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MODULE 2
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Basic SI Units
Length
Mass
Time
(L)
(m)
(t)
Metre (m)
Kilogram(kg)
Second (s)
Derived SI Units
Area
Volume
Density
Velocity
(A)
(V)
()
(V)
Force
(F)
Pressure(p)
Energy (E)
Work
(W)
Power (P)
Frequency(f)
Square Metre
(m2)
Cubic Metre
(m3)
Kg / Cubic Metre (kg/m3)
Metre per second (m/s)
Newton
Pascal
Joule
Joule
Watt
Hertz
(N)
(Pa)
(J)
(J)
(w)
(Hz)
matter
Matter - anything that occupies
space.
- consists of atoms and molecules.
Atom - smallest particle in an element
has the properties of the
element.
Molecules - the combination of two or
more atoms.
that
NATURE OF MATTER
Nucleus - each carrying a positive charge are called protons.
In addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains electrically neutral particles
called neutrons. Neutrons have the same mass as protons whereas electrons are very
much smaller.
Neutron - simply adds to the weight of the nucleus.
- has no charge.
Proton - positively charged.
Relative
Mass
Electrical
Charge
Comments
Neutron
0 ( zero )
In the nucleus
Proton
+1 ( positive )
In the nucleus
Electron
1 / 1850
-1 ( negative )
Isotopes
are atoms that have same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Atom gains / loses one or more neutrons from nucleus will become
ISOTOPES.
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
Atoms bond together to form a molecule.
Molecules
Monatomic Molecule
Chemical Compounds
Structure of Atoms
Electrons are arranged in energy levels and shells around the nucleus and
with increasing distance from the nucleus .
Valence electrons :
- how many electrons an atom has in its outer shell.
- determines the chemical behavior.
- The more valence electrons, the more want for the atom to
get more electrons.
Valency :
1. bonding capacity of an atom; usually equals the number of unpaired
electrons in the atoms outermost shell.
2. No. of bonds it can make with a monovalent atom such as Hydrogen.
Monovalent
Bivalent
Trivalent
Tetravalent
The Molecule
Ionic bonds
Chemical compounds
Defined as :
A substance made up of different elements that are chemically bonded and
are so united that the whole has properties of its own, which are unlike those
of its constituents.
All other molecules made up of two or more atoms are known as Chemical
compound.
States of matter
All matter exists in one of three physical states.
Physical state refers to the condition of a compound and has no
affect on a compound's chemical structure.
Solid. A solid has definite mass, volume and shape.
Liquid. A liquid has definite mass and volume but takes the shape
of its container.
Gas. A gas has definite mass but takes the volume and shape of its
container.
increase in the temperature will increase the energy of its
molecules.
Sublimation
i.
Vapour.
ii.
iii.
Evaporation
i.
ii.
Some liquid have low boiling point, so easily change from liquid
to vapour.
iii.
Mechanics :
statics ; forces
centre of gravity
stress and strain
properties of matter
pressure and buoyancy in liquids
Ne to s la of
otio s
MECHANICS
STATIC
Forces
If a Force is applied to a body it will cause that body to move in the
direction of the applied force.
force has both magnitude (size) and direction.
Forces cannot be directly observed, only their effects can be seen.
Compressive - force applied on an object to squeeze it.
Tensile - pair of forces try to extend an object.
Shear - Pair of forces tries to cause one face of material to
slide relative to an adjacent face.
Statics is used to describe study of bodies at rest when forces are
balanced.
Adding Forces
2 or more forces act at same line, produce resultant force.
If at straight line, subtract or addition.
Worked example
Find the resultant of two forces of 4.0 N and 5.0 N acting at an angle of 45
degree to each other.
Using a scale of 1.0 cm = 1.0 N, draw parallelogram ABCD with AB = 5.0 cm,
AC = 4.0 N and angle CAB = 45 degree, see figure 8.
IN EQUILIBRIUM
=
=
=
100 mm
20 mm
20 mm
WHAT IS
CENTER OF GRAVITY ?
