone = increase blood sugar.


Androgens = testosterone.
Pancreas

Glucagon = increases blood sugar (break down glycogen, stimulate

gluconeogenesis).

Insulin = lower blood sugar (stimulates glucose uptake by cells).

o Ovary: make estrogen (and a small amount of testosterone).
o testis: make testosterone.

Endocrine diseases
o Diabetes

no insulin made, or no insulin receptors

glucose can't enter cells

high blood sugar

cell starved of sugar, leading to fatty acid metabolism, which leads to

production of ketone bodies, which lead to ketoacidosis (more acidic blood).

sugar in urine, leading to more water in urine due to osmosis.

o Hypothyroidism

Decreased thyroid hormone.

Low metabolism.

If cause of disease is lack of iodine in diet, then goiter develops from an

accumulation of thyroid hormone precursor lacking iodine.
o Hyperthyroidism

Too much thyroid hormone.

High metabolism.
o Gigantism = too much Growth Hormone during growing age = well-proportioned
giants.
o Acromegaly = too much Growth Hormone later on in life = disproportioned growth of
certain areas of the body (the parts that still respond to growth hormone).

Major types of hormones

o amino acid based = amino acid derivatives = most hormones are this type.
o steroids = cholesterol derivatives = testosterone, estrogen, adrenocortical hormones.
Endocrine system: Mechanisms of hormone action

Cellular mechanisms of hormone action

o water soluble hormones

Can't cross the plasma membrane.

Bind to membrane receptors on the outside of cells.

Secondary messengers then relay the signal inside the cell.

o lipid-soluble hormones

Able to cross the plasma membrane.

Directly activate genes.

o cAMP pathway:

Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor.

G protein activated.

Adenylate cyclase activated.

cAMP made.

Protein kinase cascade.

o Phospholipid pathway:

Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor.

G protein activated.

Phospholipase C activated.

Membrane phospholipid split into DAG and IP3.

DAG triggers protein kinase cascade.

IP3 releases Ca2+ from the ER.

o Steroid pathway:

Steroid hormone (and thyroid hormone even though it's amino acid based)
goes inside the cell.
o

Hormone binds receptor inside the cell (cytoplasm or nucleus).

Hormone-receptor complex (transcription factor) turns certain genes on inside
the nucleus.
Transport of hormones (bloodstream): hormones travel long distances via blood and lymph.
Specificity of hormones (target tissue)
o Specificity depends on the target cells having the receptors for the hormone, and nontarget cells lacking receptors for the hormone.
o Cells can either upregulate or downregulate the receptors they express.
Integration with nervous system (feedback control)
o The nervous system can modulate and override normal control of hormones based on
the status of the body. For example, the body's blood "normal" glucose level is set
higher when you're under stress.
o Hormones can modulate the nervous system. For example, low estrogen levels during
menses give you a bad mood.
o Normal control of hormones

Humoral: glands directly respond to chemical levels in the blood (parathyroid

respond to low blood calcium).

Neural: glands release hormones when stimulated by nerves (fight or flight

response).

2.
3.

4.

Hormonal: glands release hormones when stimulated by other hormones

(tropic hormones).

Nervous System: Structure and Function

Major functions
o high-level control and integration of body systems
o response to external influences
o sensory input

sensory = afferent

nerve impulses conveyed to the CNS.

o motor output

motor = efferent

nerve impulses from the CNS to effector organs.

o integrative and cognitive abilities
Organization of vertebrate nervous system

CNS = Central Nervous System = Brain and spinal cord

Brain

Spinal Cord
o PNS = Peripheral Nervous System = Everything else

Sensory = Afferent = Nerves carrying signal toward CNS.

Motor = Efferent = Nerves carry signal toward effector organs.

Somatic Nervous System = Voluntary = Controls skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System = Involuntary = Effects visceral organs.

Sympathetic division = fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic division = Rest.

Sensor and effector neurons
o Sensor = senses, carries sensory signals from the body to the CNS.
o Effector = causes an effect = carries motor signals from the CNS to the body.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems (functions, antagonistic control)
o Sympathetic = prepares body for activity = fight or flight response.

Increase heart rate, blood pressure

More blood flow to muscles, less to digestive system.

Pupil dilation.
o


Break down glycogen to release glucose into blood.
Parasympathetic = prepares body to rest

Decrease heart rate, blood pressure.

Less blood to muscles, more to digestive system.

Pupil constriction.

Synthesizes glycogen for storage from glucose.

