A.

COAL DEFINITION
Coal is a fossil fuel. It is a combustible, sedimentary, organic
rock, which is composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It
is formed from vegetation, which has been consolidated between
other rock strata and altered by the combined effects of pressure
and heat over millions of years to form coal seams.
Coal is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that
originally accumulated in swamps and peat bogs. The build-up of silt
and other sediments, together with movements in the earths crust
(known as tectonic movements) buried these swamps and peat
bogs, often to great depths. With burial, the plant material was
subjected to high temperatures and pressures. This caused physical
and chemical changes in the vegetation, transforming it into peat
and then into coal.
Based on data provided by the International Energy Agency
and the BP Statistical Review of World Energy: Coal provides 30.1%
of global primary energy needs and generates over 40% of the
world's electricity. It is also used in the production of over 70% of
the worlds steel. Total world coal production reached a record level
of 7822.8 Mt in 2013, or 0.4% more than in 2012.
The IEA reports that according to the German Federal Institute
for Geosciences and Natural Resources there were 1052 billion
tonnes of coal reserves remaining as of
2012, or 14.6 billion tonnes more than in 2011. These proved
reserves represent 134.5 years of production at current levels, up
from 133.1 years calculated last year and 131.6 years in the
preceding year.
However, other publications such as the BP Statistical Review
of World Energy often refer to the World Energy Council estimates of
global coal reserves. According to this source there are 892 billion
tonnes of coal reserves left, or 113 years of coal output.
These are the top ten coal producers in 2013:
Top Ten Coal Producers (2013e)
PR China 3561Mt
Russia 347Mt
USA 904Mt
South Africa 256Mt
India 613Mt
Germany 191Mt
Indonesia 489Mt
Poland 143Mt

Australia 459Mt

Kazakhstan 120Mt

B. COAL PETROLOGY
Coal petrology and the techniques used in coal petrology,
particularly optical microscopy, have important applications in a
number of areas related to coal and its derivative products as well
as in other areas not directly related to coal. The application of
organic petrology methods in archaeology in relation to the organic
gems

and

artifacts,

environmental

studies,

spontaneous

combustion, forensic geology, and auto brakes is discussed. Other

applications of coal petrography include those of a predictive
character, which are used to predict the hardgrove grindability of
coal.
Coal is used in processes such as combustion, gasification,
and liquefaction and in carbonization for the manufacture of
metallurgical coke. Coal and its derivative products are also used as
precursors of other materials and in the production of chemicals.
There are two characteristics that influence the use of coal: its
composition and its rank. Coal composition is, in turn, represented
by two essentially independent factors: type and grade.
Coal is a heterogeneous material, and evaluation of coal type
may be approached on two different levels: the macroscopical and
microscopical, both of which form a part of coal petrology. The coal
metamorphism involves the physical and chemical transformation
from peat through bituminous coal through anthracite and metaanthracite to graphite. It is a function of heat and pressure acting
over a period of time. It is also denoted as the coal rank, which is
marked by a progressive decrease in moisture and volatile
functional groups with a consequent increase in the carbon content
of the coal.

Figure 2.1 Coal

Coal formation began during the Carboniferous Period known
as the first coal age which spanned 360 million to 290 million
years ago. The quality of each coal deposit is determined by
temperature and pressure and by the length of time in formation,
which is referred to as its organic maturity.
Initially the peat is converted into lignite or brown coal
these are coal types with low organic maturity. In comparison to
other coals, lignite is quite soft and its colour can range from dark
black to various shades of brown. Over many more millions of years,
the continuing effects of temperature and pressure produces further
change in the lignite, progressively increasing its organic maturity
and transforming it into the range known as sub-bituminous coals.
Further chemical and physical changes occur until these coals
became harder and blacker, forming the bituminous or hard coals.
Under the right conditions, the progressive increase in the organic
maturity can continue, finally forming anthracite.

Figure 2.2 Coal Formation

Coal type is related to the type of plant material in the peat
and the extent of its biochemical and chemical alteration. Type can
be assessed in terms of variety of petrographic analysis. Coal
petrology is concerned with the origin, composition and properties
of the distinct organic and inorganic components of different coals.
To date, the principal practical application of coal petrology have
been in the specification and selection of coals for carbonization.

