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d1
1 , 1
I. INTRODUCTION
d2
2, 2
This is a revised version of a paper presented at Electrimacs 2008, Quebec, 8-11 June 2008
2
applied to the plates, is either a constant V0 (DC case), ramp,
or a sinusoidal function of time V = Vm sin t . The
examination will be further simplified by adopting =250,
and ascribing to the material properties concrete values:
1=2.30, 2=50, where 1, 2 are dielectric I, II permittivities,
respectively, and 0 is the permittivity of free space,
1=10-15 -1m-1, 2=10-12 -1m-1. (Dielectric I may be a
polyethylene and dielectric II may be an epoxy compound.)
Formation of space charge, temperature, frequency and field
dependence of the dielectric properties, etc., are neglected at
this stage. Thus, the problem is defined physically. How it is
usually approached?
1 E n1 = 2 E n 2 + ,
(6)
dA = 0
(7)
A. Field Analysis
Unfailingly, one recognizes that the problem is described
by the Laplace equation in its simplest form:
n1 = n 2 ,
d 2
= 0,
dx 2
(1)
(8)
or
1En1 + 1
En1
E
= 2 En 2 + 2 n 2
t
t
(9)
(2)
V=E1d1+E2d2,
(3)
Dn1 = Dn 2 , or 1 E n1 = 2 E n 2 ,
(4)
where Dn1, Dn2 and En1, En2 are the normal components of
the displacement vector and the electric field, respectively.
The tangential components are zero in this case in view of
symmetry. Equation (3), (4) yield the solution [4, par. 4.3.1]:
E1 =
d1 + 1 d 2
2
, E =
2
d1 2 + d 2
1
(5)
( 1 +
j 1 )En1 = ( 2 + j 2 )En 2 .
(9a)
E
:
t
i E ni << i
E ni
t
, i=1,2,
(10)
i Eni >> i
Eni
t
, i=1,2,
(10a)
1 E n1 = 2 E n 2 .
(11)
Since for the examined problem 1<<2, the stress in the first
layer is much greater than in the second: E n1 >> E n 2 , and if
d1 and d2 are commensurable, the solution is obtained
immediately from (3):
E1
V ,
E 2 1 E1 = 0.001E1 .
2
d1
V
,
.
E2 =
1
2
d1 + d 2
d1
+ d2
2
1
(12)
C2
V(R2)
0
V(R1)
-0.5
0
200
Time, s
400
0.5
V(R2)/V(R1)
0.25
0
10-
R2
400
(13)
C1
200
0.5
R1
V(R1
d 2 , C = 1 , C = 2
,
d1 2
1 R2 = 2 1
d2
V
V(R2)
Time,
B. Equivalent Circuits
R1 = d1
0.5
voltage, V
E1 =
voltage, V
Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit for flat capacitor with two layers of nonideal insulation.
10-3
Frequency, Hz
4
such examples are given in the following section.
III. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
The first example makes use of a coil wound on a highquality plastic bobbin, e.g., polyethylene (1=2.30), that is
further potted in an epoxy (1=50). In the below example,
their conductivities are related as 1:100, respectively.
b
Fig. 4. Distribution of electric field in potted coil. a DC field
(conduction problem); b AC (electrostatic problem).
5
the following simulations, the conductivities of vacuum,
glass, oil and plastic, arguably, were taken in the following
ratio: 10-13: 10-14: 10-13: 10-12: 10-13. Their relative
permittivities were set as 1, 5.75, 2.25, 3.5, respectively.
Note that the vacuum conductivity is very strongly fieldand polarity dependent [12]. In some actual X-ray tubes, the
dark currents increase typically by an order of magnitude for
the field increase of 5% [13].
Again, this example illustrates a striking difference
between the DC and AC (transient) field distributions. The
oil is largely unstressed in the first case, with tendency for
even lower stress in the process of the oil aging. The plastic
barrier is instrumental for the insulation functioning bearing
the brunt of the applied voltage. At AC, the oil is stressed
much stronger; contrary to the DC case, the field distribution
would remain practically unaffected by time.
Although in the above examples both the geometry and
physical properties are treated with great simplification, the
field analysis is useful in that it allows a) identifying the
basic difference in operation under DC and AC, or transient
conditions, and b) finding overstressed regions. An
experienced designer may well manage the first part without
investing time in detailed simulations using proper boundary
conditions and equivalent circuits.
IV. NONLINEAR ASPECTS
After accepting the existence of a leakage currentgoverned field distribution, one starts enquiring about more
subtle non-linear aspects. The latter are of the utmost
importance at DC or quasi-DC operation. A classic example
is a DC power cable under current load. With the central
conductor having high temperature, the field becomes
stronger at the shieldthe situation unthought-of at a line
frequency (see, e.g., [3], [14]).