Reflexes
o feedback loop, reflex arc, effects on flexor and extensor muscles

Feedback loop = positive feedback (reinforce initial event), negative feedback

(counteracts initial event), or reflex arc (usually a type of negative feedback).

positive feedback = uterine contraction lead to oxytocin release, which

causes more uterine contraction.

positive feedback = blood clotting platelets activated at wound site

attract more platelet activation and clumping.

negative feedback = drop in blood pressure causes ADH release, which

increases it. Conversely increase in blood pressure causes a drop in
ADH.

Reflex arc = withdrawal from a painful stimulus = negative feedback.

Reflex arc = knee jerk = tapping the knee tendon causes sudden
stretching of the muscle, which lead to contraction of that muscle that
creates the knee jerk = negative feedback.

Reflex arc = receptor sensory neuron integration center motor neuron

effector

receptor = site of stimulus

sensory neuron = carries impulse from receptor to integration center

integration center = connects sensory to motor neuron via synapse

inside the CNS

monosynaptic = no interneuron, direct synapse of sensory to

motor.

polysynaptic = interneuron(s) present.

motor neuron = carries impulse toward effector.

effector = site of response to the stimulus

Examples of reflexes: knee-jerk, withdrawal from pain

Effects on flexor and extensor muscles

During the knee-jerk, in addition to contracting the extensor, the reflex

relaxes the flexor.

Golgi tendon reflex: sudden contraction of the quads (extensor),

causes a negative feedback that relaxes the quads and contracts the
hamstrings (flexor).
o role of spinal cord, brain

Spinal cord provides the synapse (or synapses if it's polysynaptic) for the
reflex arc.

Even though the reflex arc bypasses the brain, the brain is still aware of it
happening.
o efferent control

Brain can override spinal reflexes (eg. you don't jerk away from getting a
vaccine shot)
Nervous System: Sensory Reception and Processing

Skin, proprioceptive, and somatic sensors

o Skin: touch, heat and pain receptors close to the surface (dermis-epidermis
boundary), pressure receptors deeper in the dermis.
o proprioceptor: senses the position of a body part, located in muscle and connective
tissue.
o somatic sensors:

mechanoreceptors - touch, pressure

o

2.

thermoreceptor - temperature change (a warm object will feel warm if your

hand is cool, but won't feel warm if your hand is already warm)
photoreceptor - light
chemoreceptor - taste, smell
nocioreptors - pain (extreme heat, cold, pressure, chemicals)

Olfaction, taste
o Olfaction:

Chemicals enter the nose via nostrils.

Gets into the nasal cavity.

Trapped in the mucus on top of the nasal cavity.

Picked up by the membrane receptors on cilia (non-mobile, but they increase

the surface area) of the olfactory receptor cell.

Causes cell depolarization, and subsequent transduction of signal to the brain.

o Taste:

Chemicals dissolve in saliva.

Carried inside taste bud

Hair-like microvilli of taste cells inside taste bud picks up chemicals.

Releases neurotransmitters to send signal to brain.

Hearing
o ear structure

Ear canal = auditory canal.

Tympanic membrane = eardrum.

Ear bones = malleus (hammer) incus (anvil) stapes (stirrup).

Vestibule = contacts the oval window (where stirrup vibrates), is continuous

with semicircular canals and cochlea.

Cochlea = spiral = houses hair cells.

Semicircular canals = 3 of them perpendicular to one another = senses

position and movement of the head, help you balance.
o mechanism of hearing

Sound enters ear.

Hits ear drum (tympanic membrane)

Malleus (hammer) Incus (anvil) Stapes (stirrup)

Vibrates fluid in Cochlea.

Transmits to fluid in Cochlea.

Cochlear hair cells excited by vibrations, and sends signal to brain.

2. Vision
o light receptors

Photoreceptor cells located on the back of the retina.

Rods = senses light and dark (no color), more sensitive.

Cones = senses color, less sensitive.

Rhodopsin = chemical responsible for light reception = Retinal (chemical) +

Opsin (transmembrane protein)

Light converts cis-retinal trans-retinal.

trans-retinal then causes hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cell, which

prompts the chain of events that sends signal to the brain.

Sends signal to brain via a bundle of nerves on the back of the retina (where
the blind spot is)
o eye structure

Light first travels through the cornea

Through the pupil (hole in the iris muscle)

Lens = focuses light on retina.

Vitreous humor = fluid.