Figure 2.3 Type of Coal

The degree of change undergone by a coal as it matures from
peat to anthracite known as coalification has an important
bearing on its physical and chemical properties and is referred to as
the rank of the coal. Low rank coals, such as lignite and
subbituminous coals are typically softer, friable materials with a dull,
earthy appearance. They are characterised by high moisture levels
and low carbon content, and therefore a low energy content. Higher
rank coals are generally harder and stronger and often have a black,
vitreous lustre. They contain more carbon, have lower moisture
content, and produce more energy.
Coals are divided into lignitic, subbituminous, bituminous, and
anthracitic classes, and further subdivided into 13 groups. Coals of
the bituminous class are most sought after in the CBM process
because most properties are optimum at this rank. Specifically,
coals of hvAb through lvb are best. More gas has been generated by
this point in the maturation process and retention capabilities have

been improved. Also, physical properties and mechanical properties

of the coal as a reservoir rock are optimum.

Table 2.1 ASTM Coal Rank

Anthracite is at the top of the rank scale and has a
correspondingly higher carbon and energy content and a lower level
of moisture. Gas content depends on the coals rank, a measure of
the quality and thermal maturity of the organic matter. Mechanical
properties of the coal also depend on rank.
There are various means to establish rank. The ASTM
establishes percentage of fixed carbon content and percentage of
volatile matter on a dry, ash-free basis as the standard for
designating ranks of coals at hvAb or higher in America. In Europe,
21 the designation of rank may be based on percentage of carbon in
the elemental analysis on a dry, ash-free basis, rather than on a
percentage of fixed carbon. Universally, an important criterion that
is highly accurate for the high-ranking coals most encountered in
CBM projects, and which is also independent of maceral content
variations, is the maximum vitrinite reflectance.

Comparisons

of the methods

presented in table below

for

designating

rank

are

Table 2.2 Parameters Determining Coal Rank

MACROSCOPIC COMPONENTS OF COAL (visible to the necked
eye)
Megascopically distinguishable ingredients of humic coals are
recognized: Vitrain, Clarain, Durain and Fusain. These varieties of
coal have been invested with the status of separate rock types,
and are therefore termed as LITHOTYPES.
The four macroscopic components in coal are:
VITRAIN: Essentially bright glossy, brilliant in luster and
homogeneous component of coal, having a massive texture

and showing characteristics vitreous conchoidal fracture.

CLARAIN: Bright component of coal in overall appearance, but
less brighter than vitrain. It is hetrogeneous material with a
banded structure and has a definite and smooth surface when

fractured at right angles to bedding plane.

DURAIN: Essentially dull component of coal, often with a
suggestion of a slightly greasy black in overall appearance, &
usually harder than bright coal. it is hetrogeneous and has a

firm granular texture.

FUSAIN: It occurs in pockets or as patches rather than uniform
brand, of soft, somewhat fibrous material resembling charcoal.
It is highly friable and can be readily powdered by fingers.

MICROSCOPIC COMPONENTS OF COALS (invisible to the

naked eye)
Just as a rock is composed of several minerals so is the coal
composed of several organic constituents termed as macerals, the
organic equivalent of minerals (which are different types of
inorganic particles found in coals and other rocks).
The micro-components (macerals) found in high and medium rank
coals are:

VITRINITE (termed as HUMINITE for peat and Lignite or low

rank coals, essentially woody materials): derived from plant
cell substances varing in appearance from being completely
structureless to exhibiting well discernible tissues. Major
component of Vitrain and one of the two principal components
of Clarain.

Exinite (LIPTINITE in low rank coals): derived from secretions

and waxy coatings of plants, and lower in reflectance than
vitrinite. The other principal component of clarain and durain.

INRETINITE (derived mainly from oxidised plant material): with

or without recognizable plant structures, and higher in
reflectance than vitrinite. Major component of Fusain. One of
the two principal components of Durain. In maceral analysis, it
is

commonly

subdivided

into

macerals

MACRINITE,

MICRINITE, SEMIFUSINITE & FUSINITE.

Investigating a coal for the purpose of utilization onvolves
knowing something about all these characteristic, none of which
should be separated from others. Coal quality is a function of these
factors

and

their

interactions,

and

coal

petrology

is

the

fundamental discipline that contributes to the knowledge of coal

quality. The petrology of coal may be expressed by a number of
fundamental parameters, including:

1. The nature of the organic constituent in terms of

macerals or maceral groups (an indicator of coal type)
2. The mineral matter, including the major elements in the
coal or oxides in the ash, the minerals in the coal, the
forms of sulfur, and the trace elements that may also be
present (indicator of coal grade)
3. The vitrinite reflectance (which is usually taken as an
indicator of coal rank)
These parameters reflect the composition and rank of the coal
and are the primary factors that contribute the coals specific
physical and chemical properties. The physical and chemical
properties in turn determine the overall quality of the coal and its
suitability for specific purposes.
These are several methods which are used to determine the
coal properties:
Properties
Chemical

