Mangroves And Its Environmental Issues With

Reference To Business Setups

INTRODUCTION
Mangroves, consisting of trees and bushes growing below the high water level of spring
tides, are the most typical forest formations of sheltered coastlines in the tropics and
subtropics. They are key components of the interrelated parts of the coastal ecological
systems that attract the attention and appreciation of visitors that are nature-oriented,
research-oriented or are natural scientists. Considered to be unique elements of coastal
ecosystems, mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems, which directly or
indirectly provide economic and ecological benefits to man. They serve as buffers or
inter-tidal protective zones against typhoons, storm surges and tidal waves, preventing
soil erosion and minimizing water pollution; are instrumental in building considerable
areas of tidal land; and provide unique habitat, sanctuary and breeding ground for
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endemic, rare and endangered species of aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna. Any
disturbance in the structure of any ecosystem causes adverse effects on the dynamics of
the whole system. In some instances, the disturbance exceeds the tolerance limit of the
ecosystem, resulting in resource degradation, which ultimately leads to irreversible and
irreparable damages. Continuous indiscriminate use of mangroves has grave implications
on the stability of coastal-island communities.
In Egypt, mangroves are an important scarce resource. The government of Egypt
recognizes the close link between coral reefs and associated ecosystems, as well as the
wide range of goods and services they provide, including ecotourism development, which
is a boon for the local and national economy. As such, Egyptians have initiatives on
mangrove conservation and protection.
The Ministry of State for the Environment (MSE), through its Egyptian Environmental
Affairs Agency (EEAA), and the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR)
are the lead institutions. A number of other agencies, institutions and organizations are,
however, also concerned with the mangrove resources of the country.

Mangroves Defined
A mangrove is a tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally exceeding one half metre in height,
that normally grows above mean sea level in the intertidal zone of marine coastal environments
and estuarine margins. A mangrove is also the tidal habitat comprising such trees and shrubs.
The word mangrove refers to the habitat in the same way as we think of rainforest with its
mixture of plant types. Sometimes the habitat is called a tidal forest or a mangrove forest to
distinguish it from the trees that are also called mangroves. Mangroves are various large and
extensive types of Treess up to medium hight and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment
habitats in the topics and subtropics.

Exploitation and conservation

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Mangroves in West Bali National Park, Indonesia.

Approximately 35% of mangrove area was lost during the last several decades of the 20th
century (in countries for which sufficient data exist), which encompass about half of the area of
mangroves. The United Nations Environment Program & Hamilton (2013), estimate that shrimp
farming causes approximately a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests. Likewise, the
2010 update of the World Mangrove Atlas indicated a fifth of the world's mangrove ecosystems
have been lost since 1980.
Grassroots efforts to save mangroves from development are becoming more popular as
their benefits become more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save
mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay. In Trinidad and Tobago
as well, efforts are underway to protect a mangrove threatened by the construction of a steelmill
and a port. In Thailand, community management has been effective in restoring damaged
mangroves. Within northern Ecuador mangrove regrowth is reported in almost all estuaries and
stems primarily from local actors responding to earlier periods of deforestation in the Esmeraldas
region.
Mangroves have been reported to be able to help buffer against tsunami, cyclones, and other
storms. One village in Tamil Nadu was protected from tsunami destructionthe villagers in
Naluvedapathy planted 80,244 saplings to get into the Guinness Book of World Records.

National studies
In terms of local and national studies of mangrove loss, the case of Belize's mangroves is
illustrative in its contrast to the global picture. A recent, satellite-based studyfunded by the
World Wildlife Fund and conducted by the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America
and the Caribbean (CATHALAC)ndicates Belize's mangrove cover declined by a mere 2%
over a 30-year period. The study was born out of the need to verify the popular conception that
mangrove clearing in Belize was rampant.
Instead, the assessment showed, between 1980 and 2010, under 4,000 acres (16 km2) of
mangroves had been cleared, although clearing of mangroves near Belize's main coastal
settlements (e.g. Belize City and San Pedro) was relatively high. The rate of loss of Belize's
mangrovesat 0.07% per year between 1980 and 2010was much lower than Belize's overall
rate of forest clearing (0.6% per year in the same period). These findings can also be interpreted
to indicate Belize's mangrove regulations (under the nation's) have largely been effective.
Nevertheless, the need to protect Belize's mangroves is imperative, as a 2009 study by the World
Resources Institute (WRI) indicates the ecosystems contribute US$174249 million per year to
Belize's national economy.