In highly non-uniform fields, space charge effects caused
by local ionization in the insulation body, field emission, etc.,
modify the field distribution considerably. These phenomena
are not necessarily limited to the case of partial discharges
occurring in the insulation cavities. In fact, a steady-state
distribution is a misnomer at high stresses under the
application of a DC voltage: the space and surface charges
form and disappear rendering a dynamic field distribution.
Similar phenomena are observed in moving media, e.g., in
dielectric liquids under the application of a non-uniform
electric field. Even in the absence of ionization, polar matter
circulates because of the electro-convection. The driving
forces that are proportional to the field gradient and the
liquid (or gas) dipole moment are quite sufficient to provide
effective mixing and cooling in various DC apparatuses, e.g.,
in oil-insulated power supplies. An example of a gas pump
resulting in flame extinction is given in [15]. Owing to the
movement, hot and cold regions having different
conductivities (high and low, respectively) migrate,
continuously modifying the electric field distribution. Such
behaviour is extremely difficult to quantify, especially in
ionized media. We note that although even commercial
packages have non-linear solvers allowing modelling
V. CONCLUSION
The above study shows that the boundary condition (9)
provides clear physical basis to typical high voltage
problems, where one must account for the insulation nonideality. On the contrary, the boundary condition (4) is
misleading in that it does not contain the insulation
conductivity; it should be introduced as a reduction of (9).
Equation (6) does account for the conduction current but has
no use for the electric field calculation in real-life insulation.
More complicated cases, when the conduction and
displacement currents are commensurable (for the examined
problem of section II, it is a subherz range), should be treated
more rigorously. Likewise, attention should be paid to nonlinear issues. Note that for simple insulation systems, such as
multilayer flat, cylindrical or spherical capacitor, the problem
is handled conveniently by using equivalent R-C circuits.
This approach works well with electrical engineering
students.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author acknowledges the support given by Spellman
High Voltage Electronics Corporation in making this work
published.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] P. Gallagher, "High Voltage: Measurement, Testing and
Design". Wiley, 1983, p. 197.
[2] A.I. Dolginov, High Voltage Engineering. Energia,
Moscow, 1968.
[3] M.S. Khalil, International Research and Development
Trends and Problems of HVDC Cables with Polymeric
Insulation. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Vol.
13, No. 6, 1997, pp. 35-47.
[4] E., Kuffel, W.S. Zaengl and J. Kuffel, "High Voltage
Engineering", 2nd Ed., Newnes, Oxford, 2000, par. 4.3.1
(see also editions 1970, 1984).
[5] M.S. Naidu and V. Kamaraju, High Voltage
Engineering, 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, NY, 1995.
[6] G.A. Grinberg, Selected Aspects of Mathematical
Theory of Electrical and Magnetic Phenomena,
Academy of Sciences of USSR, Moscow-Leningrad,
1948, Ch. 1.
[7] M. Beuer et al., "Hochspannungstechnik", SpringerVerlag, 1986 (Ch. 3, 4), 1992.
[8] K.J., Binns, P.J. Lawrenson and C.W. Trowbridge, "The
Analytical and Numerical Solution of Electric and
Magnetic Field", Wiley, NY, 1992.
6
[9] Maxwell 2D Student Version, Ansoft Corp.,
Pittsburgh, 2002.
[10] V. Okun, A. Pokryvailo, and V. Reznik, "Cascade
Generator", Certificate of Invention 1198581, 1985,
filing date 18 Apr 1984.
[11] A. Pokryvailo, "Study of Electric Field in Shielded
X-Ray Tubes", Instrumentation and Methods of X-Ray
Analysis, Vol. 31, pp. 151-157, 1983.
[12] Handbook of Vacuum Arc Science and Technology.
Ed. by Boxman R.L. et al. Noyes Publications, NJ, 1995.
[13] A. Pokryvailo and V.L. Okun, "An Investigation of Stray
Currents of X-Ray Tubes Having Tubular Hollow
Anodes", Instrumentation and Methods of X-Ray
Analysis, v. 32, pp. 120-126, 1984.
[14] R.N. Hampton, Some of the Considerations for
Materials Operating Under High-Voltage, Direct-Current
Stresses, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Vol. 24,
No. 1, 2008, pp. 5-13.
[15] E. Sher, A. Pokryvailo, E. Yacobson, and M. Mond,
"Extinction of Flames in a Nonuniform Electric Field",
Combust. Sci. and Tech., 1992, Vol. 87, pp. 59-67.
[16] S. Qin and S. Boggs, Design Considerations for High
Voltage DC Components, IEEE Electrical Insulation
Magazine, vol. 28, No. 6, 2012, pp. 36-44.