CHAPTER 4

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR of
ROAD BUILDING MATERIALS

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4.1

Introduction:

A great variety of materials are applied in modern road and railway

construction such as:
clay
sand
crushed unbound (granular) stone for road base and railway ballastbed
asphalt
concrete
An important environmental aspect nowadays is the necessity to use as much
as possible recycled materials. Road construction is especially suited to apply
upgraded waste materials because huge quantities can be used and
because the processes required to upgrading the materials (and thus making
them appropriate for application in road construction) are rather simple. This
means that concrete granulate (crushed concrete rubble), mix granulate (a
mixture of crushed concrete rubble and crushed masonry rubble) and various
types of slags (steel slags, blast furnace slags) are frequently used as
material for unbound road bases. Under certain conditions incinerator slags
(the waste product of refuse incinerators) can very well be used as a fill
material. Re-use of asphalt through warm recycling (where old broken-up
asphalt through certain handling techniques is upgraded to new asphalt) is a
very common and widely used technique in The Netherlands. Furthermore,
old asphalt that is not suited for warm recycling can be recycled in a cold
way: the broken-up asphalt is then first crushed to asphalt granulate and next
mixed with bitumen emulsion and/or cement.
All in all this means that numerous road building materials are available. To
enable a proper (re-)design of road pavement structures a sound knowledge
about the behavior of these materials under different loading conditions is
essential. If one wants to know the thickness of a pavement structure and the
materials to be applied in this structure, knowledge is required about:
a. the magnitude of the occurring stresses and strains
b. the number of times that these stresses and strains will occur
c. the stiffness, the (fatigue) strength and the resistance against permanent
deformation of the applied materials.
In this paragraph attention is especially paid to the aspects mentioned above
under item c.
First the principles of the resilient (elastic) and permanent deformation
behavior of sand and unbound base materials will be discussed. Triaxial tests
are in fact required to determine the mechanical properties of this type of
granular materials. Triaxial tests are however rather complex and quite time
consuming and therefore they are not yet done on a wide scale in road
engineering. Instead usually CBR-tests are done. The CBR-test was
developed in the thirties and it is a well-known test worldwide. In this chapter
the CBR-test will be explained and based on this test the relations between
the moisture content, the compaction effort, the density and the bearing
capacity will be discussed. Then the stabilization of road building materials will
be briefly addressed and finally the behavior of bituminous mixtures is shortly
described.

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4.2

Resilient deformation behavior of sand and unbound

base materials:

By nature sand and unbound base materials dont exhibit any coherence. If
one tries to stand on a bunch of loose sand one will sink into the sand. In
other words, shear failure occurs.
If however the same sand is put into a bucket, then the material has gained a
substantial strength (coherence) and stiffness (see figure 4.1). Sinking away is
out of the question and shear failure does not occur.

Figure 4.1: Confinement is essential for the bearing capacity of sand and
other unbound materials.
So the strength of unbound materials is highly affected by the amount of
horizontal confinement. In the absence of this horizontal confinement (e.g.
bunch of loose sand) both the stiffness and the strength are very low (shear
failure), while in the case of a high horizontal confinement (sand in bucket)
also the stiffness and strength are high.
This behavior complicates calculations on road pavement structures.
Obviously the occurring stresses determine the stiffness and strength of
unbound materials but to enable the calculation of the occurring stresses the
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stiffness has to be known. This implies that the calculations have to be done
in an iterative way. In first instance certain stiffness characteristics have to be
assumed which enables the calculation of the occurring stresses. Next the
stiffness characteristics have to be adapted on the basis of the calculated
stresses etc. etc. until the stresses and stiffnesses dont change anymore.
4.2.1 Triaxial test:
The so-called stress-dependent behavior of unbound road base materials and
sands can be determined by means of the triaxial test (see figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2 Example of a triaxial test set-up.

The principle of the triaxial test is explained on the basis of the figures 4.3 and
4.4.

h
h
3

There is an all-around cell pressure 3 and an

increasing axial stress 1 is applied.
The deviatoric stress d = (1 + 3) - 3 = 1
v = h/h

Figure 4.3: Principle of the triaxial test.

The deformation behavior observed during such a monotonic triaxial test is
shown in figure 4.4.

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increasing 3

E
v

Figure 4.4: Result of monotonic triaxial tests (schematic).

This means that the E-value will increase with increasing confinement stress
3. In general the stress dependency of the E-value of this type of unbound
materials can be presented as shown in figure 4.5.
log E

increasing d
log 3
Figure 4.5: Stress dependent E-value.
The E-value increases with increasing confinement stress 3. An increasing
deviatoric stress d in first instance results in a small decrease of E; if
however the deviatoric stress becomes so high that shear failure occurs, E
approaches the value zero.
In a triaxial test the confinement stress has a major effect on the sum of the
principal stresses. Therefore the stress dependency of the E-value of granular
materials is sometimes presented as a function of the sum of principal
stresses (see figure 4.6).
log E

log = log (1 + 33)

Figure 4.6: Widely used representation of the stress dependent behavior of
unbound (granular) materials.

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One has however to realize that the representation of the stress dependent
behavior in this way is in principle wrong.
4.2.2 Rules of the thumb:
The foregoing implies that triaxial tests should be performed to determine the
E-value as a function of the stress level. In the road engineering practice it is
however felt that triaxial tests are rather complex and time consuming and
therefore they are not done on a wide scale. The consequence is that the
elastic modulus E has to be determined through rules of the thumb. For
example, for sands is valid:
E = 10 CBR
with E in MPa and CBR in % (the CBR-value and the CBR-test are explained
in paragraph 4.5).
For many Dutch sands is valid:
CBR = 10%, so E = 100 MPa
The use of these relations is questionable as the CBR-value in fact represents
the force required to obtain a certain deformation (0,1 or 0,2 inch). The
greatest part of this deformation is however permanent deformation.
Nevertheless the CBR-test yields the relation between force and displacement
and for that reason the test gives information about the resilient deformation
behavior. The boundary conditions are however difficult to quantify, e.g. what
is the magnitude of the confinement stress resulting from the steel mould
around the specimen? Therefore direct relationships between the E-values
obtained by means of triaxial tests and the CBR-value should be used with
care.
For unbound road base materials applied on top of a sand sub-base the
following rule of the thumb is sometimes used to obtain the E-value:
Eb

where

0.2 hb0.45 Esb

hb = thickness of the base [mm],
Esb = E-value of the sand sub-base directly below the base
[MPa],
Eb = E-value of the base [MPa].