Mangroves and others:

Mangrove plants are not a single genetic entity because the plant types represented in the tidal
zone are not all closely related. So, while they sometimes look the same, and have similar
function, this tells us more about the environment they live in, rather than their family
relationships. The plants growing in the tidal zone also require serious adaptations for their
continued survival in this habitat. However, this does not preclude other plants from occasionally
being found within the tidal zone. Some are grouped as associates where they only occasionally
occur in intertidal sediments and most of the time they are found elsewhere. Others do regularly
also share the tidal niche, like saltmarsh plants, but these are smaller in size. A number of others,
the epiphytes and plant parasites, perch in the branches and stems of mangroves. All these plants
shape and define mangrove habitat.
Mangrove forests are among the worlds most productive and diverse ecosystems. These
salt-tolerant plants thrive in sheltered shores, islands and estuaries of tropical regions. Mangroves
have enormous ecological and economic value. They protect the coast from tropical cyclones.
These forests help to prevent soil erosion, enrich the coastal waters and contribute significantly
to the global carbon cycle. They provide breeding, nursery & feeding areas for aquatic plants and
animals. These forests are a source of firewood, timber, tannins and medicines. They also
provide food and shelter to the local population.
The Mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and
silt get accumulated on such coasts. Dense Mangroves are common varieties with roots of plants
submerged under water. The deltas of Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari, and the
Kaveri are covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga-Bramhaputra delta, Sundri trees are found,
which provide durable hard timber. Palm, Coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the
delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests. Turtles Crocodiles, Gharials and
Snakes are also found in these forests.

Shoreline Protection

Mangroves protect shorelines from erosion

Mangroves protect shorelines from damaging storm and hurricane winds, waves, and floods.
Mangroves also help prevent by stabilizing sediments with their tangled root systems. They
maintain water quality and clarity, filtering pollutants and trapping sediments originating from
land

Mangroves serve as valuable nursery areas for fish and invertebrates

Serving as valuable nursery areas for shrimp, crustaceans, mollusks, and fishes, mangroves are a
critical component of Florida's commercial and recreational fishing industries. These habitats
provide a rich source of food while also offering refuge from predation. Snook (Centropomus
undecimalis), gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus), tarpon (Megalops atlanticus), jack (Caranx spp.),
sheepshead

(Archosargus probatocephalus), and red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) all feed in the
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mangroves. Florida's fisheries would suffer a dramatic decline without access to healthy
mangrove habitats.

Reforestation
Mangroves in Bohol, Philippines.
In some areas, mangrove reforestation and mangrove restoration is also underway. Red
mangroves are the most common choice for cultivation, used particularly in marine aquariums in
a sump to reduce nitrates and other nutrients in the water. Mangroves also appear in home
aquariums, and as ornamental plants, such as in Japan.
In Senegal, Hadar El Ali has started the fr project, which (amongst others) focuses on
reforesting several areas with mangroves.
The Manzanar Mangrove Initiative is an ongoing experiment in Arkiko, Eritrea, part of the
Manzanar Project founded by Gordon H. Sato, establishing new mangrove plantations on the
coastal mudflats. Initial plantings failed, but observation of the areas where mangroves did
survive by themselves led to the conclusion that nutrients in water flow from inland were
important to the health of the mangroves.

Why should we protect mangroves?

Mangroves, admittedly, are not only important but crucial for the coastal areas. Since estuarine
areas are highly populated areas, the slightest ecological imbalance will take a heavy toll. They
play a vital role in stabilizing these areas. No engineering and technological solutions can be
sought for stabilizing these areas. Even if we negate all benefits of mangroves as forests, their
value as "protector of shore-line" is enough to convince us for conserving them.

Mangroves are buffers between the land and the sea. Coastlines throughout the world are facing
serious problems of coastal erosion and threat of rising sea levels due to global warming have
increased the threats by several folds. To control such assault of the sea on land the nature has
8

provided what is called as Mangroves, a tropical littoral ecosystem which is more dynamic than
the sea itself.

Mangroves not only help in preventing soil erosion but also act as a catalyst in reclaiming
land from seas. This is a very unique phenomenon, since there is a general tendency of

water to engulf land.

Mangrove forests and estuaries are the breeding and nursery grounds for a number of
marine organisms including the commercially important shrimp, crab and fish species.
Hence, loss of mangroves not only affects us indirectly but there are direct economic
repercussions through loss of fishing industry.

