Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
M. B. Patil
mbpatil@ee.iitb.ac.in
www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Op Amps: introduction
* The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a versatile building block that can be
used for realizing several electronic circuits.
Op Amps: introduction
* The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a versatile building block that can be
used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The use of Op Amps frees the user from cumbersome details such as transistor
biasing and coupling capacitors.
Op Amps: introduction
* The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a versatile building block that can be
used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The use of Op Amps frees the user from cumbersome details such as transistor
biasing and coupling capacitors.
* The characteristics of an Op Amp are nearly ideal Op Amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.
Op Amps: introduction
* The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a versatile building block that can be
used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The use of Op Amps frees the user from cumbersome details such as transistor
biasing and coupling capacitors.
* The characteristics of an Op Amp are nearly ideal Op Amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.
* Amplifiers built with Op Amps work with DC input voltages as well useful in
sensor applications (e.g., temperature, pressure)
Op Amps: introduction
* The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a versatile building block that can be
used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The use of Op Amps frees the user from cumbersome details such as transistor
biasing and coupling capacitors.
* The characteristics of an Op Amp are nearly ideal Op Amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.
* Amplifiers built with Op Amps work with DC input voltages as well useful in
sensor applications (e.g., temperature, pressure)
* The user can generally carry out circuit design without a thorough knowledge of
the intricate details (next slide) of an Op Amp. This makes the design process
simple.
Op Amps: introduction
* The Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a versatile building block that can be
used for realizing several electronic circuits.
* The use of Op Amps frees the user from cumbersome details such as transistor
biasing and coupling capacitors.
* The characteristics of an Op Amp are nearly ideal Op Amp circuits can be
expected to perform as per theoretical design in most cases.
* Amplifiers built with Op Amps work with DC input voltages as well useful in
sensor applications (e.g., temperature, pressure)
* The user can generally carry out circuit design without a thorough knowledge of
the intricate details (next slide) of an Op Amp. This makes the design process
simple.
* However, as Einstein has said, we should make everything as simple as possible,
but not simpler. need to know where the ideal world ends, and the real one
begins.
Op Amp 741
Actual circuit
VCC
Q8
Q12
Q13
Q14
Q9
Q15
R6
+
Q2
Q1
Symbol
R7
Q19
R5
CC
Q3
Q18
OUT
OUT
R10
Q4
VCC
Q21
VEE
Q20
Q23
Q7
Q16
Q10
Q5
Q6
Q17
R9
Q11
R4
R8
R1
R3
R2
Q22
Q24
VEE
offset adjust
VCC
OUT
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vi
AV Vi
Vo
VEE
VCC
OUT
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vi
AV Vi
Vo
VEE
* The external resistances ( a few k) are generally much larger than Ro and
much smaller than Ri we can assume Ri , Ro 0 without significantly
affecting the analysis.
VCC
OUT
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vi
AV Vi
Vo
VEE
* The external resistances ( a few k) are generally much larger than Ro and
much smaller than Ri we can assume Ri , Ro 0 without significantly
affecting the analysis.
* VCC and VEE ( 5 V to 15 V ) must be supplied; an Op Amp will not work
without them!
VCC
OUT
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vi
AV Vi
Vo
VEE
* The external resistances ( a few k) are generally much larger than Ro and
much smaller than Ri we can assume Ri , Ro 0 without significantly
affecting the analysis.
* VCC and VEE ( 5 V to 15 V ) must be supplied; an Op Amp will not work
without them!
In Op Amp circuits, the supply voltages are often not shown explicitly.
VCC
Ro
Vi
OUT
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vi
AV Vi
Vo
VEE
* The external resistances ( a few k) are generally much larger than Ro and
much smaller than Ri we can assume Ri , Ro 0 without significantly
affecting the analysis.
* VCC and VEE ( 5 V to 15 V ) must be supplied; an Op Amp will not work
without them!
In Op Amp circuits, the supply voltages are often not shown explicitly.
