An Introduction to

Research Methods in
Psychology

James Neill (2010)

Centre for Applied Psychology
University of Canberra

Outline
1. Introduction
2. What is research?
3. Quick Fun Survey
4. Research process
5. Research methods
6. Bias in research
7. Ethical issues
2

Reading
Research methods in psychology
(Gerrig et al. 2008, Ch. 2)

What is research?

disciplined
inquiry
4

What is research?
Search

Re
5

What is research?

Research is

formalised curiosity.
It is poking and prying
with a purpose.
- Zora Neale Hurston
6

What is
psychological research?
Research is a a systematic
attempt to understand the
world.
Psychological research is a
systematic attempt to
understand human experiences
of themselves and the world.

What is
psychological research?
Systematic development &
testing of theory about human
behaviour and mental events
Disciplined enquiry into
human thinking, feeling, and
behaviour.
8

Research is a language
Learn key terms / concepts
UG study, especially 1st year, is
about acquiring the language skills
to access and make sense of
recorded research knowledge

Psychological research
...holds out the promise of
discovering the architecture of
our psyche and understanding
our behaviour in the world
around us.

10

Psychological research is
a recent phenomenon
Western, scientific, psychological
research only has about a 60-100
year history.
Much still to be discovered prospects for considerable growth
& opportunity.
e.g., due to technology, new research
techniques and directions are becoming
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available.

Process of research
Observations, beliefs, information,
and general knowledge lead to a
new idea or a different way of
thinking about some phenomenon
Theory: An organised set of
concepts that explains a
phenomenon or set of phenomena.
Use theory to formulate research
questions.

12

Process of research
Develop a hypothesis or
hypotheses
A tentative and testable
explanation(s) of the relationship
between two (or more) events or
variables

Use the scientific method to design

the study
13

The research process

Gerrig et al. (2008)

1. Initial observation or question

2. Form a hypothesis
3. Design the study
4. Analyse the data and draw
conclusions
5. Report the findings
6. Consider open questions
7. Act on open questions

14

Quick Fun Survey

1. What is your favourite colour?
2. What is your favourite number?
3. What sex is the number 4?
4. What sex is the number 8?
15

Design Your Own

Psychological
Study
16

Research questions
Expressing topics of interest as
research questions is a key first step,
e.g.,

Is it bad to smack your children?

What is the effect of meditation on
stress?
Do smart drugs really make
people smarter?
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My first
study
What changes in
stress, anxiety,
crisis and flow
occur for novice
abseilers?

Design your own study

1. List topics you would like to research.
2. Create research questions & choose one.
3. What variables are to be measured?
4. What research method would you use?
5. What population and sampling method
would you use?
19

Student research
opportunities
Research participation
Research seminars
Research news e.g., via
Journal alerts
Google Alerts

Research journals
Hard copies
Electronic copies

20

Scientific method

21

Research is a way of
thinking
Researchers need to acknowledge
& understand the limits of intuition
& common sense
Philosophy of science
The scientific attitude
The scientific method
22

Science is based on

Knowledge of facts
Developing theories
Testing hypotheses
Public and repeatable procedures

23

If you are a scientist you believe that it

is good to find out how the world works,
that it is good to find out what the
realities are, that it is good to turn over
to mankind at large the greatest
possible power to control the world... It
is not possible to be a scientist unless
you believe that the knowledge of the
world, and the power which this gives, is
a thing which is of intrinsic value to
humanity, and that you are using it to
help in the spread of knowledge, and
are willing to take the consequences.
- J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)

24

25

Critical thinking
Critical thinking does not blindly
accept arguments and conclusions:
Examines assumptions
Discerns hidden values
Evaluates evidence
26

It is a good morning exercise

for a research scientist to
discard a pet hypothesis
every day before breakfast It keeps him [sic] young.
- Konrad Lorenz

27

Scientific method
Set of procedures used for
gathering and interpreting
objective information in a way that
minimises error and yields
dependable generalisations.
Its goal is to draw conclusions with
maximum objectivity.
Conclusions are objective when they
are not influenced by emotions or
personal biases.
28

Concept of determinism

The doctrine that all

events - physical, behavioural,
and mental - are determined
by specific causal factors
that are potentially
knowable.
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Theory-testing is the
main function of research
Observations lead to theory
Theory = a specific set of assumptions
and principles about a phenomenon.
Derive testable hypotheses
(or guesses / predictions)

Systematically test hypotheses in

various conditions in order to
determine the utility of the theory.

30

Theories, hypotheses &

research observations
Theories
Low self-esteem feeds depression

Hypothesis
People with low self-esteem score higher on a
depression scale

Test with observations

Administer tests of self-esteem and
depression. See if a low score on one predicts
a high score on the other.

31

Operationalisation
Refers to how a fuzzy psychological
construct is actually measured
e.g., the concept of intelligence has
been operationalised through a variety
of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests
32

Research variables
Variables are factors which can be
controlled and/or measured in
research
Two types:
Independent Variable (IV)
(or predictors)
Dependent Variable (DV)
(or outcomes)
33

Independent vs.
dependent variables

Independent
Variable(s)

Dependent
Variable(s)

34

Independent vs.
dependent variables
Independent Variable
the factor that is controlled and manipulated
by the researcher
the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable
the factor that may change in response to
manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behaviour or
mental process
35

Independent vs. dependent

variables: Example
IV: Graffiti or no graffiti on or near a
letterbox
DV: Whether or not a passerby takes an
envelope with money clearly showing
from a letterbox

Results:
Graffiti condition:
27% took the $
No graffiti condition: 13% took the $
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Reliability and validity

Reliability
Degree to which a test produces
similar scores each time it is used
Stability, consistency
Validity
Extent to which a test measures
what it was intended to test
37

Observer bias
Distortion of evidence because
of the personal motives and
expectations of the viewer
Counter by:
Standardisation: A set of uniform procedures
for treating each participant

Operational definition: Define constructs in

terms of the specific operation or procedure used to
determine its presence
All variables in a research study must be given
operational definitions

38

Psychological
research methods
39

Psychological research
methods
1. Experimental
randomised sampling
2. Quasi-experimental
natural sampling
3. Non-experimental
cross-sectional sampling
40

Experimental research method

Experimenter manipulates the IVs, then
measures the results on the DVs
Random assignment
Control group = treat same as
experimental group except for the IV
manipulation
Experimental group = treat same as
control group except for the IV
manipulation
Resulting differences are concluded to be
due to the IV

41

Experimental research method

Alternative explanations to
research can result from
Confounding variables
Expectancy effects
Placebo effect

The more alternative explanations

for a given result, the less
confidence there is for an initial
hypothesis

42

Confounding variable
A variable other than what the
experimenter purposely introduced
that affects a participants
behaviour
e.g., Hawthorne effect

Confounding variables add

confusion and place the
interpretation of the data at risk
43

Expectancy effect
Results that occur when a
researcher or observer subtly
communicates to the participants
the kind of behaviour he or she
expects, therefore, creating the
expected reaction and/or outcome
e.g., encouraging some kinds of
responses in interviews
44

Placebo effect
Occurs when the
experimental
participants change
their behaviour in
the absence of any
kind of
experimental
manipulation.
45

Control procedures
Consistent procedures for giving
instructions, responses, and holding
all other variables constant except
those being systematically varied
Placebo control
Double-blind control
Between-subjects designs
Within-subjects designs
46

Placebo control
The inclusion of an experimental
condition in which the treatment is
not administered
e.g., real pills vs. placebo pills

47

Double-blind control
Experimental procedure in which
both the experimenter and the
subject are unaware as to who
received the treatment
Seen as the strongest way of
controlling for experimenter and
expectancy biases
48

Between-subjects vs. withinsubects design

Between-subjects Design
Different groups of participants are
randomly assigned to experimental
conditions or to control condition

Within-subjects Design
Each participant is his or her own
control
49

Ways of gathering
psychological
data
50

Qualitative vs. quantitative

research data
Qualitative
words, pictures
Quantitative
numbers
Mixed words and numbers

51

Qualitative research
Subjective - individuals
interpretation of events is important
e.g.,
Historical accounts
Participant observation
In-depth interviews
52

Quantitative research
Objective seeks precise
measurement & analysis of target
concepts e.g.,
Psychological tests
Questionnaires
Physiological measures
53

Mixed methods
Involves a combination of
qualitative and quantitative
research methods.

54

Research methods

Archival
Observations
Behavioural
Self-report
surveys

Physiological
Experiential
sampling
e.g., with palm pilots

Archival records

Mail
Interviews
Online
55

Archival data
Information taken from existing
records
Examples include birth and death
records, weather reports, voting
patterns, and attendance figures

56

Observational research
Researchers directly observe and
record behaviour:
Naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it
occurs naturally
Tests - researcher presents
stimuli or problems and records
responses
57

Naturalistic observation
Naturally occurring
behaviour is viewed
and recorded without
attempting to
manipulate or
interfere the situation.
Field-rich data, time
consuming, difficult to
generalise.
58

Behavioural measures
Overt actions and reactions that
are observed and recorded
Direct observations
The behaviour is clearly visible
and is easily recorded
Can be aided by technology

59

Self-report research
Behaviour identified through a
participants own observations and
reports
People rate or describe their
behaviour, opinion, or mental state
e.g., via:
Questionnaires
Rating scales e.g.,
from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of 60

Correlational methods
Determines extent to which two
variables are related
Correlational Coefficient (r)
Indicates the degree of relationship
between two variables
Values of:
- 1.0 = perfect negative correlation
0.0 = no correlation
+1.0 = perfect positive correlation

61

Correlational methods

Positive and negative correlations

Causal relationships and

correlations
Correlation does not equal
causation
How can causality be
demonstrated? e.g.
Experimentally (explanatory)
Predictive, longitudinal studies
63

Correlation vs. causation

Laboratory research
Purpose-designed research
setting
Provides uniform conditions for all
participants
Permits elimination of irrelevant
factors
May seem artificial
65

Case study

Intensive
observation of a
particular individual
or a small group.
Aims to reveal things
true of all.
Rich data, time
consuming, difficult
to generalise.

Is language
uniquely
human?
66

Case study example:

Phineas Gage
Iron rod through
head (frontal lobes)
Affected personality
and behaviour
Suggested function
localisation
67

Survey research
Commonly used
Ascertains self-reported
attitudes or behaviors of
people
Ideally question a
representative, random
sample of people
68

Experiential sampling

Replication
Reconducting a previous study to
see whether its findings are
repeatable (reliable).
Nothing is generally proven until
at least several studies have been
conducted showing similar results.
Usually replicate with different
participants, in different situations,
in different cultures.
70

Sampling
Sampling

Sampling
Sample:
Subset of a population selected as
participants in an experiment

Representation Sample:
A subset of the population being
studied

Population:
Entire set of individuals to which
generalisations will be made based
on an experimental sample

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Ethical issues in research

Guidelines and
procedures for
conducting ethical
psychological research
73

History of research ethics

Nuremberg code (1948):
voluntary consent is essential
benefits of research must
outweigh the risks.

Thalidomide (late 1950's-early

1960's)
Tuskegee Syphilis Study (19321972).
Declaration of Helinski (1964)

74

Ethical issues in
psychological research
Right to privacy
Informed consent
use of deception

Animal rights
Is there justification for discomfort
or harm a research procedure may
produce?

APA publishes ethical guidelines

75

Informed consent
Research participants are asked to
sign statements indicating they
have been informed as to the
potential risks and benefits of the
study and consent to participate.

76

Risk/gain assessment
Risks to the participants must be
minimised, especially in studies of
more personal aspects of
behaviour.
And there must be likely gains
which outweigh the risks/costs.
77

Intentional deception
For some research it is not possible
to tell participants the intention of
the study without biasing the results
Australian Psychological Society
(2007) Code of Ethics has explicit
guidelines
National Health and Medical Research
Council (NH-MRC) has further
restrictions
78

Debriefing
At the end of all studies each
participant must be provided with
as much information about the
study as possible in ageappropriate style.

79

Summary
Research is formalised curiousity
Discover your research passions &
follow them
Develop research questions,
theory, and hypotheses then test
scientifically.
Maintain objectivity
Failed research can often tells us
as much as successful research. 80

Summary
IVs = predictors; DVs = outcomes
Biases: observer, participants; use
standardisation and controls
Ways of gathering data:
Quantitative, qualitative, mixed
Research methods: Archival, Lab
research, Survey, Observation,
Case study
Ethics: Consent, privacy, risk etc.
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References
Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A.
J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008).
Psychology and life (Australian edition.).
Sydney: Pearson.
Myers, D. G. (2007). Thinking critically with
psychological science (Ch1). In Psychology
th
(8 ed.). New York: Worth.
University of Gronigen.
People surrounded by grafitti more likely to s
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teal