Mangrove trees are also used for house building, furniture, transmission as well as
telephone poles and certain household items. When these activities are managed
appropriately it is possible to derive timber products from mangrove forests without
significant environmental degradation, and while maintaining their value as a nursery and

a source of food for commercial capture fisheries.

In many coastal areas including Gulf of Kutch, mangroves are a substitute for fodder.

Thus mangroves reduce pressures from the scarce pasturelands.

Tannin is extracted from the bark of some mangrove species like Rhizophora mucronata,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Ceriops tagal. Indian mangrove trees have 35% tannin in
their bark, which is higher compared to other countries. Extracts from mangrove bark are

used by Indian fishermen to dye their fishing net and enhance its durability.
Mangrove trees have been the source of firewood in India since ancient time. Because of
the high specific gravity of rhizophoraceous wood, the species of Rhizophora, Kandelia,
Ceriops and Bruguiera are preferred for firewood. Heritiera agallocha is used for boat
building, while Avicennia spp. and Rhizophora spp. are used for brick-burning. Bruguiera
spp. are used to make poles. Honey collection from the mangrove forest is a promising
business in India. It has been estimated that Sundarbans mangrove alone produce 111
tons of honey annually. Honey collected from Cynometra ramiflora and Aegialitis
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rotundifolia has a good market value and is in demand. Avicennia spp., Phoenix paludosa
and Sonneratia caseolaris are used for human consumption and as cattle feed. Nypa
fruticans is tapped for an alcoholic drink. Leaves of Nypa palm are used for thatching of

roofs, Suaeda and Acrostichum leaves are used as green vegetable.

Above all, Mangroves are now looked after by scientists as saviors in the today's scenario
of global warming. We all know that most of the coastal areas throughout the world are
going to be affected by sea level rise due to global warming. The effects of which are
already visible. Therefore, when most of the coastal areas will be flooded, mangroves can
possibly provide a gene bank for cultivating salt tolerant species of crops which could be
our future resource.

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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES WITH REFERENCE TO BUSINESS:

Seagrass meadows (including tree-climbing shrimps, synchronously flashing fireflies and
'gardening' seacows), the links between mangrove, seagrass, and other habitats, the evolution,
biodiversity and biogeography of mangroves and seagrasses, and the likely effects of global
Mangroves are woody plants that grow at the interface between land and sea in tropical
and sub-tropical latitudes where they exist in conditions of high salinit.
Effects

of

oil

on

mangrove

seedlings

grown

under

different

environmental conditions:
The effects of oil treatments (one-time addition of 120 ml per plant and weekly addition of 15 ml
per plant) and environmental conditions at time of oiling (air conditioned laboratory/diffuse light vs hot,
direct sunlight) on the survival and growth of Rhizophora

Use of environmental functions to communicate the values of a

mangrove ecosystem under different management regimes:
Both problems are linked to economic consequences (Fig ... fish production' which emphasizes
environmental goods, and `Aquaculture-waste management' which emphasizes environmental
services ... of flooding increase or erosion of the shoreline occur, the damage control sector ...

Mangrove destruction and shrimp culture systems:

Increasingly responsible and sensitive to environmental issues. With non-governmental
organizations bringing issues to the forefront, the general public is being more receptive to
environment-related information. One of the more popular issues is that of mangrove ecosystems. ...
Do you face any problems because of park? ... as a storm protection measure along the Orissa coast
were ineffective in preventing damage; rather, they caused ... policy makers and officials to know
the attitudes and awareness of stakeholders regarding environmental issues so that ...

Environmental Effects of Canopy Gap Formation in HighRainfall

Mangrove Forests:
KC Ewel, S Zheng, ZS Pinzon, JA Bourgeois - Biotropica, 1998 - Wiley Online Library
ABSTRACT This study investigated the importance of gap formation in mangrove swamps
on the island of Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, in order to understand better both
natural processes of forest development and the effects of harvesting trees for firewood in Mangrove
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forests are one of the worlds most threatened tropical ecosystems More than 35% of the worlds
mangroves are already gone. The figure is as high as 50% in countries such as India, the
Philippines, and Vietnam, while in the Americas they are being cleared at a rate faster than
tropical rainforests.
Effects of Business to mangrove forests and their habitats include:

Clearing: Mangrove forests have often been seen as unproductive and smelly, and so
cleared to make room for agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure (such as
harbours), and industrial areas. More recently, clearing for tourist developments,
shrimp aquaculture, and salt farms has also taken place. This clearing is a major factor
behind mangrove loss around the word.