Parameter
Ideal Op Amp
741
AV
Ri
Ro
Ro
Vi
OUT
Ri
Vi
Vo
AV Vi
Vo
AV Vi
VEE
saturation
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
10
0
5
slope = AV
Vsat
0.1
0
Vi (mV)
0.1
0
5
10
0.2
saturation
Vo (V)
Vo (V)
0.2
linear
saturation
10
0
Vi (V)
Ro
Vi
OUT
Ri
Vi
Vo
AV Vi
Vo
AV Vi
VEE
saturation
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
10
saturation
Vo (V)
Vo (V)
5
0
5
slope = AV
Vsat
10
0.2
0.1
0
Vi (mV)
0.1
0.2
linear
saturation
10
0
Vi (V)
* The output voltage Vo is limited to Vsat , where Vsat 1.5 V less than VCC .
Ro
Vi
OUT
Ri
Vi
Vo
AV Vi
Vo
AV Vi
VEE
saturation
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
10
saturation
Vo (V)
Vo (V)
5
0
5
slope = AV
Vsat
10
0.2
0.1
0
Vi (mV)
0.1
0.2
linear
saturation
10
0
Vi (V)
* The output voltage Vo is limited to Vsat , where Vsat 1.5 V less than VCC .
* For Vsat < Vo < Vsat , Vi = V+ V = Vo /AV , which is very small
V+ and V are virtually the same.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
VEE
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
Ro
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
Ro
VEE
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
Ro
VEE
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
Ro
VEE
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
Ro
VEE
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
VEE
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
Op Amp circuits
Vsat
10
VCC
Ro
VEE
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
saturation
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
VCC
VEE
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
saturation
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
Vsat
10
iin
0
5
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
VCC
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
saturation
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
Vsat
10
iin
0
5
VEE
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
VCC
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
saturation
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
Vsat
10
iin
0
5
VEE
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
VCC
Ro
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
saturation
Vo
Vo (V)
OUT
Vsat
10
iin
0
5
VEE
linear
saturation
Vsat
10
0
Vi (V)
R2
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
Vo
RL
R2
i1
Vi
R1
ii
R2
i1
Vi
Vo
R1
ii
RL
Vo
RL
f = 1 kHz
1k
Vi
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
10 k
Vm = 0.5 V
Vo
0
Vi
5
0
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
f = 1 kHz
1k
Vi
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
10 k
Vm = 0.5 V
Vo
0
Vi
5
0
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
* The gain of the inverting amplifier is R2 /R1 . It is called the closed-loop gain
(to distinguish it from the open-loop gain of the Op Amp which is 105 ).
f = 1 kHz
1k
Vi
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
10 k
Vm = 0.5 V
Vo
0
Vi
5
0
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
* The gain of the inverting amplifier is R2 /R1 . It is called the closed-loop gain
(to distinguish it from the open-loop gain of the Op Amp which is 105 ).
* The gain can be adjusted simply by changing R1 or R2 !
f = 1 kHz
1k
Vi
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
10 k
Vm = 0.5 V
Vo
0
Vi
5
0
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
* The gain of the inverting amplifier is R2 /R1 . It is called the closed-loop gain
(to distinguish it from the open-loop gain of the Op Amp which is 105 ).
* The gain can be adjusted simply by changing R1 or R2 !
* For the common-emitter amplifier, on the other hand, the gain gm (RC k RL )
depends on how the BJT is biased (since gm depends on IC ).
5
10 k
f = 1 kHz
1k
Vi
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vo
Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vm = 0.5 V
Vi
5
0
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
* The gain of the inverting amplifier is R2 /R1 . It is called the closed-loop gain
(to distinguish it from the open-loop gain of the Op Amp which is 105 ).
* The gain can be adjusted simply by changing R1 or R2 !
* For the common-emitter amplifier, on the other hand, the gain gm (RC k RL )
depends on how the BJT is biased (since gm depends on IC ).