The boundary condition is:

Eb

2 to 4 Esb

One should realize that this rule of the thumb was developed in the sixties
through experiments on unbound road base materials commonly used in that
period of time (hard crushed natural stone). Use of this rule of the thumb for
nowadays widely used unbound road base materials (such as blast furnace

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slags, lava and recycled granulates) may lead to substantial differences

between the real E-value and the predicted E-value. As an example, for some
types of lava is valid:
Eb

1.2 to 1.5 Esb

while, due to hydraulic (cementing) action, for some types of blast furnace
slags is valid:
Eb

5 to 10 Esb

This illustrates again that one should be very careful in simply applying this
kind of rules of the thumb. The experimental determination, through triaxial
testing, is in fact the only correct way to determine the E-values of unbound
road base materials. With triaxial tests again relationships are found as shown
in figure 4.7.
log E

concrete granulate
mix granulate
sand

log
Figure 4.7: Examples of the stress dependency of the stiffness modulus of
unbound road base materials.
The above-mentioned rule of the thumb is however certainly not based on
nonsense. It can be shown that both the subgrade stiffness (sound board for
compaction) and the base thickness have a pronounced effect on the ultimate
E-modulus that is representative for the whole road base. The great
disadvantage of the given rule of the thumb is that the effect of the type of
unbound road base material is not taken into account at all. The type of
material however appears to be a very relevant factor.

4.3

Permanent deformation behavior of sand and unbound

base materials:

It is known from soil mechanics that shear failure will not occur if the stress
condition is such that the Mohrs stress circles do not intersect with Coulombs
failure envelope (see figure 4.8). This shear failure behavior is however based
on one single (monotonic) loading that does not represent the situation in a
real pavement structure that is subjected to many millions of load repetitions.
It is therefore important to know the effect of repeated loadings on the shear

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failure behavior and on the development of permanent deformations in the

sand sub-base and the unbound base.
Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope

stress condition
not leading to
shear failure

stress condition leading

to shear failure
Figure 4.8: Mohr-Coulomb shear failure criterion.
Permanent deformations within the sand sub-base and the unbound base
manifest themselves at the road surface as rutting and unevenness.
The occurring permanent deformations depend on the stress conditions and
the nature of the unbound material. Also in this case the triaxial test, carried
out with dynamic (repeated) loadings, is the most appropriate test to
determine the permanent deformation behavior. Then in most cases results
are obtainedthat are schematically shown in figure 4.9.

log p

increasing d
masonry granulate

concrete
granulate

log N
Figure 4.9: Development of permanent deformations resulting from triaxial
tests with dynamic loadings.
Performing triaxial tests with dynamic loadings is indeed time-consuming and
complicated. This type of triaxial tests is therefore until now mainly done for
research purposes despite the fact that they deliver very relevant information.

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Of course a variety of simplified models have been developed that enable a

reasonable estimate of the development of permanent deformation under
traffic loadings. One of such simplified models is:

el * a * Nb

In this model the permanent deformation p is related to the elastic (resilient)

deformation per load cycle (el) and to the number of load repetitions (N). The
problem again is that a and b will depend on the type of unbound material. As
a first global estimate the following values can be used for a and b:
a2
b 0.2 to 0.3
An even greater simplification is a relationship that correlates the vertical
elastic deformation at the top of the subgrade (or sand sub-base) v directly to
the number of load repetitions causing a certain amount of permanent
deformation of the total pavement structure.
This relationship was developed in the U.S.A. in the early sixties on the basis
of the results from the AASHO Road Test. In this Road Test a great number of
test pavements, with different structures and layer thicknesses, have been
subjected to a great number of load repetitions. The development of the
damage on the test pavements was analysed as well as the level of damage
that still is acceptable for the road user (gives an acceptable ride-ability). The
road user aspect was determined by regularly driving groups of people with
different background (men/women, black/white, rich/arm etc.) over the test
pavements and let them awarding the quality of the pavements. The mark of 5
was given for a pavement in a perfect condition and the mark of 0 for a
pavement in an extremely bad condition.
It appeared from this research that road maintenance should be done when
this ride-ability mark (PSI, Present Serviceability Index) had dropped to a
value between 2 and 2.5.
Next the ride-ability mark was related to the damage visible at the pavement
surface. The PSI appeared to be highly dependent on the longitudinal
unevenness, less dependent on the rut depth and hardly dependent on
cracking. It was also analysed after how many load repetitions the PSI had
dropped to 2.5 (Npsi = 2.5). This number of load repetitions was finally
correlated to the vertical elastic deformation at the top of the subgrade, and
this has resulted in the so-called subgrade strain design criterion:
o = 2.8 x 10-2 x N-0.25
where: 0
N

= elastic vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade

[m/m],
= allowable number of strain repetitions until the deformations of
the pavement structure become unacceptable.

Because of lacking a better criterion, also today this criterion is still widely
used for the structural design of asphalt pavements. Limiting the elastic
deformation results in development of only limited permanent deformations
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and thus in an increased pavement life (the unevenness will develop more
slowly).

4.4

Material properties influencing

permanent deformation behavior:

the

elastic

and

Sands and unbound (granular) base materials are rather simple materials.
The behavior of this type of materials is mainly dependent on the grading, the
degree of compaction, the particle shape and hardness.
As a general statement one can say that a relative density as high as
possible, which is obtained with a grading curve close to the Fuller-curve and
with a high compaction effort, has a positive effect on the resistance against
elastic and permanent deformation. Angularity of the particles also contributes
to the resistance against elastic and permanent deformation. The hardness is
directly related to the susceptibility for crushing of the particles. Crushing
should not occur to prevent deviations from the optimal grading.

4.5

CBR-test:

The California Bearing Ratio test (CBR-test) was developed at the end of the
thirties by the California State Highway Department for determination of the
strength of soils. In the forties the test was adopted by the U.S. Corps of
Engineers to design flexible road pavements. Since then the CBR-test has
been introduced and used almost worldwide as a simple method to determine
the strength of soils, sands and unbound base materials.
The principle of the CBR-test is shown in figure 4.10, while figure 4.11
presents an example of the force-displacement curve. It appears from figure
4.11 that the relation between force and displacement as measured on the
material under investigation is compared to the relation obtained for a
standard material of crushed stone.

Figure 4.10: Scheme of the laboratory CBR test device.

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Figure 4.11: Determination of the CBR-value.

The CBR-value of the material under investigation follows from the equation:
CBR0,1 =

P0,1
P0,1 st

*100%

or from:

CBR0,2 =

P0,2
P0,2 st

*100%

if the CBR0,2-value appears to be greater than the

CBR0,1-value, then the CBR0,2-value is valid

It might be clear from the nature of this plunger test that it is only possible to
determine the CBR-value of unbound and rather fine-grained materials such
as clay and sand. The CBR-test is not suited to determine the bearing
capacity of bitumen-bound or cement-bound materials.
As already mentioned the test is also done to determine the CBR-value of
unbound base materials. These materials usually have particles with a
diameter from 0 to 40 mm, so they are too coarse-grained for direct testing. In
these cases all the particles with a diameter greater than 22.4 mm are sieved
out. From materials applied in the embankment or sub-base, all the particles
with a diameter greater than 4 mm are sieved out.
In a CBR-test the resistance against permanent deformation of unbound
materials is measured. If the test is continued until the maximum force is
reached (figure 4.12a) the resistance against shear failure is measured and
shear planes are found as illustrated in figure 4.12b.

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force

force until shear failure

displacement
Figure 4.12a: Force-displacement curve at CBR-test.

Figure 4.12b: Shear planes in CBR-test at maximum force level.

4.6

In situ CBR-value:

In paragraph 4.5 the CBR-test as done in the laboratory is described. The

CBR-test can however also be done in situ, e.g. by mounting the forceactuator and the CBR-plunger at the rear side of a truck. Another method is to
estimate the CBR-value from data of other tests such as the Dutch cone
penetration test.
Dutch cone penetration tests give an indication of the bearing capacity of the
subsoil. These tests are also used to check the homogeneity of the layers in a
subsoil. In this terrain-test a standard cone with an area of 1000 mm and a
top angle of 60 (figure 4.13a) is pushed with a certain constant speed into the
subsoil-layer under investigation. The measured forces are the cone
resistance and the wall-friction (around the pipe guiding the cone).
For fine-grained soils (clay, clayey sands and fine embankment sands) there
exists a global relation between the in situ CBR-value and the cone resistance
Cs:
CBR (in %) = 4 * Cs (in N/mm)

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Figure 4.13: Scheme of the Dutch cone penetration test device (a) and an
example of the measured cone resistance as a function of the
depth within the subsoil (b).
There exist a great number of other tests for the in situ determination of the
bearing capacity of soil, such as static plate bearing tests, vibration tests,
hammer penetration tests and Clegg hammer tests. For these tests reference
is made to the course CT4850 Road building materials.

4.7

Density moisture content bearing capacity:

It will be clear that a greater density of a grain skeleton results in a greater

bearing capacity. This can easily be explained because with increasing
density the volume of the pores decreases and the number of contact points
between the grains increases, leading to a greater friction between the grains
and also to a greater resistance against shear failure.
It already has been mentioned that also the moisture (water) content has quite
an effect. This can be illustrated well by considering the traffic-ability on the
beach. Close to the dunes it is rather impossible to bike because the sand is
very dry and does not have any coherence. Also near the high-water mark the
sand lacks bearing capacity because it is too wet; also here the bike sinks into
the sand. However, in the drying area there is a zone where the capillary
forces, the suction forces, are so high that the grain skeleton is to say
prestressed. Through this confinement the sand gains certain strength and
biking is not any problem at all. The above-mentioned problems are visualized
in figure 4.14.
To achieve a density as high as possible of course compaction effort is
required but also a certain moisture content. The moisture acts as a lubricant
between the grains. Figure 4.15a gives, for a number of Dutch sands, the
relationship between the moisture content and the dry density as determined
with the so-called Proctor test. The grain size distribution curves of the various
sands are given in figure 4.15b.

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Figure 4.14: At a certain moisture content sand has an optimal bearing

capacity (1).
4.7.1 Proctor test:
The Proctor test is a worldwide known standard test for the determination of
the relation moisture content compaction effort density. In fact it is a very
simpel test. The material to be investigated is put into a steel mould, that has
an internal diameter of 101.6 mm and a height of 126.4 mm, in three layers
each about 40 mm thick. To enable this, an extension collar with a height of
60 mm and the same internal diameter is required on top of the mould. Each
of the three layers is compacted by 25 blows of a cylindrical metal rammer
that has a mass of 2.5 kg. The diameter of the rammer is 50.8 mm and the
drop height is 305 mm. A test performed in this way is called the standard
(normal) Proctor test.
In a modified (heavy) Proctor test the specimen is compacted in five layers,
each about 25 mm thick, with a metal rammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg
while the drop height is 457 mm.
The diameter of the steel mould is rather small, and therefore also in this test
the coarse particles are sieved out. The procedure is described in (2).
In general the Proctor curves for sands are rather flat. Other materials may
exhibit a much more pronounced relationship between the moisture content
and the density. This is, for example, the case for laterite that is a very widely
available material in tropical areas (see figure 4.16a).

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Figure 4.15a: Proctor curves for a number of Dutch sands (1).

129

Figure 4.15b: Grain size distribution curves of the sands from figure 4.15a (1).

130

Figure 4.16a: Proctor curves for a Ghanaian laterite.

Figure 4.16b: Grain size distribution curve of the laterite from figure 4.16a.
4.7.2 CBR - density moisture content:
The effect of the density and the moisture content on the CBR-value is given
in figure 4.17 (for the sands of figure 4.15) and in figure 4.18 (for the laterite of
figure 4.16) respectively.
It appears from all the information provided that with respect to both the
density and the CBR-value there is an optimum moisture content at which the
density or CBR-value is greatest.
Generally the optimum moisture content to obtain the maximum density is
somewhat higher than the optimum moisture content to obtain the maximum
CBR-value.

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Figure 4.17: Relation CBR density at different moisture contents for the sands from figure 4.15 (1).

132

Figure 4.18: CBR-values for the laterite from figure 4.16.

4.8

Soil stabilization:

Sometimes the materials for the embankment, the sub-base or the unbound
base exhibit insufficient properties (e.g. too low bearing capacity, moisture
and frost susceptibility) for their intended application. In those cases the
material is stabilized in such a way that the desired properties are obtained.
The following types of stabilization can be distinguished, dependent on the
followed method:
1. Mechanical stabilization. This implies the optimal compaction of the
material.
2. Physical-mechanical stabilization. This includes the improvement of the
grain size distribution together with mechanical compaction.
3. Chemical-physical stabilization. This method includes the mixing of the
basic material with a binder material (mostly cement, lime or bitumen)
together with mechanical compaction.
The choice between these types of stabilization is dependent on the nature of
the basic material to be stabilized (e.g. mixing of cement and bitumen with
heavy clay is nearly impossible) and the function of the stabilized layer in the
pavement structure (working platform, protection layer against climatic effects
and/or structural layer).
For the various stabilization techniques and the mechanical behavior of
stabilized materials reference is made to the lecture note Soil Stabilization of
the course CT4850 Road building materials. Here only some theoretical
background is discussed.
It is known from soil mechanics that according to Coulombs failure curve the
relationship between the shear strength () and the normal stress (n) is as
follows:

= c + f n
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The term c is usually called the cohesion and the term f the friction coefficient
with f = tg , where is the angle of internal friction.
When stabilizing a material either c or is affected. For instance,
improvement of the grain size distribution through mixing with another material
mainly results in an increase of the angle of internal friction . Mixing cement
through an unbound material mainly leads to an increase of the cohesion c.

4.9

Bitumen:

Bituminous bound materials can be applied in the base (asphalt base) and in
the remaining part of the (asphalt) pavement structure. A bituminous mixture
in fact is a mixture of mineral aggregates (filler, sand, gravel or crushed stone)
that are glued together by a bituminous binder (bitumen). The aggregate
skeleton mainly takes compressive stresses while the bitumen takes tensile
stresses. The mechanical properties of a bituminous mixture are dependent
on the nature and the amount of both components. The bitumen plays an
important role and therefore special attention is given to bituminous binders.
4.9.1 Bituminous binders:
Bitumen is obtained through destillation of crude oil in an oil refinery. This
process is schematically depicted in figure 4.19. At high temperatures bitumen
is a liquid and at low temperatures bitumen is hard and glass-like.

Figure 4.19: Manufacturing of bitumen out of crude oil.

When loaded the behavior of bitumen is strongly dependent on the
temperature (T) and the loading time (t). Bitumen has visco-elastic properties
and it can be characterized with the so-called stiffness modulus S(t,T). This
complex visco-elastic behavior of bitumen is discussed in the next paragraph.
4.9.2 Visco-elastic behavior of bitumen in relation to temperature and
loading time:
Similar to every other oil product, the behavior of bitumen is dependent on the
temperature and the loading time. At high temperatures and long loading

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times bitumen behaves as a liquid (viscous) while at low temperatures and

short loading times it behaves as a solid material (elastic). In the intermediate
area bitumen behaves visco-elastic. To enable good mixing of the bitumen
with the aggregates (filler, sand, gravel or crushed stone) at the lowest energy
costs (heating) the bitumen should behave as a liquid at rather low
temperatures. On the other hand, on hot summer days the temperature of an
asphalt wearing course can reach a temperature of 60C (in The Netherlands)
and at such temperatures the bitumen should not behave too viscous as that
would result in substantial rutting. At low temperatures the bitumen, that then
is a solid material, should not exhibit brittle behavior. All this means that the
behavior of a bitumen has to be optimized.
Lets first analyze how the various phases of the behavior of bitumen (elastic,
viscous and delayed elastic) can be modeled.
In figure 4.20 it is depicted that the elastic behavior can be modeled with a
spring. When a tensile load is applied an instantaneous extension of the
spring occurs while the spring immediately returns to its original condition if
the load is removed.
The viscous behavior can be modeled with a dashpot or shock absorber.
When the load is applied the deformation gradually increases. The longer the
loading time the greater the deformation. If the load is removed the dashpot
remains in its deformed condition.
The delayed elastic behavior can be modeled as a parallel system of a spring
and a dashpot. When the load is applied the spring likes to deform
immediately but that is obstructed by the dashpot. If the load is removed the
dashpot likes to maintain its deformed condition but the spring (that would like
to return to its original condition immediately) will pull back the dashpot to the
original condition; this however takes some time.
The total deformation behavior of bitumen now can be described with a
system of springs and dashpots that represent the elastic, delayed elastic and
viscous behavior respectively. This model, that is called the Burgers model, is
also shown in figure 4.20. It depends on the temperature and the loading time
and also on the type (nature) of the bitumen to what extent the springs and
dashpots determine the bitumen behavior. The nature of the bitumen depends
on its chemical composition. Especially the presence or absence of
asphaltenes (long hydrocarbon chains with a high molecular weight) is
relevant. The nature of the bitumen is described with the Penetration Index PI
that represents the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen. The PI-value
can be determined from the penetration test (pen) and the temperature ring
and ball (Tr&b).
Figure 4.21 shows to what extent the elastic, the delayed elastic and the
viscous behavior determine the total response of the bitumen, in relation to
the bitumen stiffness Sbit and the PI-value. As a compromise between
handling and behavior on the in service road, usually bitumen with a PI-value
between 1 and +1 is chosen for applications in road construction. It will be
clear that the behavior of the bitumen, as depicted in figure 4.21, directly
reflects in the behavior of the bituminous mixture.

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Figure 4.20: Schematization of the behavior of bitumen.

It appears from figure 4.21 that the ratio between the elastic, the delayed
elastic and the viscous part of the deformation changes as a function of the
loading time and the temperature, that jointly are represented by the stiffness
modulus Sbit.
With decreasing temperature and decreasing loading time (Sbit increases) the
share of the elastic deformation in the total deformation increases while at
high temperatures and long loading times (Sbit decreases) the material
behaves nearly purely viscous.

136

Figure 4.21: Behavior of bitumen in relation to Sbit and PI.

The stiffness parameter S is obtained by dividing the applied stress by the
total strain (that is calculated from the total deformation). In this way not a real
but an apparent elastic modulus is calculated as the value is dependent on
the loading time and temperature. This parameter therefore is not denoted as
E but as the stiffness modulus S. The stiffness modulus S thus is:
S( t , T ) =

( t , T )

Stiffness as a function of
loading time and temperature

applied stress
strain as a function of loading
time and temperature

An example of such a relationship is given in figure 4.22.

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Figure 4.22: Effect of temperature and loading time on the behavior of two
strongly different types of bitumen.
Especially Shell has carried out a lot of research into the stiffness behavior of
bitumen. One of the achievements of this research is the nomograph given in
figure 4.23 (3). This nomograph enables the determination of the bitumen
stiffness Sbit as a function of the loading time, the temperature and the
bitumen properties.

4.10 Asphalt mixes:

Asphalt mixtures (bituminous mixtures) are important road building materials.
In The Netherlands every year some 7 million tons of asphalt are applied. The
costs of an asphalt mix depend on various factors but amount roughly
between 50 and 70 per ton (including construction costs).
Various types of asphalt mixes can be distinguished:
a. gravel asphalt concrete (gac) for the bottom layers of lightly loaded roads,
b. stone asphalt concrete (stac) for the bottom layers of heavily loaded roads,
c. open asphalt concrete (oac) for the intermediate (binder) layers,
d. dense asphalt concrete (dac) for wearing courses,
e. stone mastic asphalt (sma) for wearing courses,
f. porous (very open) asphalt concrete (zoac, in Dutch zoab) for wearing
courses.
These asphalt mixes are all so-called hot mixes, which means that the mixing
of sand, gravel or crushed stone, filler and bitumen occurs at a temperature of
about 180C. This high temperature is required to give the bitumen the correct
viscosity (liquidity) to enable the mixing process.
Later the above-mentioned types of asphalt mixes are discussed in more
detail. First however attention is paid to some basic principles. After that the
mechanical properties of asphalt mixes are briefly discussed. Finally a short
and global description is given of the various asphalt mixes.