Methods
proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and ash

Properties
Physical

analysis
density, specific gravity, pore structure, surface

Properties
Mechanical

area, reflectivity
hardness/abrasiveness friability, grindability,

Properties

dustiness index
calorific value, heat capacity, thermal

Thermal
Properties
Electrical
Properties

conductivity, plastic, agglomerating index,

free-swelling index
electrical resistivity, dielectric constant,

C. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
By definition, coal must contain at least 50% of its weight, or
70% of its volume as organic, carbonaceous matter. A proximate
analysis is a common laboratory procedure to provide fundamental
composition of the coal.
Proximate analyses

of

coal

composition in coal of the following:

provide

the

percentage

 Ash.
Fixed Carbon.
Volatile Matter.
Moisture Content.
The tests are specified by procedure D-3172, ASTM Standards. Each
of the four measured parameters has significance to the CBM
process.

Ash
The ash measured in the proximate analysis represents
that part of the mineral matter left after thermal degradation
of the sample by combustion (ASTM D-3174). A small (12
gram) sample of the coal is completely burned in air at 725
25C. The residue is the ash content. It has a value near that
of the percentage of mineral matter. An increasing ash
content, from a proximate analysis indicating mineral matter,
proportionately lowers the amount of methane that can be
adsorbed. Mineral matter also has a deleterious effect on
fracturing in the coal. Being a determinant in limiting cleat
formation and gas content, mineral matter thus impacts two
of the most important parameters in the commercial CBM
permeability and adsorbed methane capacity. The inorganic
particles that comprise the ash of the analysis are distributed
throughout the coal as clay minerals, carbonate minerals,
sulfide minerals (pyrite), and silica minerals (quartz).

Fixed Carbon
Carbon content increases with maturation until graphite
of 100% carbon would be reached ultimately. Fixed carbon
from the preceding three tests is calculated using Equation
bellow:
%FC=100(%Ash+ H 2 O+%VM)
Where:
FC
= calculated fixed carbon of the coal
%Ash
= measured by ASTM D-3174
H 2 = measured by ASTM D-3173

%VM

= measured by ASTM D-3175

Volatile Matter
Volatile matter

is

determined

from

the

thermal

decomposition, without oxidation, of a 1-gm crushed sample

(<60 mesh) at 950 20C for 7 minutes in a muffle furnace
(ASTM D-3175). Volatile matter and fixed carbon of the
proximate analysis are used to specify higher coal ranks
above hvAb in the United States.

Moisture Content
Moisture content affects methane adsorption capacity.
Moisture contents are determined (ASTM D-3173) by heating a
small coal sample for 1 hour in a vacuum or in a nitrogen
atmosphere to 107 4C. The weight loss as a percentage of
the original sample is reported as moisture content. Before
beginning the analysis, the sample is crushed to <60 mesh.
The percentages of ash, fixed carbon, volatile matter, and

moisture of the proximate analysis may be presented on the

following bases:
As receivedPercentages

based

on

all

four

measured

components, which represent the coal as received in the

laboratory, approximating the conditions in the seam.

Ash-free (AF)Percentages based on three measured

components without inclusion of ash.

DryPercentages based on the three components of volatile

matter, fixed carbon, and ash.

Dry, ash-free (DAF)Percentages

based

components of volatile matter and fixed carbon.

Table 3.1 Example of Proximate Analysis

on

the

two

Fig 3.1. Proximate analysis of Fruitland Coals. Copyright 1992 SPE

D. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
Ultimate analysis provides the elemental composition of
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, and nitrogen.
The annual book of ASTM standards presents the standard
method for ultimate analysis as procedure D-3176. It specifies that
carbon and hydrogen of the coal will be determined from the
gaseous products of the materials complete combustion (D-3178).
The total sulfur (D-3177), nitrogen (D-3179), and ash (D-3174) are
to be determined from the entire material in separate calculations.
For lack of a suitable test for oxygen, its percentage content in
the coal is determined by subtracting from 100 the sum of the
percentages of the other components. A small error is taken for
granted but cannot be compensated for in the procedure because
some hydrogen and oxygen will be derived from the bound water of
clay, shale, or carbonate impurities in the coal.

The elemental analysis of coal obtained by this procedure,

when converted from a weight basis to a mole basis, provides the
ratios of O/C and H/C used in the van Krevelen diagram7 to define
the maturation state of coal.
The following ultimate analysis applies to an mvb coal of the
Blue Creek seam of the Warrior basin that contains 4.82% ash: (1)
carbon, 83.46%; (2) hydrogen, 4.39%; (3) nitrogen, 1.81%; (4)
sulfur, 0.47%; and (5) oxygen, 5.05%.

Figure 3.2 Van Krevelen Diagram