(SEQUEL file: ee101 inv amp 1.sqproj)
1k
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
f = 1 kHz
Vi
15
10 k
Vm = 2 V
Vo
0
15
0
Vi
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
1k
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
f = 1 kHz
Vi
15
10 k
Vm = 2 V
Vo
0
15
0
Vi
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
1k
R2
R1
Vo
RL
Vi , Vo (Volts)
f = 1 kHz
Vi
15
10 k
Vm = 2 V
Vo
0
15
0
Vi
0.5
1
t (msec)
1.5
10
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2
1k
Vi
Vo (expected)
R1
Vo
Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vm = 1 V
Vo
0
Vi
RL
10
20
40
t (sec)
60
80
10
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2
1k
Vi
Vo (expected)
R1
Vo
Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vm = 1 V
Vo
0
Vi
RL
10
20
40
t (sec)
60
80
* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical Op Amp cannot keep up with the
input due to its slew rate limitation.
10
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2
1k
Vi
Vo (expected)
R1
Vo
Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vm = 1 V
Vo
0
Vi
RL
10
20
40
t (sec)
60
80
* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical Op Amp cannot keep up with the
input due to its slew rate limitation.
* The slew rate of an Op Amp is the maximum rate at which the Op Amp output
can rise (or fall).
10
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2
1k
Vi
Vo (expected)
R1
Vo
Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vm = 1 V
Vo
0
Vi
RL
10
20
40
t (sec)
60
80
* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical Op Amp cannot keep up with the
input due to its slew rate limitation.
* The slew rate of an Op Amp is the maximum rate at which the Op Amp output
can rise (or fall).
* For the 741, the slew rate is 0.5 V /sec.
10
10 k
f = 25 kHz
R2
1k
Vi
Vo (expected)
R1
Vo
Vi , Vo (Volts)
Vm = 1 V
Vo
0
Vi
RL
10
20
40
t (sec)
60
80
* If the signal frequency is too high, a practical Op Amp cannot keep up with the
input due to its slew rate limitation.
* The slew rate of an Op Amp is the maximum rate at which the Op Amp output
can rise (or fall).
* For the 741, the slew rate is 0.5 V /sec.
(SEQUEL file: ee101 inv amp 2.sqproj)
R2
Vi
R2
Vi
R1
R1
Vo
Vo
RL
RL
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
R2
Vi
R2
Vi
R1
R1
Vo
Vo
RL
RL
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
R2
Vi
R2
Vi
R1
R1
Vo
Vo
RL
RL
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
R2
Vi
R2
Vi
R1
R1
Vo
Vo
RL
RL
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
R2
i1
R1
Vi
Vo
RL
* V+ V = Vi
R2
i1
R1
Vi
Vo
RL
* V+ V = Vi
i1 = (0 Vi )/R1 = Vi /R1 .
R2
i1
R1
Vi
Vo
RL
* V+ V = Vi
i1 = (0 Vi )/R1 = Vi /R1 .
Vi
R2
* Vo = V+ i1 R2 = Vi
R2 = Vi 1 +
.
R1
R1
R2
i1
R1
Vi
Vo
RL
* V+ V = Vi
i1 = (0 Vi )/R1 = Vi /R1 .
Vi
R2
* Vo = V+ i1 R2 = Vi
R2 = Vi 1 +
.
R1
R1
* This circuit is known as the non-inverting amplifier.
R2
i1
R1
Vi
Vo
RL
* V+ V = Vi
i1 = (0 Vi )/R1 = Vi /R1 .
Vi
R2
* Vo = V+ i1 R2 = Vi
R2 = Vi 1 +
.
R1
R1
* This circuit is known as the non-inverting amplifier.
* Again, interchanging + and changes the nature of the feedback from negative
to positive, and the circuit operation becomes completely different.
Inverting or non-inverting?