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Gravity is a force which is always present and is a pulling force in
the direction of the center of the earth.
This force acts on every body through an imaginary point called the
Stability / balancing
The lower the C of G, the stable an object is.
The wider the base, the more stable an object
is C of G towards the base.
C of g of an aircraft
To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center-of-gravity must fall within
o e e t, et .
WHAT IS STRESS ?
AND WHAT IS STRAIN ?
Stress
A body with having twice the size of other body subjected to a force, it will
be stronger and less likely to fail due to applied the applied force.
Stress =
Eg. A tennis ball sealed from atmospheric pressure. So, as long as the
external forces acting on it does not exceed the internal forces, the ball will
maintain its shape.
Forces applied to the body will cause distortion of the body and change to the
ate ial s oss-sectional area ;
eg. Tensile Forces will cause elongation .
Compressive Force will cause reduction in dimension.
Most material have elastic properties ( it will to return to its original shape after
the force is removed ) - provided forces does not exceed limit of elasticity.
Tension
Compression
Torsion
Torsional stress is applied to a material when it is twisted.
Torsion is actually a combination of both tension and compression
Bending
In flight, the force of lift tries to bend an aircraft's wing upward.
Shear
combines tension and compression is the shear stress, which tries to slide
an object apart.
Strain
If the outside force is great enough to cause the object to change its
shape or size, the object is not only under stress, but is also strained.
is proportio al
How stress varies with stress when a steel wire is stretched until it breaks.
Hooke s La states that, the a ou t of stret h elo gatio
the applied for e.
is proportio al to
Strain - the degree of distortion then has to be the actual distortion divided
by the original length (in other words, elongation per unit length).
Strain = change in dimension / original dimension ( No units )
Compression strain
Shear strain
when the applied load causes
one 'layer' of material to move
relative to the adjacent layers.
Torsion strain
form of shear stress resulting
from a twisting action.
Shearing Strain
Properties of matter
Diffusion
Surface Tension
The su fa e te sio
In a liquid, the molecules still partially bond together and prevents liquid
from spreading nag expanding out.
Adhesion
Cohesion
Force of attraction between
molecules of same substances.
capillary
If a glass tube of small bore is dipped into water , the water rises u the
tube a few centimetres.
The adhesion between the glass and the water exceeds the cohesion of
the water molecules, the meniscus curves up , and the surface tension
causes the water to rise.
Mechanical properties of
matter
Strength
A strong material requires a strong force to break it
Stiffness
A stiff material resists fo es hi h t y to ha ge it s shape o size.
Elasticity
The ability to recover to its original shape and size after the force deforming it has been
reformed.
Ductility
Materials that can be rolled into sheets, drawn into wires or worked into other useful
shapes, without breaking are ductile.
Brittleness
A material that is fragile and breaks easily .
or
p = F/A.
Pas al s La : pressure acts equally and in all directions throughout that fluid.
Units of pressure
SI system pressure :
Pascal = force per unit area ( Nm-2)
Atmospheric pressure :
buoyancy
Ar hi edes Principle states that when an object is submerged in a liquid, the object
displaces a volume of liquid equal to its volume and is supported by a force equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced.
kinetics
Linear motion
Is the uniform motion in a straight line.
Motion is the change of position of a body with reference to
another body.
eg.
speed
Speed tells us how quickly an object is moving at any given point in time.
Scalar quantity does not take into account the direction of the object
travelled.
=
=
Worked example
velocity
eg.
acceleration
=
=
(vu)/t
u + at
V = u + at
s=(u+v)t
s = ut + at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Free falling objects
if a stationary object is released and free falls under attraction of the force
of gravity, it will accelerate at 9.81 m/s 2
o the a ill be 9.81 m/s 2 ,
ut i this ase it is gi e the sy ol g .