138

Figure 4.23: Nomograph for the determination of the stiffness modulus Sbit of bitumen.

139

4.10.1 Mix composition and requirements for the mixes

Asphalt mixes are composed of:
a. bitumen,
b. filler, this is mineral powder with a particle diameter < 63 m,
c. sand,
d. gravel or crushed stone.
As already described, bitumen is a residue of the refinery process of crude oil.
The behavior of bitumen is dependent on the loading time and the
temperature. The bitumen acts as the glue in the asphalt mix and therefore
also the behavior of asphalt mixes depends on the loading time and
temperature.
Table 4.1 contains the requirements with respect to the composition of some
of the Dutch asphalt mixes. It is remarked that the composition is given in
percentages by mass and that the amount of bitumen is expressed as the
(mass) percentage compared to 100% of mineral aggregate.
Table 4.2 contains the requirements for asphalt mixes for traffic class 4.
It is striking that the mass percentage of bitumen varies from 4% (minimum
percentage for stone asphalt concrete) to 6.4% (maximum percentage for
dense asphalt concrete). The volume of air strongly depends on the type of
asphalt mix: for dense asphalt concrete the volume of air is maximum 6%
while in the pre-research on porous asphalt the volume of air has to be at
least 20%. Porous asphalt (zoab) thus is a very open asphalt mix with a high
draining action (no splash and spray) and besides it yields a strong reduction
of traffic noise.
Stone asphalt
concrete 0/22
C22.4
C16
C11.2
C8
C5.6
2 mm
63 m
Percentage of bitumen
N.B.

0-6
15 - 40
54 - 60
92 - 94
4-5

Open asphalt
concrete 0/16
type 3
0-6
10 - 20
35 - 50
64 - 70
93 - 95
4.8 - 5.8

Dense asphalt
concrete 0/16

Porous asphalt
concrete 0/16
0-7
15 - 30
50 - 65
70 - 85
85
95.5
4.5

0-6
5 - 25
30 - 55
57 - 63
y-0.5 - y+1.0
6.0 - 6.4

y = 100 - 7 x density filler/2700

for traffic class 4 always 40/60 penetration bitumen must be applied,
for porous asphalt however 70/100 penetration bitumen should be used

Table 4.1: Requirements (mass percentages) for the composition of various

asphalt mixes for traffic class 4 (2).
Stone asphalt
concrete
Marshall stability (N)
Marshall flow (mm)
Marshall quotient (N/mm)
Percentage of air (% v/v)
Degree of filling (% v/v)
Degree of compaction (%)

> 6000
1.5 3
> 3000
<7
50 68
> 98

Open asphalt
concrete
type 3
> 7000
24
> 3000
<7
< 72
> 98

Dense asphalt
concrete
> 7500
24
> 3000
<6
< 80
> 98

Porous asphalt
concrete

> 97

Table 4.2: Requirements for various asphalt mixes for traffic class 4 (2).

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The requirements with respect to the composition and the properties of the
asphalt mixes are dependent on the traffic class. The traffic class is related to
the amount of the expected daily heavy traffic on the road. Table 4.3 gives an
overview of the traffic classes distinguished in The Netherlands.
Traffic class
2
3
4
5

SAL100
< 500
500 4000
> 4000
> 5000

Explanation
Lightly loaded pavements
Moderately loaded pavements
Heavily loaded pavements
Heavily loaded pavements with slow driving (vehicle
speed < 15 km/h) and standing heavy traffic

SAL100 = Iv . VSF100
with: Iv
= intensity of truck traffic on most heavily loaded traffic lane (annual working day average in one
direction)
VSF100 = truck damage factor (number of equivalent 100 kN standard axle loads per truck)
Type of truck traffic
VSF100
Light:
on average < 2.5 axles per truck
0.2 0.5
Moderate: on average 2.5 3 axles per truck
0.5-1.0
Heavy:
on average > 3 axles per truck
1.0 2.0

Table 4.3: Traffic classes (2).

4.10.2 Marshall test:
The tables 4.1 and 4.2 learn that in The Netherlands the requirements to
asphalt mixes deal with the composition and the Marshall properties. The
Marshall properties are determined by means of the so-called Marshall test.
For Marshall testing asphalt specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a
height of 50 mm are produced. These specimens are compacted according to
the Marshall compaction method; this is an exactly prescribed hammer
compaction.
Marshall tests are done at 60C with a loading speed of 0.83 mm/sec. The
load is applied through exactly defined testing heads (see figure 4.24). During
the test the load displacement curve is recorded (figure 4.25). From this
curve the Marshall stability Pm and the Marshall flow Fm are determined. The
Marshall quotient is the ratio of Pm and Fm.
The Marshall test is done to gain insight in the stability of the asphalt mix at
high temperatures. A great Marshall stability in general implies a high
resistance against permanent deformation (rutting).
Although the requirements (specifications) to asphalt mixes are focused on
their composition by mass, research has learned that especially their
composition by volume is relevant. Starting with the density of the mineral
aggregates (around 27 kN/m3) and that of bitumen (somewhat greater than 10
kN/m3) the volumetric composition can easily be calculated from the
composition by mass. The volume percentage of bitumen (Vb) is roughly
between 9% and 13%, while the volume percentage of mineral aggregate
(Vg) is between 80% and 85%; the mineral aggregate includes the sand,
gravel or crushed stone, and the filler. Besides of that, every asphalt mix
should contain a certain percentage of air (Va), also called empty space;
except for porous asphalt Va usually is between 3% and 7%.

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Figure 4.24: Cross section of Marshall testing heads; dimensions in mm at

room temperature, tolerance 0,1 mm.

Figure 4.25: Marshall load displacement curve (schematic).

4.10.3 The aggregate skeleton:
It already has been mentioned that an asphalt mix is composed of bitumen,
filler, sand and gravel or crushed stone. The properties of the bitumen have
been discussed in paragraph 4.9. In this paragraph the aggregate skeleton is
shortly addressed.

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Filler
Filler is a fine-grained mineral powder; the particles have a diameter smaller
than 63 m. Examples of fillers are limestone flour and fly ash. The filler
contributes to the mineral skeleton. Besides of that, together with the bitumen
the filler forms the mortar gluing the greater aggregate particles. Not every
filler acts in the same way: one type of filler can bind considerably more
bitumen than another type. This implies that the type of filler not only affects
the handling of the asphalt mix but also the mechanical properties.
Sand and gravel/crushed stone
The sand and the gravel or crushed stone are the bearing components within
the asphalt mix. Important factors influencing the bond between the mortar
and the aggregate are the particle shape (angular or round), the absorption
capacity (porous or not) and the degree of acidity. The grain size distribution
(grading) is especially important with respect to the resistance against rutting
as will be explained later.

4.11 Mechanical behavior of asphalt mixes:

Asphalt mixes must possess certain properties to be able to meet the
requirements with respect to their resistance against deformation and
cracking and with respect to their durability. These three aspects are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
4.11.1 Deformation characteristics:
Mix stiffness
Asphalt mixes should preferably have a high mix stiffness (elastic modulus) to
achieve a traffic load spreading as great as possible. A high mix stiffness is
obtained if the asphalt mix:
has a volume percentage of air as small as possible;
has a volume percentage of bitumen as small as possible;
contains a type of bitumen that is affected as less as possible by the
temperature and the loading time;
exhibits a good bond between the bituminous mortar and the mineral
aggregates.
Shell also has done a lot of research into the stiffness of asphalt mixes. One
of the results is a nomograph that enables to determine the stiffness modulus
of the asphalt mix (Smix) from the stiffness modulus of the bitumen (Sbit) and
the volumetric composition of the asphalt mix. This nomograph is shown in
figure 4.26 (3).
Figure 4.26 learns that the asphalt mix stiffness is determined by the stiffness
of the bitumen and the volumetric composition of the mix. However, the mix
composition is usually known in mass percentages. Therefore first a
calculation from mass percentages into volume percentages must be done.
This calculation procedure is described in Appendix I.

143

Figure 4.26: Nomograph for the determination of the asphalt mix stiffness.

144

Permanent deformation
The asphalt mix should have a resistance against permanent deformation as
high as possible. To this end the asphalt mix:
a. should have such a grain size distribution that the shear resistance of the
aggregate skeleton is as high as possible; in general this calls for a dense
packing,
b. should contain mineral aggregates which such a shape that a friction
resistance as high as possible is obtained,
c. should have a volume percentage of bitumen as small as possible,
d. should contain a type of bitumen that is rather unsusceptible for variations
in temperature and loading time.
In conclusion it can be stated that in general an asphalt mix with a high elastic
stiffness also exhibits a good resistance against permanent deformation. This
conclusion is valid for the conventional, continuously graded asphalt mixes.
A mix such as porous asphalt concrete (zoab) has a good resistance against
rutting despite the fact that it has a very high percentage of air. Also the stone
mastic asphalt mix has a good resistance against rutting despite the fact that
it contains a high amount of bitumen. In these two cases the high resistance
against rutting is to be attributed to an optimized aggregate skeleton.
The earlier mentioned conventional mixes with high stiffness are in general
difficult to handle.
Predicting the occurring rutting is very complex because of the great number
of influencing factors. For this reason, in contrast to the asphalt mix stiffness
modulus, no nomograph is available to predict the resistance against
permanent deformation of asphalt mixes. To however obtain some insight in
the way permanent deformation could be calculated, hereafter the model
developed by Shell is discussed.
In Shells rutting model it is assumed that the permanent deformation of
asphalt mixes is determined by the viscous deformation of the mix. It already
has been discussed earlier how the total permanent deformation is divided
into a viscous, a delayed elastic and an elastic part.
For a constant wheel loading and a constant temperature the viscous stiffness
of bitumen can be calculated with the equation:
Sbit,visc = 3 / (N t/)
where: Sbit,visc
N
t

=
=
=
=

viscous stiffness of the bitumen [Pa]

number of load repetitions
loading time of a wheel passage [s]
viscosity [Pa.s]

The viscosity depends on the temperature, the loading time and the type of
bitumen. Values for can be obtained through viscosity measurements, they
can however also be read in figure 4.27.

145

Figure 4.27: Graph for the determination of the viscosity of bitumen.

Next the viscous stiffness of the asphalt mix Smix,visc has to be determined from
Sbit,visc, preferably by performing tests such as the static creep test or the uniaxial compressive test with repeated loadings. By doing so one gets results
such as presented in figure 4.28. If no test results are available this figure
gives an indication of the viscous mix stiffness.

Figure 4.28: Determination of Smix,visc from Sbit,visc.

146

The permanent deformation is then calculated by means of the equation:

h = C * h * z,av / Smix,visc
where:

h
C
h
z,av
Smix,visc

= viscous deformation of the asphalt layer [mm],

= factor to take into account the dynamic effect of
the wheel load; 1 C 2,
= thickness of the asphalt layer [mm],
= average vertical stress in the asphalt layer [MPa],
= viscous stiffness of the asphalt mix [MPa].

As already stated, the temperature has a huge effect on the permanent

deformation in an asphalt mix. Therefore figure 4.29 gives a relationship
between the air temperature and the asphalt temperature. The term MMAT
means Mean Monthly Air Temperature; in this course it is not further
explained how to calculate MMAT.

Figure 4.29: Relationship between the average air temperature MMAT and
the asphalt temperature.
The above-discussed Shell method will be further explained by means of an
example. Suppose that one wants to predict the rutting in a 150 mm thick
asphalt layer that is placed on a sand sub-base with an elastic modulus Esand
= 100 MPa. The rutting has to be calculated for a number of load repetitions N
= 1000000. The vehicle speed is rather low, i.e. 36 km/h (10 m/s). The traffic
loadings consist of heavy truck wheel loads of 75 kN with a tyre pressure p =

147

1.05 MPa. It follows from these wheel load data that the radius of the contact
area amounts 150 mm, so the diameter of the contact area is 300 mm. From
the vehicle speed and the diameter of the contact area can easily be
calculated that the loading time t of a wheel passage is 0.03 s. The total
loading time N * t thus amounts 0.03 * 1000000 = 30000 s.
The air temperature MMAT = 35C and the temperature ring & ball of the
bitumen Tr&k = 55C; the Penetration Index of the bitumen PI = 0. With some
extrapolation it follows from figure 4.29 that the asphalt temperature is about
45C. This leads to TTr&k = 10C; this value together with the PI input in
figure 4.27 results in viscosity = 1.7*104 Pa.s; for the viscous stiffness of the
bitumen is then found Sbit,visc = 1.7 Pa. With figure 4.28 it is finally found that
the viscous stiffness of gravel asphalt concrete Smix,visc = 10 MPa.
Chapter 7 contains graphs to determine the vertical stresses in a two-layer
system. From these graphs it follows that at the bottom of the asphalt layer
the vertical stress z = 0.8 p, where p is the contact pressure. At the top of the
asphalt layer z is equal to the contact pressure. This means that z,av = 0.9 p
= 0.945 MPa.
Assuming that the dynamic factor C = 1.5 the rutting is calculated with:

h = 1.5 * 150 * 0.945/10 = 21 mm

Some remarks must be made with respect to the application of the Shell
method:
a. Only viscous deformation is taken into account while in reality there is also
plastic deformation of the aggregate skeleton,
b. The beneficial effect of horizontal confinement stresses on the
development of permanent deformation in the asphalt mix is not taken into
account,
c. The method has originally been developed around the static creep test
while in reality the traffic loading is dynamic by nature. The relationship
between Sbit,visc and Smix,visc as determined with repeated load tests is
different from the relationship based upon a static creep test. This means
that the method in fact is only suited to investigate the effect of different
types of bitumen on the permanent deformation behavior of the one and
same asphalt mix.
4.11.2 Fatigue:
Fatigue means the development of cracks due to repeated loadings. It may be
clear that the resistance against fatigue is positively affected if the bitumen
content increases, the percentage of air decreases and the bond between the
aggregates and the bitumen mortar improves. In the case of a very strong
mortar and a very good bond also the strength of the gravel or crushed stone
becomes important. Obviously weak gravel or crushed stone has a negative
effect on the fatigue resistance.
The determination of the fatigue characteristics requires expensive and timeconsuming fatigue tests. Figure 4.30 shows an example of a fatigue test setup.

148

Figure 4.30: The four-point bending fatigue test set-up.

In a four-point bending test a beam is subjected to repeated bending. In
principle such a test can be done in two ways.
The first way is to repeatedly apply a constant force on the beam, and in this
case the deflection (vertical displacement) of the beam slowly but consistently
increases until failure occurs. This type of test is called the constant force or
constant stress fatigue test.
The second way is to repeatedly subject the beam to a constant deflection,
and in this case the force required to obtain the set deflection level is slowly
but consistently decreasing. This type of test is referred to as constant
displacement or constant strain fatigue test.
The fact that in the first case the deflection increases and that in the second
case the force decreases directly follows from basic applied mechanics, as
the equation for the deflection of the center of a beam is:

= f( F/E*h3)
where F denotes the applied force, E the elastic modulus of the beam and h
the height of the beam. The effective h decreases because of the
development of cracks and that affects the displacement or force respectively.
Shell has developed a nomograph that enables the easy determination of the
fatigue characteristics as a function of the composition of the asphalt mix
(figure 4.31). For the structural design of asphalt pavements normally the
constant strain fatigue relationship is used. Figure 4.31 learns that the
fatigue resistance of the asphalt mix depends on the volume percentage of
bitumen, the stiffness modulus of the asphalt mix and the type of bitumen (PI).

149

So also with respect to the fatigue characteristics the volumetric composition

of the asphalt mix is relevant.

Figure 4.31: Nomograph for the determination of the fatigue resistance of

asphalt mixes.
It already has been argued that fatigue relationships resulting from laboratory
testing cannot directly be applied in practice. The beneficial effects of lateral
wander and healing should also be taken into account.

150

Lateral wander means that not all the heavy vehicles drive in exactly the same
track. This implies that the number of load repetitions at a certain point is not
equal but smaller than the number of axle load repetitions on the traffic lane.
Furthermore, in contrast to a laboratory fatigue test, in reality there are rest
periods between the subsequent wheel loadings. If for instance the diameter
of the contact area of the truck tyres amounts 0.2 m, the distance between the
front and rear axle is 5 m and the speed of the truck is 80 km/h (22.22 m/s),
then the duration of a load pulse is 0.009 s and the duration of the rest period
between the front and rear axle 0.225 s. The ratio of the rest and load periods
thus is 25. Obviously the rest period between the passage of a truck and the
next truck even will be much greater. The duration of the rest period and
especially the ratio of the rest and load periods have a very great effect on the
behavior of asphalt mixes because the bituminous mortar (bitumen + filler +
fine sand) has the capacity to recover, which means that part of the fatigue
damage disappears during the rest period. This recovery capacity, also called
healing, depends on the composition of the asphalt mix and the ratio of rest
and load periods. A first estimate of the magnitude of the healing factor is
obtained from figure 4.32.

Figure 4.32: Graph for the determination of the healing factor H.

The asphalt fatigue life to be used in practice (in the field) then can be
determined as follows:
Nfield = H x V x Nlab
where:

Nlab = laboratory asphalt fatigue life according to figure 4.31,

H
= healing factor according to figure 4.32,
V
= lateral wander factor; for motorways: H 2.5,
Nfield = asphalt fatigue life to be expected on the road (in the field).

151

4.12 Durability:
During time bitumen ages and then becomes brittle. The risk of failure within
the film of bitumen around the aggregates thus increases, leading to loss of
coherence within the asphalt mix. In principle there are two possibilities to
make the asphalt mixes resistant against ageing.
The first possibility is to reduce the effect of the factors that promote ageing.
Ageing of the bitumen is primarily caused by sunlight and especially oxygen
while water promotes the loss of coherence within the asphalt mix. Oxygen
and water thus should be unable to penetrate within the asphalt mix and this
requires an asphalt mix as dense (impermeable) as possible. The percentage
of air in the asphalt mix thus must be low.
The second possibility is to increase the resistance against ageing of the
bitumen. Increasing the thickness of the bitumen film around the aggregates
(so increasing the volume percentage of bitumen) is very effective in this
respect. Also polymers can be added to the bitumen to limit the susceptibility
of the asphalt mix for ageing, but this certainly is not yet common practice.
From the discussion above it might be clear that with respect to durability
porous asphalt (zoab) in principle is a vulnerable asphalt mix. On the other
hand, stone mastic asphalt (sma) is a durable asphalt mix as it contains a
high percentage of bitumen and a rather low percentage of air.
In summary it can be stated that an asphalt mix is durable if:
a. the film of bitumen around the aggregates is thick,
b. the percentage of air is low,
c. the bond between the bitumen mortar and the aggregates is good.

4.13 Summary:
From the proceeding paragraphs it follows that in principle it is impossible to
combine a good resistance against rutting and a good resistance against
fatigue cracking!
Dependent on the location (height) of the asphalt mix within the asphalt
pavement structure emphasis is laid either on a higher resistance against
rutting or on a higher resistance against fatigue cracking. In addition to that,
asphalt wearing courses should possess a good durability and preferably also
a good resistance against fatigue cracking. In general higher volume
percentages of bitumen are beneficial with respect to fatigue resistance and
durability, while on the other hand lower percentages of bitumen yield a better
resistance against permanent deformation (rutting).

4.14 Global description of the function of the various asphalt

mixes:
It already has been discussed that a distinction is made between asphalt
mixes for the wearing course, mixes for the intermediate (binder) asphalt
layer and mixes for the lower asphalt layers. The stress conditions in these
various asphalt layers are schematically depicted in figure 4.33.

152

asphalt

sand

vertical stresses

horizontal stresses

Figure 4.33: Traffic load stresses in two-layer asphalt pavement structure.

It appears from figure 4.33 that the bottom asphalt layer (stone asphalt
concrete (stac)) is mainly subjected to fatigue.
The intermediate layer (open asphalt concrete (oac)) especially needs a good
resistance against permanent deformation. The deviatoric stress (v - h) can
be quite high in this layer.
The wearing course (dense asphalt concrete (dac)) also needs a good
resistance against permanent deformation and a high durability. This layer
also should deliver sufficient skidding resistance to the vehicles driving over it
and for this reason round aggregate with a polished surface is not acceptable
in this layer.
In summary it can be stated:
dac
application of crushed stone aggregate for resistance against rutting and
skidding resistance
low percentage of air for durability
relativ high volume percentage of bitumen for durability
oac
application of crushed stone aggregate for resistance against rutting
in comparison to dac a lower volume percentage of bitumen for resistance
against rutting
stac
application of crushed gravel or crushed stone aggregate for resistance
against rutting; stac is not applied as a wearing course
relatively low volume percentage of bitumen; for an optimal resistance
against fatigue a higher bitumen content could be considered, however that
leads to a greater susceptibility for rutting.
It can be concluded that the composition of dac and oac seems logical
considering the function of these asphalt mixes in the asphalt pavement
structure. Related to its function to some extent the composition of stac
seems not logical. Compared to dac the fatigue resistance of stac is less.
Therefore it is investigated whether in the bottom asphalt layer of heavily
loaded roads a dac-type of mix can be applied.

153

As already stated, the wearing course materials porous asphalt (zoac) and
stone mastic asphalt (sma) are based on a totally different concept.
Zoac was first applied on airport pavements, especially to prevent
aquaplaning on runways. The very high percentage of air (> 19%) not only
results in a good drainage through the zoac layer but also in a substantial
decrease of the traffic noise. The concept of zoac is a rather uniformly graded
stone mixture (compare the grain size distribution curves of dac and zoac in
table 4.1 with each other!) and a limited sand fraction. The bitumen content is
relatively low. The composition of zoac is such that the mix has a good
resistance against permanent deformation provided that there is enough
horizontal confinement. Marshall tests, indirect tensile tests and three- or fourpoint bending tests dont make much sense on this material as the obtained
low values dont reflect the good behavior observed in practice. The mix is
however susceptible for ageing because of its open structure and its low
bitumen content.
The concept of sma is again totally different. This asphalt mix combines a
good durability with a high resistance against permanent deformation and that
is not an obvious combination. The high bitumen content is possible through
the addition of matters (such as cellulose fibers) that limit the bitumen to runoff from the aggregates. The good resistance against permanent deformation
has to be attributed to an optimized grain size distribution. The high bitumen
content also leads to a relatively high resistance against fatigue.

4.15 Asphalt mix design:

In this course only limited attention is paid to the design of asphalt mixes.
Some basic knowledge must however be present and therefore some basic
principles of the asphalt mix design will be discussed. The asphalt mixes
obviously have to fulfill the requirements given in the tables 4.1 and 4.2. It is
common practice to perform a Marshall pre-investigation on for instance a
number of different asphalt mixes that contain a different type of aggregate
(such as porphyry, moraine, grauwacke or crushed gravel (Dutch stone)) and
a different bitumen content. It is then determined to what extent the different
mixes fulfill the requirements with respect to the Marshall properties, the
percentage of air and the degree of filling. An example of such an
investigation is shown in figure 4.34 (4); on the basis of these results an
appropriate mix composition then can be chosen.
One has however to realize that in this way one does not gain any insight into
the mechanical properties required for the structural design of the asphalt
pavement such as stiffness and fatigue resistance. Although these properties
can be estimated by means of the nomographs included in this chapter, the
mix is thus not designed with the aim to optimize these mechanical properties.
It is however to be expected that in the near future the so-called functional mix
design will be introduced. Such an asphalt mix design procedure aims to
maximize the stiffness modulus, the resistance against fatigue, the resistance
against rutting, the durability and the handling of the mix during construction.
This functional asphalt mix design procedure will replace the current empirical
Marshall asphalt mix design procedure.

154

Figure 4.34: Example of results from a Marshall asphalt mix design preinvestigation.

155

4.16 Concrete and other cement-bound materials:

As stated earlier cement is frequently applied in road construction to stabilize
materials. Well-known cement-stabilized base materials are sand-cement,
lean concrete and cement-bound asphalt granulate. The mix design of such
cement-bound materials always aims to obtain a certain compressive
strength. For instance, cylinders cored out of a sand-cement base should
have a compressive strength of at least 1.5 MPa at 28 days after construction.
The required strength of e.g. lean concrete is always determined by the
strength that is required for the structural design of the pavement. Nearly
always this is the flexural tensile strength; this value is hardly ever directly
measured but deducted from the compressive strength by means of available
relationships between the flexural tensile strength and the compressive
strength.
In The Netherlands concrete roads are constructed only at a small scale, but
concrete is widely applied on airport platforms because of the very heavy and
static aircraft wheel loadings.
Also in this case the design criterion is the flexural tensile strength while the
constructed material is checked for its compressive strength.
The design of cement-bound materials is not discussed here. Reference is
made to courses on material science and concrete technology.
The requirements with respect to the mix composition of cement-bound
materials are included in (2).

4.17 References:
1.

Various properties of natural sands for Netherlands highway

engineering
Record 4; S.C.W.; Arnhem 1978
(since 1985 S.C.W. is part of CROW, Ede)

2.

Specifications for Road Construction 2000 (Standaard RAW

Bepalingen 2000) (in Dutch)
CROW; Ede - 2000

3.

Shell bitumen handbook

Shell Bitumen U.K.; Chertsey 1990

4.

VBW-Asfalt
Guidelines for pre-investigation of asphalt mixes (in Dutch)
Breukelen 1985

156

APPENDIX I
Calculation of the Volumetric Composition of an Asphalt Mix
from the Composition by Mass

157

158

159

159-a