Overharvesting: Mangrove trees are used for firewood, construction wood, wood chip
and pulp production, charcoal production, and animal fodder. While harvesting has taken
place for centuries, in some parts of the world it is no longer sustainable, threatening the
future of the forests.

River changes: Dams and irrigation reduce the amount of water reaching mangrove
forests, changing the salinity level of water in the forest. If salinity becomes too high, the
mangroves cannot survive. Freshwater diversions can also lead to mangroves drying out.
In addition, increased erosion due to land deforestation can massively increase the
amount of sediment in rivers. This can overcome the mangrove forests filtering ability,
leading to the forest being smothered.

Overfishing: The global overfishing crisis facing the worlds oceans has effects far
beyond the directly overfished population. The ecological balance of food chains and
mangrove fish communities can also be altered.Destruction of coral reefs: Coral reefs
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provide the first barrier against currents and strong waves. When they are destroyed, the
stronger-than-normal waves and currents reaching the coast can undermine the fine
sediment in which the mangroves grow. This can prevent seedlings from taking root and
wash away nutrients essential for mangrove ecosystems.

Pollution: Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic man-made chemicals carried by river
systems from sources upstream can kill animals living in mangrove forests, while oil
pollution can smother mangrove roots and suffocate the trees.

Climate change: Mangrove forests require stable sea levels for long-term survival.
They are therefore extremely sensitive to current rising sea levels caused by global
warming and climate change.

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The role of mangroves in New Zealand

Comparisons of the productivity of mangroves from different latitudes worldwide suggest that
productivity and plant biomass decreases with increasing latitude. From this global pattern it is
expected that mangroves in New Zealand, near their southern geographical limit would have
relatively low productivity compared to their tropical equivalents.

Intrinsic and unique values:

Many aspects of New Zealand mangrove systems have not yet been sufficiently studied;
therefore their importance in relation to marine and estuarine species and their role in terms of
ecosystem structure and function is inadequate. The role played by mangroves in New Zealand
estuarine foodwebs is, however, probably significant.

Benthic fauna of mangroves:

Relatively few studies have been undertaken on the benthic assemblages and species of
mangrove forests in New Zealand. The benthic invertebrate fauna of New Zealands mangroves
forests appear to be modest in both abundances and species diversity compared to other estuarine
habitats

Fish fauna of mangrove ecosystems:

Recent studies have shown that the temperate mangrove forests of northern New Zealand support
high abundances of small fishes, but that New Zealand support high abundances of small fishes
compared to other estuarine habitats, with most of the small fish assemblage dominated by
juveniles of the ubiquitous yellow-eyed mullet (Aldrichetta forsteri), as well as juvenile grey
mullet (Mugil cephalus) in the west coast estuaries. Nineteen fish species are confirmed to be
associated with mangroves, of which three species are probably partially reliant on them as
juvenile nurseries

[25]

It seems unlikely that New Zealand mangroves are important as spawning

grounds for coastal fish or as habitat for their larvae.

Use of mangroves by birds:

While many species make extensive use of mangroves for roosting, feeding and breeding, no
bird species is totally dependent on mangroves in New Zealand. The range of bird species that

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are found regularly in New Zealand mangroves includes several native species, such as banded
rail, white-faced heron, harriers, kingfishers, welcome swallow and pkeko.

Role of mangroves in sediment trapping and erosion prevention:

This question has not been fully addressed in relation to New Zealand mangroves. However,
previous and ongoing research, is extending the understanding of the role of mangrove
contribution to habitat change. Remains of rows of mangroves planted to stabilize the coast by
early generations of Maoris can still be seen in New Zealand

Mangrove management
The next section briefly discusses how mangrove has been managed today at the international
and national level. Mangrove biodiversity, management and conservation have received
considerable attention in recent years since research has increased the understanding of the
values, functions and attributes of mangrove ecosystems. Mangrove Restoration practices have
also greatly improved over the past several years.

International level
At the International Level, the common approach to major environmental policy issues has been
to formulate conventions, treaties and agreements, which all concerned countries become
signatories to. Mangroves are today a global issue because more than 100 countries worldwide
have mangrove resources. Of the approximately 100 countries that have mangrove vegetation,
around 20 have undertaken rehabilitation initiatives

establishing nurseries and attempting

afforestation and re-planting in degraded areas. More than half a dozen international agreements
and various regional agreements are directly relevant to the conservation of mangrove
biodiversity.

Ramsar Convention
In 1971, a convention to protect "Wetlands of International Importance" was adopted in the
Iranian city of Ramsar. To become a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, a country had to
designate at least one such site and guarantee its protection. Around 110 countries have become
signatories to the treaty. Some 850 "Ramsar sites" have been designated by these countries
covering over 53 million hectares. About a third of these contain mangroves.
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Marine Protected Areas (MPA)

Reviewed the global status for mangrove conservation: There are 685 protected areas
containing mangroves globally, distributed between 73 countries and territories. Countries with
very large areas of mangroves have a significant number of protected areas notably Australia
(180), Indonesia (64) and Brazil (63). Examples of marine reserves in New Zealand where
mangrove form an important component of the protected foreshore vegetation are Motu Manawa
(Pollen Island) Marine Reserve in the Waitemata Harbour, and Te Matuku Bay Marine Reserve,
Waiheke Island; both managed by the Department of Conservation.

National level
Historically the responsibility of mangrove management at the national level in many tropical
mangrove countries have been assigned on a sectoral basis to executing agencies of the
government, institutions for example Forestry, Fishery or Agriculture Departments. The agencies
responsible for administering mangroves differ between each country and even between states
and districts within Countries.
Sectoral management has inevitably resulted in prejudices regarding their objectives, leading to
conflicts of interest, to unsustainable resource use, and to poor and less powerful groups
becoming more disadvantaged and disenfranchised. These limitations are now recognised as a
major constraint to achieving sustainable development of mangrove resources.

Limitations of management
Lack of knowledge of mangrove ecosystems, their extent, status and linkages to other
ecosystems hampers efforts to conserve and manage mangroves, leading to the unsustainable
exploitation of this productive coastal resources. According to a comprehensive information
database of mangrove biodiversity in each country is necessary to monitor the status of
mangrove biological diversity, realise its economic potential and areas of application. This is
critical in planning an effective management of mangroves.

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Economic arguments carry the greatest weight in conservation and management of mangroves.
However, the true economic value of mangrove diversity and natural resources is difficult to
measure and important ecological processes and functions undervalued. All development plans
and policies should include economic valuations that fully reflect the sociological, ecological and
environmental costs of resource use, physical developments and pollution.
In New Zealand for example much of the basic information required to address concerns and
manage mangrove is lacking. Research has established that, regardless of which approach is
decided upon, sustainable management can only be achieved if evaluation of mangrove areas is
undertaken on a site-by-site basis.

What can I do to save Mangroves?

Get acquainted with the mangroves near your area.

Be vigilant towards activities happening in your surrounding areas and keep an open eye
to note destruction in mangrove areas.

Complain to the local authorities in case you observe any violation.

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Mangroves are now protected by law. If you find any kind of mangrove destruction,
complain to the Forest Department or to the police. Both these authorities are equipped to
take action under the Maharashtra Tree Felling Act and Environment Protection Act.

Join organizations like the Mangrove Society of India, which are working specifically for
the conservation of mangroves. Most importantly try to create awareness among as many
people as possible.

Participate in scientific plantations of mangroves flora at all possible areas.

Mangroves are some of the most productive, complex, and beneficial natural wonders of our
planet. They act as filters for our water supply, reduce erosion, serve as nurseries for commercial
fisheries, provide opportunities for recreation, nurture vital marine biodiversity, and can act as
"carbon sinks," which reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The destruction and degradation of these natural systems--because of factors such as climate
change, development, tourism, wood extraction, and non-sustainable farming--bring about
tremendous ecological, social, and economic losses, the extent of which we are only now just
realizing.
But there is hope for mangroves. The world is starting to notice just how important they are and
is beginning to take steps to prevent further loss.

Information Inspires Action

Recycling our bottles and cans, water conservation, our carbon footprint--most of us are familiar
with how these parts fit into the puzzle that is climate change. Yet our planet's mangroves are just
18

as important to the whole picture, and fortunately, more and more is now known about them and
how they can be conserved.
The Marine Ecosystems Services (MARES) program of ForestTrends:
A D.C.-based international non-profit, has been working with the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre in Cambridge and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to
gather information on the status of mangroves. With this data, these groups can make concrete
recommendations on preventing further damage.
The central message of these findings is clear: Mangroves are critical to supporting human wellbeing. Under threat from over-exploitation, they are also heavily influenced by land use and
watershed management practices, yet immediate steps can be taken to reverse degradation and
actually improve the capacity of the ecosystem services that mangroves provide.

Key Take-Aways
Mangroves and the biodiversity they nurture help with climate regulation, food security, and
poverty reduction. More than 100 million people live within ten kilometers of large mangrove
forests. These people benefit from a variety of goods and services provided by mangroves,
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including fisheries and forest products, clean water, and protection against erosion and extreme
weather events. These ecosystem services are worth an estimated $33,000 to $57,000 per hectare
per year to the national economies of developing countries with mangroves.
Mangroves are exceptionally good at storing greenhouse gas emissions. When mangroves are
degraded or destroyed, these carbon stocks are released to the great detriment of our atmosphere.
Emissions resulting from mangrove losses make up nearly one fifth of global emissions from
deforestation, causing economic damages estimated in the billions annually.
Mangroves can provide natural defenses against extreme weather events and disasters, helping to
reduce the loss of property and the vulnerability of local communities. In combination with other
risk-reduction measures, such as sea walls and early-warning systems, mangroves are often
cheaper than conventional solutions to such risks, such as jetties or constructed breakwaters.
These structures must be maintained and rebuilt over time. Mangroves can adapt to sea-level
rises and land subsidence in ways that engineered defenses cannot.
Mangroves are consistently undervalued. They are often not a factor in decision-making about
coastal development. Therefore mangroves continue to be destroyed at a rate that is three to five
times greater than global deforestation rates.

Actions for Change

There are many management and protection measures and tools available for use at national,
regional, and global scales to help ensure a sustainable future for mangroves. Such actions range
from establishing a commission to ensure that mangrove conservation is on the international
20

development agenda, to creating a Global Mangrove Fund, to the development of international

protocols that promote the protection and sustainable use of mangroves.

Financial mechanisms and incentives could stimulate mangrove conservation, such as carbon
offset markets and corporate and private-sector investments. Economic incentives for mangrove
protection, sustainable use, and restoration activities could be provided as a source of steady
income to local inhabitants of these areas.
There is also tremendous potential to improve public outreach and education to raise awareness
of the economic and social importance of mangroves and the consequences of their loss.
A new report entitled "The Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action," released by
UNEP with major contributions from Forest Trends' MARES program, details these findings and
provides a solid foundation from which to move forward with actions to save mangroves and

21

stop the alarming rate at which they are disappearing. Most of these necessary actions are easily
achievable in short time frames.

Individual Responsibility, Mangroves, and the Future of Our Planet:

At the rate at which mangrove loss is occurring now, there will be significant
consequences for economies and societies through impoverished livelihoods, lower economic
growth, declining human security, and a poorer quality of life for coastal populations. While the
benefits derived from healthy mangroves are mostly experienced by local communities, the loss
22

of mangroves puts coastal populations, national economies, and the world as a whole at risk.
Mangrove ecosystem health and productivity must therefore be part of global efforts to eradicate
poverty, strengthen food security, and reduce vulnerability to climate change.
For individuals, the connection between mangroves and personal responsibility in the face of
climate change may not seem as clear as it might be when we recycle paper or choose to go to
the farmer's market versus the mega-supermarket. Yet, as with those actions, there are things we
can do to support these endangered ecosystems, and becoming educated about this vital resource
is an excellent start. Mangroves are part of the natural capital that supports life on Earth and
require not only our appreciation for all they do, but also our robust and informed attention and
support.

Mangroves in Mumbai
History:
Mumbai Historical records indicate that there were several islands around Mumbai during
1670. However, the Britishers, who were ruling the country identified the importance of these
23

islands for commercial purpose. They deforested the fringing mangroves and reclaimed these
islands into one continuous landmass, which later came to be known as "Greater Bombay".
Since then the developmental and bsequently population pressure rapidly increased and being
the coastal area, it took the toll of mangrove land. During the process of deforestation and
reclamation, a few mangrove patches are still left in the heart of the city, which proves that
today's megacity had a luxuriant past of mangrove forests (fig). Major mangroves are seen
today in Mumbai along the Vasai Creek, Thane Creek, Manori and Malad, Mahim - Bandra,
Versova, Siwari, Mumbra - Diva and few more places.

Mangroves represent the spirit of Mumbai:

They are plucky survivors. But each day, millions of citizens in Mumbai pass these hardy plants
imagining they are little more than dirty, muddy weeds growing pointlessly along the shoreline.
How little people understand just how important mangroves are to the quality of life of the
citizens of Mumbai.
By trapping silt, mangroves maintain the integrity of Mumbais shoreline. This is a vital service
to the city of Mumbai as it is very prone to erosion, having been built on reclaimed land that is
battered by the sea on all three sides. The recent rains in Mumbai and the disaster that followed
demonstrated the consequence of tampering with the ecology of fragile ecosystems like
mangroves. Had Mumbais Mithi river and Mahim creek mangroves not been destroyed by
builders, fewer people would have died and the property damage would have been dramatically
less. The Koli community in Mumbai worships mangroves because they know that these are
breeding and nursery grounds for the marine organisms on which their sustenance depends.

Mangrove community of Mumbai

In the early nineties, perhaps over 37 sq. km. of mangroves existed in Mumbai, largely in the
Thane creek, Mahim, Versova, Gorai and Ghodbunder, with sporadic patches in places such as
24

Bandra, Malabar Hill and Colaba. Mumbai has probably lost 40 per cent of all its mangroves in
the past decade or so, largely because of reclamation for housing, slums, sewage treatment and
garbage dumps. Fortunately, thanks to the Godrej family, we still have excellent mangrove
forests in Vikhroli (Link). Around 20 out of the 35 species of true mangroves found in India have
been identified along the Maharashtra coast and 15 species of these are found in Mumbai.
Because of the high salinity of the soil, something like 60 per cent of Mumbai mangroves
comprise Avicennia marina. Nor surprisingly this species also tolerates pollution including heavy
metals such as lead, mercury and chromium, all found in significant concentrations in the Mithi
river.
Rapid developments like housing, industrialization, pollution and increasing population of
Mumbai has resulted into degradation of mangroves. There are two important creeks, Vasai
Creek towards north and Thane Creek toward south where luxuriant mangrove patches are still
left. Otherwise the State Govt. agencies have failed to protect this important, productive
mangrove ecosystem from building mafias.
The worst affected area in Mumbai is the entire western front excepting Carter Road where the
mangroves have grown and have also registered an increase in height in the last 10 years. This
has been possible due to the participation of citizens forums fighting individually.
In India, a legal protection is afforded to this ecosystem by way of legislation in the form of
Coastal Regulation Zone Notification. Recently Mumbai High Court has ordered freeze on
destruction of mangrove forests in Maharashtra and has banned construction within 50 metres of
them. The court has also directed to notify mangrove areas as protected forests. Thus, there is
already a mechanism provided for management of this ecosystem. Unfortunately, however many
a times the legal provisions are not being enforced to curb the illegal activities.
In such a situation, protection of the mangrove ecosystem is possible only through the
participation of the local community and by building up pressure groups for ensuring
management of this ecosystem and strict implementation of the legal provisions by the
Government. Thereby, integrity of habitats critical for spawning, juveniles and feeding and for
25

biodiversity, apart from ecological sustainability and community-sustainability could be

maintained.
In the past few years there has been an increase in the awareness of the people in Mumbai.
Residents associations are coming together to spread this awareness. They realize that the rapid
destruction of mangroves along the coast of Mumbai will have far-reaching effects on the city.
The NGOs in Mumbai are making efforts to highlight the issues like sland reclamation, coastal
regulation zone notification and illegal destruction of the mangrove areas through the
interventions of the local state government and a local bodies

Marine Life in Mangroves:

Mangroves are an important habitat, providing food, shelter and nursery areas for fish,
birds,crustaceans and other marine life. They also provide a source of livelihood for many
humans around the world, including wood for fuel, charcoal and timber and areas for fishing.
Mangroves also form a buffer that defends coastlines from flooding and erosion.
Many types of marine and terrestrial life utilize mangroves. Animals inhabit the mangrove's leafy
canopy and waters underneath the mangrove's root system, and live in nearby tidal waters and
mudflats. In the U.S., species found in mangroves include reptiles such as the American
crocodile and American alligator; sea turtles including the hawksbill, Ridley, green and
loggerhead; fish such as snapper, tarpon, jack, sheepshead, and red drum; crustaceans such as
shrimp and crabs; and coastal and migratory birds such as pelicans, spoonbills and bald eagles.

Government to enact separate law to protect mangroves:

26

The states environment department plans to enact a separate law to protect mangroves because
existing laws have been unsuccessful in curbing large-scale destruction of these protected forest
areas.
The department will soon form a core committee of legal experts, environmentalists and officials
to draft the proposed state legislation. We need a separate legislation because there is no clarity
in the existing laws about enforcement. The existing penalty of Rs1 lakh is also not a sufficient
deterrent for culprits, said Valsa Nair Singh, environment secretary.
Singh added that the department gets over 20 complaints monthly about cases of hacking of
mangroves, dumping of debris or other such transgressions.
The city has a total area of 4,865 hectares of mangroves out of which 4,117 hectares is protected
forests. HT had reported on Thursday that in the last two decades, 40% of Mumbais mangrove
cover has been lost to construction and encroachments.
There is confusion over the enforcing of existing laws (Environment Protection Act, Forest
Conservation Act, Bombay Police Act).
For instance, the police do not take action if mangrove hacking occurs on protected forests.
Forest officials take cognisance under the forest conservation act, a tedious procedure, only if
such complaints are on notified forests.
The proposed legislation will enable the police to take action against the destruction of
mangroves across the state irrespective of which land it falls under. It will also make offenders
pay through compulsory afforestation, by restoring twice the number of mangroves destroyed.
The penalty for the offence will also be substantially hiked.

CONCLUSION
27

In conclusion, it may be noted that mangrove ecosystem must be protected. Intensive

afforestation would certainly ensure formation of rich mangrove forests. Awareness programmes
should be conducted by the Government for conserving the biodiversity of mangrove ecosystem.
There is an urgency to halt their operations now, not trusting in their purported best practices,
which most likely cannot be met. We should not wait for them to go far in their dangerous
enterprise if we hope to avoid the same Asian problems of shrimp farming occurring in Nigeria
There is a need for the Mangrove Forest Conservation Society of Nigeria (MFCSN) to move in
to sensitize the people and we have already started that. More programmes are being drawn up to
tackle the Government and CSO ignorance on industrial shrimp farming and the formation of a
working group with mangrove forest providing the secretariat.
Mangroves fulfil many necessary functions from the productive, protective and social points of
view. Yet increased population pressures in coastal areas and lack of awareness have led to largescale conversion of mangrove areas to other uses. Numerous case studies and anecdotal evidence
exist describing mangrove losses over time. However, access to comprehensive information on
the status and trends of mangrove areas at the global level has been limited. Analysis of the most
recent reliable estimate identified for each country and area shows that the area of mangroves
varies from a few hectares to more than 1 or 2 million hectares in individual countries and that
five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Brazil, Nigeria and Mexico) account for about 47 percent of
the global area of these ecosystems. More than 60 percent of the total mangrove area is found in
just ten countries. By region, the largest areas of mangroves are found in Asia and Africa,
followed by North and Central America. The study illustrates the problems that varying
methodologies over time and lack of recent, reliable information for a few countries create in
generating reliable trends. The estimate for 2005 is thus indicative and is likely to change when
results from ongoing and future assessments become available. Nevertheless, the trend analysis
indicates that the current mangrove area worldwide has fallen to about 15.2 million hectares,
down from 18.8 million hectares in 1980. The world has thus lost some 3.6 million hectares of
mangroves over the last 25 years, or 20 percent of the extent found in 1980. The study also
indicates that the loss of mangroves continues at alarming rates, but that the rate of net loss is
showing signs of slowing down in line with the trend in forests (FAO, 2006a). From about 185
000 ha lost every year in the 1980s, the net loss dropped to some 118 500 ha per year in the
28

1990s and to 102 000 ha per year (or a loss of 0.66 percent annually) during the 20002005
period, reflecting an increased awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystems. Most countries
have now banned the conversion of mangrove areas for aquaculture purposes and require
environmental impact assessments prior to large-scale conversion of these areas for other uses.
This has led to new legislation, better protection and management and, in some countries, to an
expansion of mangrove areas through active planting or natural regeneration. Even though
mangroves have been often used for the collection of wood forest products and as a source of
subsistence for local populations, wood removal is rarely the main cause of loss. Human pressure
on coastal ecosystems and thus competition for land for aquaculture, agriculture, infrastructure
and tourism are often intense and are among the major causes of the reported decrease in these
forest areas over time. More specifically, the relatively large losses of mangrove areas in Asia,
the Caribbean and Latin America during the 1980s were caused primarily by large-scale
conversion of these areas for aquaculture and tourism infrastructure.

BIBLOGRAPHY
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_flood
www.ecosystemmarketplcomace./pages/dynamic/article.page.php?
page_id=10623&section=news_articles&eod=1&gclid=CO_I_urwrcQCFQeTjg
odFW4A3w
http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae213e/ae213e04.htmik
http://mangroveactionproject.org/shrimp-farming-in-the-se-and-sw-of-nigeria/
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/mangroves/mangrove_thre
ats/
http://www.mangroves.godrej.com/Whyshouldweprotectmangroves.htmhttp://www.h
industantimes.com/mumbai/government-to-enact-separate-law-to-protectmangroves/article1-705048.aspx

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