If the object is thrown upwards, its g will be 9.81m/s2
Initial velocity of objects freefalling from rest is zero, so the equations for free fall
are :
gt
gt2
V2
(2gs)2
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Circular Motion
Rotational motion means motion involving curved paths and therefore
change of direction.
Only cases of constant acceleration are considered here.
They are equivalent to those linear equations of motion :
Centripetal Force
Force = ma, so we can say that the object has an inwards acceleration
called Centripetal Acceleration which is ;
a
=
v2 , so
F
=
r
*where v is linear velocity and r is radius of circular path.
Centrifugal Force
Is the equal but opposite reaction to the Centripetal Force.
Ne to s 3rd Law )
Tensile Force at the other end of the string acts outwards of the circle.
r
r
r
Periodic motion
Some masses move from one point to another, then back to the original
point, and continue to do this repetitively.
The time during which the mass moved away from, and then returned to
its original position is known as the time period, and the motion is known
as periodic motion.
Example : pendulum
Pendulum
When the mass then displaced from its rest position, it will accelerate back towards
its rest position.
On reaching it however, it will not stop, because its inertia carries it on to an equal
but opposite displacement.
the time period can be measured from a any position, through to the next time that
position is reached, with the motion in the original direction.
f=1/T
If the mass at the spring is displaced and the force is released, the spring
force will cause the mass to return to its original position.
p i gs o ey Hooke s La .
Spring Force
Force ( F )
mg
kE
Frequency (f) = ( 1 / 2
k/
where;
F is force.
m is suspended mass.
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
E is the spring extension.
k is the spring constant.
Vibration theory
Resonance
When force subjected to force vibration, it will vibrate along with natural
frequency of the object.
Natural frequency tries to damped out the amplitude but cannot damp its
own natural frequency.
Velocity ratio
Mechanical Advantage
Describes the ratio of load moved with the effort required to move it.
Mechanical Advantage = Load
Effort
*A rusty car jack will have a low mechanical advantage because
much of
the effort would be used to overcome the friction of a
corroded screw thread.
Efficiency
Describes the ratio of the useful work done by a machine to the total work put into
it.
Efficiency = Work Output x 100% or Mechanical Advantage x100%
Work Input
Velocity Ratio
Expressed as percentage and is always less than 100%.
*Friction and slippage can detract from efficiency of a machine.
LEVERS
Used to gain mechanical advantage.
Most basic form : seesaw that has weight at each end.
( weight on one end tends to rotate it clockwise, weight on the other end
tends to rotate it anti-clockwise )
First Class Lever
Pulleys
So, for instance, if one end of the rope is attached to a fixed object, pulling on
the other end will apply a doubled force to any object attached to the axle.
dynamics
Mass
Is the quantity of matter that it contains.
Constant regardless of its location.
Basic SI unit : kilogram (kg)
Imperial : pounds (lbs)
Weight
Force with which gravity attracts a body.
Varies with distance between body and centre of the earth, so if farther
than centre of the earth, the less it weighs.
So, it is said that an object in deep space does not has no weight, but do
has mass.
Gravitational acceleration is considered as 9.81m/s2
Force
Is a vector quantity that has magnitude, direction and a point of
application.
Whi h ha ges a ody s state of est o of u ifo
otio .
Inertia
Ne to s Fi st La
A body at rest will stay at rest unless given an external force, or a moving
body will continue on moving unless given and external force.
Is the resistance to movement or changes.
Work
Work is done when a force move.
Power
The amount of work done in specific time.
Power = work done
=
force x distance
time taken
time
as dy a o ete o
ake
Energy
Si unit : Joules
But only deal with Mechanical Energy, and appears as potential and
kinetic energy.
Energy will not be converted into 100% work, they will always appear in a
Example : A mass raised to a height above the ground has potential energy
Kinetic Energy
When body set in motion by a force doing work it acquires kinetic energy,
which will work against any forces that try to resist it.
Kinetic Energy
mv2
Conservation of Energy
Whe e er e erg is o erted fro
o e for
to a other,
o e of it is lost.
The sum of the energy can always be accounted for in the other forms of
energy that may have converted into.
After an object hits ground on a fall, the energy has converted into heat
energy and will be dissipated into the air.
Heat
momentum
SI unit ; kgm/s
Impulse of a force
If a body was subjected to a sudden blow, shock load or impact, it will be
possible to measure change in momentum.
Forces which have the short time duration are called the Impulsive forces.
Change of momentum due to impulsive force is called the Impulse.
Impact duration small impulsive force large.
Impact duration large impulsive force small.
Impulse
For example, if we rest the hammer, on top of the head of a nail, neither
the hammer nor the nail has any momentum.
However, if we bring the hammer down from a height and strike the nail
sharply on its head, both the hammer and nail will move after the impact.
In a short time they will come to rest with the nail having penetrated
whatever it is under it.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Whe t o or
ore
asses a t o ea h
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
MOTION
MOMENTUM
First law
Mass remains at rest or continue to
move at constant velocity, unless acted
on by an external force.
First Law
Mass remains at rest or continue to
move at constant velocity, unless acted
on by an external force.
Second Law
F = ma
Second Law
Rate of change of momentum is
proportional to the applied force.
Third Law
For every action, there is a n equal and
opposite reaction.
Third Law
If mass A exerts force on B, then B exerts
an equal but opposite force on A.
Changes in Momentum
Change of Momentum = final momentum - initial momentum
= ( mv)
(mu)
Rate of change of momentum = change in momentum
time taken
= mvmu
t
*The rate of change of momentum is proportional to magnitude of force
causing it.
When two bodies, one of low mass and the other of high mass, are acted
upon by the same force for the same time, the low body mass will build up
For example;
At (a) mass A overtakes mass B.
At (b) mass B will be accelerated by impulsive force delivered by
mass A,
and Vb.
Example :
A moving snooker balls, each ball has its own momentum before collision. After collision,
the sum of the two alls momentum will be the same as the sum prior to the collision
even though their velocities may have changed.
sum of momentums of balls =
prior to impact
mu1 + mu2
mv1 + mv2
Moment of inertia
GYROSCOPES
used i se e al of a ai
For example wheels, engines, propellers, electric motors and many other
components must run with perfect smoothness.
With the rotor spinning, the gyroscope will possess two fundamental
properties:
Gyroscopic rigidity or inertia
Gyroscopic precession
Gyroscopic rigidity
if a gyroscope is spinning in free space and is not acted upon by any outside
influence or force, it will remain fixed in one position.
Angular speed of the rotor higher the speed, greater the resistance.
Radius of gyration of the rotor bigger the radius, greater the rigidity.
Gyroscopic Precession
The rate of this change can be used to give indications such as the turning
rate of an aircraft.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Attitude indicator.
Friction
Force that resists any sliding movement between two contacting surfaces.
surface.
=
F
=
tan
R
Static friction is friction between two solid objects that are not moving
relative to each other.
The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding
begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction.
Frictional Force , F = N
Friction Force ( F )
Normal Reaction ( N )
Dynamic friction is when two objects are moving relative to each other
and rub together (like a sled on the ground).
The amount of force required to keep the object moving is called the
usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.
Dry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces,
and kinetic friction between moving surfaces.
Fluid friction describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid
that are moving relative to each other.
Fluid dynamics
Density ( ) = mass
volume
Eg : liquid that fills a certain container has a mass of 756 kg. The container
is 1.6 m long, 1.0 m wide and 0.75 of a metre deep. The liquid density
should be ?
=
756
=
630kgm-3
1.2
Temperature change will not change the mass of the substance, but as
temperature change, the substance tend to expand or contract, altering
the volume.
Relative Density
Hydrometer
When liquid drawn into the body, float displays relative density on
graduated scale.
Viscosity
Fluid Resistance
Skin friction
Resistance present on a thin, flat plate which is edgewise on to a fluid flow.
Near the surface, the fluid is slowed up due to roughness of the skin, and
fluid can also be considered as stationary at the surface.
Effected by skin smoothness.
The rougher the skin, the higher the friction.
Effect of streamlining
flowing steadily over a smooth surface, narrow layers of it follow smooth
paths that are known as streamlines.
This smooth flow is also known as laminar flow.
If laminar flow encounter obstructions, the streamline will break and
become irregular or turbulent.
All fluids are compressible, so that their density will change with pressure.
Fluid ;
Gases ;
Static pressure
Dynamic pressure
Worked example
What is the pressure at 10.5 m deep of liquid in a pool having the density of
2.5kg/m3 ?
Be oulli s Theo e
a principle that explains the relationship between potential and kinetic
energy in a fluid.
In a fluid the potential energy is that caused by the pressure of the fluid,
hile the ki eti e e gy is that aused y the fluid s o e e t.
As a fluid enters a venturi tube, it is travelling at a known velocity and
pressure.
When the fluid enters the restriction it must speed up, or increase its
kinetic energy. However, when the kinetic energy increases, the potential
energy decreases and therefore the pressure decreases.
thermodynamics
Laws Of Thermodynamics
First Law
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one to
another. When the energy converts from one form into other forms the total
quantity of energy remains the same.
Second Law
Heat can only transfer from a high temperature region to a lower temperature
region. It cannot naturally transfer the other way.
Third Law
The transfer of energy from matter becomes increasingly difficult as its
temperature approaches absolute zero. It is considered impossible at absolute
zero.
Temperature
Heat is a form of energy that causes molecular agitation within a material.
is a measure of the kinetic energy of molecules.
Temperature scale;
Freezing 00C
Boiling 1000C
Farenheit Scale - when you increased the temperature of a gas by one
degree Celsius, it expands by 1/273 of its original volume.
So if the temperature was decreased to 273 degrees below zero, the
volume of the gas would also decrease to zero, and there would be no
more molecular activity absolute zero.
On the Celsius scale absolute zero is - 2730C. On the Fahrenheit scale it is
4600F.
Conversion ;
C x 9/5 + 32 = F ( from Deg. Centigrade to Farenheit )
(F - 32) x 5/9 = C ( from Farenheit to Deg. Centigrade )
Heat
is the exchange of thermal energy from a hot body to a cold body.
When a hot body and a cold body have contact, heat will flow from the
hot body to the cold body until they both reach thermal equilibrium (they
are at the same temperature).
For example ;
When a air raft s rakes are applied, the ki eti e erg of the o i g
aircraft is changed into heat energy by the rubbing action of the brake friction
material against the brake discs.
SI system :
Joule (J)
British thermal unit (Btu)
calorie (cal)
1J
1 cal
1 Btu
1J
1 Btu
1 cal
Heat Capacity
specific heat - amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree Celsius.
Due to the high specific heat of water, oceans and large lakes serve as
temperature stabilisers.
Land surfaces have a much lower specific heat, and the temperature can
vary significantly throughout the day.
Heat Transfer
conduction
convection
radiation
Conduction
When body having high heat energy in contact with body having low heat
energy.
Eg; When hot object in contact with cold object, energy of molecules from
hot object will be transferred to molecules of cold object until they have
the same amount of energy ( stabilize ).
Convection
Radiation
is the only form of energy transfer that does not require the presence of
matter.
refers to the continual emission of energy from the surface of all bodies.
This is why you feel warm standing in front of a window whilst it is very
cold outside
Volumetric Expansion
Expansion of Solids
Expansion is proportional to the increase in temperature to the original
dimension and depends on the actual material used.
L 2 - L1
L1 (2 - 1)
Expansion of Fluids
Thermodynamics is the study of the way that one does work with heat.
Energy conservation limits the amount of work we can get out of a certain
amount of heat.
U = Q W
States that heat transfer will occur naturally of its own accord down the
temperature gradient.
Heat will naturally flow from a hot region to a cool region but not the
other way around.
converts
which
to accomplish
gases
Ideal gas - one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are
all the internal energy is in the form of kinetic energy and any change in
internal energy is accompanied by a change in temperature.
Boyle s Law
If temperature is constant ;
P1V1
Charles Law
If pressure is constant ;
=
P2V2
Engine Cycle
Carnot Cycle
consisting of two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes.
can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by
physical laws.
the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat
which can be so used.
In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the
heat engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in energy
available to do work.
This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealisation, since no real engine
processes are reversible and all real physical processes involve some
increase in energy available to do work .
internal energy will not spontaneously flow from a hot region to a cold
region.
But if external force is given, heat can flow from cold region to hot region.
Usually this is done with the aid of a phase change, i.e., a refrigerant liquid
is forced to evaporate and extract energy from the cold area. . Then it is
compressed and forced to condense in the hot area, dumping its heat of
vaporisation into the hot area.
Refrigerator
Heat Pump
Optics ( light )
Speed Of Light
travels at high speed (about 3 x 108 metres per second) and in straight
lines.
Ca
e t o efle ted.
When you look in a mirror, you see a reflection, usually termed an image.
For example, if an object is viewed from two different angle, the reflected
rays :
appear to come from which corresponds to the image.
lies on the same normal to the mirror as the object.
appears the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Appears as the same size.
For mirror that is not plain, it may be curved, spherical and parabolic.
Incidence equals reflection - still holds, but the curved surface allows the
rays to be focused or dispersed.
If the object is near to the mirror, the image will be far and larger from the
mirror but in opposite plane.
If the object is far from the mirror, the image will be nearer and small,
between the position of object and mirror in opposite plane.
magnification = image height
object height
Concave mirrors (e.g. shaving mirrors) give a magnified, erect (right way
up) image, if viewed from close-to.
Convex mirrors (e.g. driving mirrors) give a smaller, erect image, but with a
wide field of view.
Parabolic reflectors can focus a wide parallel beam. By placing the bulb at
the focus, they can produce a strong beam of light. (Conversely, they can
focus microwave signals when used as an aerial).
Refraction
ou da y.
Refraction Index
sine C = 1 / exists
The light rays then meet the surface of the lens at an angle to the normal,
and are then refracted.
The nature of the image will depend on the type of lens, and the position
of the object in relation to the focal length of the lens, (the focal length is
a function of the curvature of the lens surfaces).
Fibre Optics
Light can be trapped by total internal reflection inside a bent glass rod and
piped along a curved path as in the diagram below. a single, very thin
They are small and so, once light is introduced into the fiber with an angle
within the confines of the numerical aperture of the fiber, it will continue
to reflect almost losslessly off the walls of the fiber and thus can travel
long distances in the fiber.
Principle : light striking at one end will be transmitted to the other end of
the fibre.
Wave motion
and sound
Wave motion
The water wave has a crest and a trough and travels from one location to
another.
waves may be circular waves which originate from the point where the
disturbances occur; such circular waves travel across the surface of the
water in all directions.
Another example, if a slinky is stretched out from end to end, a wave can
be introduced into the slinky by either vibrating the first coil up and down
vertically or back and forth horizontally.
As the wave moves along the slinky, each individual coil is seen to move
out of place and then return to its original position.
The wave does not stop when it reaches the end of the slinky; rather it
seems to bounce off the end and head back from where it started.
Categories of Waves
Waves come in many shapes and forms.
Some share basic characteristic properties and behaviours, some waves
can be distinguished from others based on some very observable (and
some non-observable) characteristics.
It is common to categorise waves based on these distinguishing
characteristics.
Transverse
Wave
Direction of movement
Longitudinal
wave
Surface Wave
To categorize wave
Ability to be
transmitted
through vacuum
Electromagnetic Waves
Mechanical
Waves
Direction Of Movement
Transverse wave
If pulse is applied to the left end by vibrating it up and down, the energy
will be transported from left to right and particle will be displaced
upwards and downwards.
Longitudinal Wave
If force is applied to the left end by vibrating it left and right, the energy
will be transported from left to right and particle will be displaced
Anatomy of Waves
Points A and F - crests of this wave (point on the medium which exhibits
the maximum amount of positive or upwards displacement from the rest
position)
Points D and I - troughs of this wave (point on the medium which exhibits
the maximum amount of negative or downwards displacement from the
rest position )
Wavelength ;
a. Simply the length of one complete wave cycle.
b. Wave has a repeating pattern. And the length of one such
repetition (known as a wave cycle) is the wavelength.
c. Can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or from
trough to trough. ( B G, E - J, D I )
Longitudinal wave
Frequency ;
a. refers to how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a
wave passes through the medium.
b. number of complete vibration cycles of a medium per a given
amount of time and it as the units of cycles per second
or Hertz (Hz)
where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second.
c. . A detector could be used to detect the frequency of these
pressure oscillations over a given period of time.
d. unit : Hertz, Hz ( cycle / sec )
Period ;
a. the time which it takes to do something.
b. the time for a particle on a medium to make one complete
vibration cycle.
c. When an event occurs repeatedly, then we say that the event is
periodic.
d. measured in units of time such as seconds, hours, days or
years.
Interference Phenomena
Wave interference
phenomenon which occurs when two waves meet while travelling along
the same medium.
Causes the medium to take on a shape which results from the net effect of
the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium.
Eg ; if 2 crests of wave having amplitude of +1 move into each other, the
resulting sine crest +2 is created at the moment when the 2 waves
overlapped.
Sometimes called Constructive Interference.
Constructive Interference
Occurs at any location along the medium where the two interfering waves
have a displacement in the same direction.
Destructive Interference
type of interference which occurs at any location along the medium where
the two interfering waves have a displacement in the opposite direction.
Principle of Superposition
Whe two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any
location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that
same lo atio .
An interference phenomena.
When the vibration frequency of the source causes
Standing Wave
strings and air columns have characteristic patterns called standing waves.
arise from the combination of reflection and interference such that the
reflected waves interfere constructively with the incident waves.
Sound
Sound wave - pressure disturbance which travels through a medium by
means of particle interaction.
As one particle becomes disturbed, it exerts a force on the next adjacent
particle, thus disturbing that particle from rest and transporting the
energy through the medium.
speed of a sound wave refers to how fast the disturbance is passed from
particle to particle.
frequency refers to the number of vibrations which an individual particle
makes per unit of time.
speed refers to the distance which the disturbance travels per unit of time.
Speed of Sound
Eg. sound waves travel approx. 4 times faster in water than in air and
speed of sound in solids is even greater, sound travels through steel is 15
times faster than it travels in air.
speed ( sound wave ) = frequency x wavelength
Alteration in wavelength effects the frequency, but not the wave speed.
Intensity
amount of energy which is transported past a given area of the medium per unit of
time.
Ofte
The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the particles of the medium, the greater the
rate at which energy is transported through it, and the more intense that the sound
wave is.
Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time ratio is equivalent to the
quantity power, intensity is simply the power/area.
Intensity = Energy
Time x Area
or Intensity = Power
Area
Pitch
Best described as position on musical scale.
The ears of humans (and other animals) are sensitive detectors capable of
detecting the fluctuations in air pressure which impinge upon the
eardrum.
The human ear is capable of detecting sound waves with a wide range of
frequencies, ranging between approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
A high pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency and a low pitch sound
Doppler Effect
Occur with all types of waves - most notably water waves, sound waves,
and light waves.
Doppler Effect observed because the distance between the source of sound and the
observer is changing.
If the source and the observer are approaching, then the distance is decreasing and if
the source and the observer are receding, then the distance is increasing.
If the source is moving towards the observer, the observer perceives sound waves
reaching him or her at a more frequent rate (high pitch); and if the source is moving
away from the observer, the observer perceives sound waves reaching him or her at
a less frequent rate (low pitch).