R2
Vs
Vs
R1
Vo =
RL
R2
i1
Ro
R1
Vi
R2
Vs
R1
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
Vo
RL
Inverting amplifier
R2
R2
Ro
R1
R1
Vs
Vo = 1 +
RL
R2
R1
Vi
Vs
Ri
AV Vi
Vs
Noninverting amplifier
* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be
preferred?
Inverting or non-inverting?
R2
Vs
Vs
R1
Vo =
RL
R2
i1
Ro
R1
Vi
R2
Vs
R1
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
Vo
RL
Inverting amplifier
R2
R2
Ro
R1
R1
Vs
Vo = 1 +
RL
R2
R1
Vi
Vs
Ri
AV Vi
Vs
Noninverting amplifier
* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be
preferred?
* For the inverting amplifier, since V 0 V , i1 = Vs /R1 Rin = Vs /i1 = R1 .
Inverting or non-inverting?
R2
Vs
Vs
R1
Vo =
RL
R2
i1
Ro
R1
Vi
R2
Vs
R1
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
Vo
RL
Inverting amplifier
R2
R2
Ro
R1
R1
Vs
Vo = 1 +
RL
R2
R1
Vi
Vs
Ri
AV Vi
Vs
Noninverting amplifier
* If the sign of the output voltage is not a concern, which configuration should be
preferred?
* For the inverting amplifier, since V 0 V , i1 = Vs /R1 Rin = Vs /i1 = R1 .
* For the non-inverting amplifier, Rin Ri of the Op Amp, which is a few M.
Non-inverting amplifier is better if a large Rin is required.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Non-inverting amplifier
R2
R1
Vo
Vo
Vi
RL
Vi
RL
Consider R1 , R2 0 .
Non-inverting amplifier
R2
R1
Vo
Vo
Vi
RL
Vi
RL
Consider R1 , R2 0 .
Vo
R2
1+
1 , i.e., Vo = Vi .
Vi
R1
Non-inverting amplifier
R2
R1
Vo
Vo
Vi
RL
Vi
RL
Consider R1 , R2 0 .
Vo
R2
1+
1 , i.e., Vo = Vi .
Vi
R1
This circuit is known as unity-gain amplifier/voltage follower/buffer.
Non-inverting amplifier
R2
R1
Vo
Vo
Vi
RL
Vi
RL
Consider R1 , R2 0 .
Vo
R2
1+
1 , i.e., Vo = Vi .
Vi
R1
This circuit is known as unity-gain amplifier/voltage follower/buffer.
What has been achieved?
Loading effects
Ro
Rs
Vs
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
Loading effects
Ro
Rs
Vs
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
RL
RL
Ri
AV Vi = AV
Vs .
Ro + RL
Ro + RL
Ri + Rs
Loading effects
Ro
Rs
Vs
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
RL
RL
Ri
AV Vi = AV
Vs .
Ro + RL
Ro + RL
Ri + Rs
Loading effects
Ro
Rs
Vs
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
RL
RL
RL
Ri
AV Vi = AV
Vs .
Ro + RL
Ro + RL
Ri + Rs
Op Amp buffer
Vs
Vi
Vo
RL
Ro
RL
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
B
Vs
Op Amp
* The current drawn from the source (Vs ) is small (since Ri of the Op Amp is
large) the buffer has a large input resistance.
Op Amp buffer
Vs
Vi
Vo
RL
Ro
RL
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
B
Vs
Op Amp
* The current drawn from the source (Vs ) is small (since Ri of the Op Amp is
large) the buffer has a large input resistance.
* As we have seen earlier, AV is large Vi 0 V VA = VB = Vs .
Op Amp buffer
Vs
Vi
Vo
RL
Ro
RL
Ri
AV Vi
Vo
B
Vs
Op Amp
* The current drawn from the source (Vs ) is small (since Ri of the Op Amp is
large) the buffer has a large input resistance.
* As we have seen earlier, AV is large Vi 0 V VA = VB = Vs .