Retina = screen on the back of the eye = contains photoreceptors.

o visual image processing

The lens of the eye, just like a convex lens in physics, forms a real image on
the retina.
Real images are inverted.
The brain processes this inverted image to make it seem upright in your mind.
The brain combines the two images from each eye to make a 3D image, from
which you can judge distance.
Another reason for combining the two images from both eyes is that it gets rid
of the blind spot in each eye.

Nervous system
1. The skeletal muscles are controlled by the ____ somatic nervous system.
2. The smooth muscles and glands are controlled by the ___ autonomic _____ nervous system.
3. Neurons are composed of a network of fine threads called _ neurofibrils
4. The nervous system consists of two parts, the brain and spinal cord make up the ____central_____ nervous
system, and the nerves throughout the body make up the __ peripheral __ nervous system.
5. Astrocytes ______are cells found between neurons and blood vessels.
6. Neurons consist of a cell body, axons, and ____ dendrites ____, which receive information.
7. Neurons that have a single process extending from the cell body are classified as __ unipolar __, if they have two
processes, they are classified as ____ bipolar ______
8. White matter is composed of axons that are sheathed in _ myelin
9. Two ions necessary to create an electric current in a nerve fiber are potassium and __ sodium ___.
10. The __ integrative ______ function of the nervous system refers to information being interpreted so that the brain
can make decisions.
11. The junction between two communicating neurons is called the _ synapse ______
12. Acetylcholine, serotonin and endorphins are all forms of ______ neurotransmitters _____________________
13. The ______ reflex ____________arc refers to a simple nerve pathway that would be involved with involuntary
actions (like knee-jerk, or withdrawal)
14. Groups of neurons that perform a common function, such as the storing of procedural memory (tying your shoe)
are called neuronal __ pools____.
15. ______ microglia _________cells help destroy bacterial cells and cellular debris.
16. There are 31 pairs of _________ spinal __________ nerves.
17. These types of neurotransmitters increase membrane permeability, thus increasing the chance that threshold will
be achieved. excitatory
18. When a threshold is achieved, an event called the __ action _ potential occurs.
19. Gaps in the myelin sheath are called Nodes of _____ ranvier ____________________
20. These support cells are responsible for secreting the myelin sheaths: _____ oligodendrocytes ___________
21. A nerve impulse is received by the dendrites and then travels down the __ axon _______
22. There are twelve pairs of ___ cranial __ nerves.
23. This neurotransmitter stimulates the muscles to contract. ____ acetylcholine ____
24. These cells form a membrane that covers specialized brain parts: __ ependymal ___
25. These cells have the same function as oligodendrocytes, but are packed within the myelin:
_____ schwann ____________

Special Senses
Olfactory receptors
Roof of nasal passages / neurons with long cilia / chemical must be dissolved in mucus for detection / impulses are
transmitted via the olfactory nerve / smell
Cortex
Interpretation of smells is made in the...
Olfaction
Sense of smell

Gustatory cells
Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli) / hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva / in taste buds
Photoreceptors
Rods and cones / vision / located in retina (sensory tunic) / signals pass from photoreceptors via a two-neuron
chain
Extrinsic
Attached to the eyes are the ____ muscles that allow us to direct our eyes toward a moving object.
Eyelids
The anterior aspect of each eye is protected by the ____.
Meibomian
Closely associated with the lashes are oil-secreting glands called ____ that help lubricate the eyes.
Conjunctivitis
Inflammation of the mucosa lining the eyelids and covering the anterior part of the eyeball is called ____.
Blind spot
Optic disk = ...
Ciliary zonule
Attaches the lens to the ciliary body
Aqueous humor
Fluid that provides nutrients to the lens and cornea / anterior-most part of the sclera - your "window on the world"
Sclera
The "white" of they eye
Optic disk
Area of retina that lacks photoreceptors
Ciliary body
Contains muscles that control the shape of the lens / smooth muscle
Choriod coat
Nutritive (vascular) tunic of the eye / heavily pigmented tunic that prevents light scattering within the eye

Canal of Schlemm
Drains the aqueous humor of the eye
Retina
Tunic / containing rods and cones
Vitreous humor
Gel-like substance that helps to reinforce the eyeball
Iris
Area of acute discriminatory vision
Lens
Pigmented "diaphragm" of the eye
Eyelids
Anterior aspect of each eye that protects that eye from outside materials
Meibomian glands
Modified sebaceous glands associated with the eyelid edges / produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eye
Ciliary glands
Modified sweat glands / lie between the eyelashes (cilium = eyelash)
Conjunctiva
Delicate membrane that lines the eyelids and covers part of the outer surface of the eyeball / secretes mucus,
which helps to lubricate the eyeball and keep it moist
Lacrimal apparatus
Consists of lacrimal gland and a number of cust that drain the lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity
Lacrimal glands
Located above the lateral end of each eye / continually release a dilute salt solution (tears) onto the anterior
surface of the eyeball through several small ducts
Lacrimal canals, lacrimal sac, nasolacrimal duct
Tears flush across the eyeball into the ____ medially, then into the ____, and finally into the ____, which empties
into the nasal cavity.

Myopia
Nearsightedness / occurs when the parallel light rays from distant objects fail to reach the retina and instead are
focused in front of it / distant objects appear blurry to myopic people / eyeball is too long, a lens is too strong, or a
cornea is too curved / correction requires a concave lens that diverges the light rays before they enter the eye, so
that they converge farther back
Concave
What type of corrective lens would correct the vision disorder of myopia?
Presbyopia
"Old vision" / results from decreasing lens elasticity that accompanies aging / this condition makes it difficult to
focus for close vision (basically farsightedness) / begins around age 40
Hyperopia
Farsightedness / occurs when the parallel light rays from distant objects are focused behind the retina - at least in
the resting eye in which the lens is flat and the ciliary muscle is relaxed / usually results from an eyeball that is too
short or a "lazy" lens / people with this condition can see distant objects clearly / correction requires convex
corrective lens that converge that light rays before they enter the eye
Emmetropia
Eye that focuses images correctly on the retna / "harmonious vision"
Glaucoma
Condition of increasing pressure inside the eye, resulting from blocked drainage of aqueous humor
Astigmatism
Blurred vision, resulting from unequal curvatures of the lens or cornea
Pink eye
Infectious form of conjunctivitis caused by bacteria or viruses / highly contagious
Motion sickness
Conflict of information with vision and balance
Watery eyes
The nasal cavity mucosa is continuous with that of the lacrimal duct system, a cold or nasal inflammation often
causes the lacrimal mucosa to become inflamed and swell. This impairs the drainage of tears from the eye surface
and causes this condition
Night blindness
Inability to see well in the dark; often a result of vitamin A deficiency

Color Blindness
Either a lack of all three cone types or a lack of one cone type leads to partial ____.
Hemianopia
Loss of the same side of the visual field of both eyes, which results from damage to the visual cortex on one side
only / the person would not be able to see things past the middle of his or her visual field on either the right or left
side
Otitis Media
Inflammation of the middle ear and can also cause a sore throat
Myringotomy
Lancing of the eardrum / tiny tube is implanted in the eardrum that allows pus formed in the middle ear to continue
to drain into the external ear canal
Deafness
Hearing loss of any degree

Conduction deafness
Temporary or permanent / results when something interferes with the condition of sound vibrations to the fluids of
the inner ear (as simple as a buildup of earwax)
Sensorineural deafness
When there is degeneration or damage to the receptor cells in the organ of Corti, to the cochlear nerve, or to
neurons of the auditory cortex / often results from extended listening to excessively loud sounds
Conduction and sensorineural
What are the two types of deafness?
Anosmias
Olfactory disorders / most result from head injuries, the aftereffects of nasal cavity inflammation, or aging / those
diagnosed with this condition have the chemical sense loss of zinc deficiency / cure is a prescribed supplement of
zinc
Strabismus
"Crossed eyes" / results form unequal pulls by the external eye muscles that prevent the baby from coordinating
movement of the two eyes
External acoustic meatus
Allows pressure in the middle ear to be equalized with the atmospheric pressure

Tympanic membrane
Vibrates as sound waves hit it; transmits the vibrations to the ossicles
Cochlea
Contains the organ of Corti
Auditory tube (Eustachian tube)
Connects the nasopharynx and the middle ear
Oval window
Transmits the vibrations from the stirrup to the fluid in the inner ear
Endolymph
Fluid that bathes the sensory receptors of the inner ear
Perilymph
Fluid contained within the osseous labyrinth, which bathes the membranous labyrinth
Pinna
Shell-shaped structure surrounding the auditory canal opening
Ceruminous glands
Secrete earwax
Hammer, anvil, stirrup
Name the middle ear parts that are ossicles.
Ossicles
Transmit the vibratory motion of the eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear.
Cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals
What are the three subdivisions of the bony labyrinth?
Membranous labyrinth
System of membrane sacs that more or less follows the shape of the bony labyrinth.

Hair cells
Hearing receptors
Cochlear nerve
Division of the eighth cranial nerve - the vestibulocochlear
Olfactory hairs
Long cilia that protrude from the nasal epithelium and are continually bathed by a layer of mucus secreted by
underlying glands
Olfactory nerve
Transports impulses sent by receptors to the olfactory cortex of the brain
Taste buds
Specific receptors for the sense of taste and are widely scattered in the oral cavity
Papillae
Small peg-like projections that cover the dorsal tongue surface
Gustatory hairs
Long microvilli / protrude through the taste pore, and when they are stimulated, they depolarize and impluses are
transmitted to the brain
Facial nerve
Serves the anterior part of the tongue
Adaption
Decline in the transmission of a sensory nerve when a receptor is stimulated continuously and without change in
stimulus
Sight
Which senses are affected by adaption?
The mind
What exactly does an optical illusion fool?
Temperature, pressure, pain
What are the general senses of touch?

Smell, taste, sight, hearing, equilibrium

Name the five special senses.
Dilute salt solution, antibodies, lysozyme (digestive enzyme)
Name 3 properties of lacrimal fluid.
Cornea
"Window" = ...
Cornea
Transparent, central anterior portion / allows for light to pass through / repairs itself easily / the only human tissue
that can be transplanted without fear of rejection / NO blood vessels
Choriod Layer
Blood-rich nutritive tunic / pigment (black) prevents light from scattering / modified interiorly into two structures ciliary body and iris
Lacrimal canals, lacrimal sac, nasolacrimal duct, nasal cavity
Trace the pathway that the secretion of the lacrimal glands takes from the surface of the eye.
Refraction
Light bending
Accommodation
Ability to focus for close vision (under 20 feet)
Accommodation pupillary reflex
Reflex constriction of the pupils when viewing close objects
Photopupillary reflex (bright lights)
Reflex-constriction of pupils when they are exposed to bright light
Autonomic nervous system
The intrinsic eye muscles are under the control of which division of the nervous system?
Convex
A ____ lens, like that of the eye, produces an image that is upside down and reversed form left to right.

Behind
In farsightedness, the light is focused ____ the retina.
Convex
The lens used to treat farsightedness is a ____ lens.
In front, concave
In nearsightedness, the light is focused ____ the retina; it is corrected with a ____ lens.
Relaxed, decreased, decreased
Using vision to see DISTANT objects, the ciliary muscle is ____, the lens convexity is ____, and the degree of light
refractions is ____.
Contracted, increased, increased
Using vision to see CLOSE objects, the ciliary muscle is ____, the lens convexity is ____, and the degree of light
refractions is ____.
Light ray, cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina, optic nerve, optic chaism, optic
tract, synapse in thalamus, optic radiation, optic cortex.
Name, in sequence, the neural elements of the visual pathway. (Beginning with the light ray and ending with the
optic cortex.
Blue, green, red
What are the 3 types of cones?
Rods
Black and white, or dim light, vision is a function of the ____.
Pinna, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane
What structures compose the outer ear?
Cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals
What structures compose the bony or osseous labyrinth?
3
How many semicircular canals are there?
Pressure
The Eustachian tube (auditory tube) equalizes...

Sound waves, pinnia, auditory canal, eardrum, hammer, anvil, stirrup, oval window, parilymph,
vestibular membrane, endolymph, hair cells, cochlea nerve, thalamus, auditory cortex
Trace the pathway through which vibrations and fluid currents travel to finally stimulate the hair cells in the organ of
Corti. (Start with sound waves and end with the auditory cortex)
Parilymph
Fills bony labyrinth in ear
Endolymph
Thick fluid the in membranous labyrinth of the ear
Hair cells
What triggers action potential in the ear to hear?
Nystagmus
Involuntary movement of the eyes
Canoreceptors
The ears contain what kind of receptors to hear?
Circumvallate and fungifiorm
What are the two sides of the papillae?
Sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami
Name the five basic taste sensations.
Rubella, blindness
Maternal infections, particularly ____, may cause both deafness and ____.
Vision
Of the special senses, the sense of ____ requires the most learning or takes longest to mature.
Presbycusis
In old age, a gradual hearing loss, called ____ occurs.
Fungifiorm
What side of papillae is rounded with taste buds?

Circumvallate
What side of papillae is large with taste buds?
Optic disk
Blind spots are when light from an object is focused on the ____, it disappears from our view and we cannot see it.