* The resistance seen by RL is R 0 Ro , which is small the buffer has a small
output resistance. (To find R 0 , deactivate the input voltage source (Vs )
AV Vi = 0 V .)
Op Amp buffer
Vo1
Vs
i1
Vo
Vo2
Rs
Ro
buffer
Vi
i2
buffer
RL
load
Ri
AV Vi
source
amplifier
Op Amp buffer
Vo1
Vs
i1
Vo
Vo2
Rs
Ro
buffer
Vi
i2
buffer
RL
load
Ri
AV Vi
source
amplifier
Op Amp buffer
Vo1
Vs
i1
Vo
Vo2
Rs
Ro
buffer
Vi
i2
buffer
RL
load
Ri
AV Vi
source
amplifier
Op Amp buffer
Vo1
Vs
i1
Vo
Vo2
Rs
Ro
buffer
Vi
i2
buffer
RL
load
Ri
AV Vi
source
amplifier
R3 i3
Rf
R2 i2
R1 i1
if
ii
Vo
RL
R3 i3
Rf
R2 i2
R1 i1
if
ii
Vo
RL
R3 i3
Rf
R2 i2
R1 i1
if
ii
Vo
RL
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 =
+
+
.
R1
R2
R3
R3 i3
Rf
R2 i2
R1 i1
if
ii
Vo
RL
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 =
+
+
.
R1
R2
R3
Because of the large input resistance of the Op Amp, ii 0 if = i, which gives,
R3 i3
Rf
R2 i2
R1 i1
if
ii
Vo
RL
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 =
+
+
.
R1
R2
R3
Because of the large input resistance of the Op Amp, ii 0 if = i, which gives,
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
Rf
Rf
Rf
V o = V if Rf = 0
+
+
Rf =
Vi1 +
Vi2 +
Vi3 ,
R1
R2
R3
R1
R2
R3
i.e., Vo is a weighted sum of Vi1 , Vi2 , Vi3 .
R3 i3
Rf
R2 i2
R1 i1
if
ii
Vo
RL
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
i = i1 + i2 + i3 =
+
+
.
R1
R2
R3
Because of the large input resistance of the Op Amp, ii 0 if = i, which gives,
Vi1
Vi2
Vi3
Rf
Rf
Rf
V o = V if Rf = 0
+
+
Rf =
Vi1 +
Vi2 +
Vi3 ,
R1
R2
R3
R1
R2
R3
i.e., Vo is a weighted sum of Vi1 , Vi2 , Vi3 .
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R , the circuit acts as a summer, giving
Vo = K (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 ) with K = Rf /R .
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Summer example
1.2
Vi1
0.6
Vi3
Vi2
Vi1
R3
Vi3
i3
Rf
R 2 i2
R 1 i1
if
Vi2
ii
Vo
RL
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k
0.6
Vo
Rf = 2 k
Vo = 2 (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 )
SEQUEL file: ee101_summer.sqproj
3
0
2
t (msec)
Summer example
1.2
Vi1
0.6
Vi3
Vi2
Vi1
R3
Vi3
i3
Rf
R 2 i2
R 1 i1
if
Vi2
ii
Vo
RL
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k
0.6
Vo
Rf = 2 k
Vo = 2 (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 )
SEQUEL file: ee101_summer.sqproj
3
0
2
t (msec)
* Note that the summer also works with DC inputs. This is true about the
inverting and non-inverting amplifiers as well.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Summer example
1.2
Vi1
0.6
Vi3
Vi2
Vi1
R3
Vi3
i3
Rf
R 2 i2
R 1 i1
if
Vi2
ii
Vo
RL
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k
0.6
Vo
Rf = 2 k
Vo = 2 (Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3 )
SEQUEL file: ee101_summer.sqproj
3
0
2
t (msec)
* Note that the summer also works with DC inputs. This is true about the
inverting and non-inverting amplifiers as well.
* Op Amps make life simpler! Think of adding voltages in any other way.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay