9.

3NETWORK
ARCHITECTURES
347
in the case of a large network, or a fractional transponderlease for a medium to small
nel.work.The network architectureselectedwill dependon a number of factors that are
discussedin the following section"

9.3 NETWORKARCHITECTURES

L,
\]l
or)

'I'here
are tltreebasicimp.lementations
of any telecommunications
service:one-way;two:
way; and split-two-way (sometirnesreferredto as split-IP,when referring to Internettraffic,
since the outboundand inboundchannelsare routedover differentsystems).The two-way
iinplementationis further divided into two basic network architectures:Star and Mesh,
'Ve will
look first at the three basic implementations.

One-Way lmple;nentation

referrain
rr ifl
)ver

Tttis is the mode of a satelliteused in the broadcastsatelliteservice (BSS)" The introduction of digital technolcgy allows the provider a..^duser much greater flexibility in
thc operation of a broadcastuetwork. By meansof proprietary software in the user terminals, differentpartsof the downlink canbe accessed
by different subscribersaccording
to the programsorderedfrom the supplier (and paid for by the user)"This form of channel selectiotris called narrowcusting.T'hetecan be many narrowcastinggroups within
a larger hroaclcastingarea. Figure 9.4 gives a schematicof this one-way (broadcast)
applieation.

Split-Two-Way (Split lPl lmplementation

rr:tween
tomatic

This implementationis usedwhen there is no normal return ehannelas, for example,with

Ku-bandbroadcastsatelliteservice(BSS) systemsthat carry'lnternettraf|rcT.The relatively

atellite'
,ponder'
rortders,

Narrowcasting
Group
----r- -/;__\
\)t
,/'q

/4
,4

\4
t \ - - -

4i'
J)/
''1.1

{il,,\
' l

/l
t /

Broadcasting.
Coverager"rea

serv"
'taand

FfGUiC 9"4 Schematicof a broadcastsatelliteservicecoverageregion in which smaller,narrowcastinggroups exist withrn the broadercove:agearea (from Figure 2-1of reference3), The
master control stationsends encodedsignalswithin the broadcaststreamthat enablescertain
rlsersto have accessto particularchannelgroupingsaccordingto the subscriber'schoice.

348
'

cHAPTER
e vsATsysrEMs
high capacitydownlink streamis not complementedby an uplink capabilityfrom the user
terminal.If the BSS downlink is used as the download channelfrom an Internet service
provider, the only option the user has for a return link is via another telecommunications
channel, such as a standardtelephoneline. The Internet.protocol (IP) is therefore split
between a satellite downlink (outbound) channel and a terrestrial telephone (inbound,
o.
return) channel; hence the term split IP fr-rrthis implementation.The advantageof this
approachis that the VSAT terminal does not require a transmit capability, which significantly reduces its cost and complexity. The disadvantageis that the telephone line
connectionmust usually be througha tnodern,with a bit rate generallyrestricte6 to 56 kbps
or less.

TWo-iJUaylmpleinentation
tn itri, case,a returnlink is designed
into theserviceso thatrwo-waycommunications
can be set up over the same satellite, from the hub to the user and from the user baek
to
the hub. The VSAIMLL implementation illustrated in Figure 9.2 is a two-vzay service
between the hub (in this case the satellite gateway) and any VSAT terminal, The architectureselectedis the key to the economicsof two-way connections;it can be either Mesh
or Star. These two architecturesare illustrated in Figures 9.5a,b, with the topology as
viewed by the satelliteshorvnin Figures9.6a,h.
Initially, the mosl comlnon VSAT architectureswere St-r networks since the very
low receive G /T (gain-to-noisetemperatureratio) of the VSATs, coupled with their limited
transmit EIRP, was compensatedfor by using a large hub with high G/T and EIRp. The
Satellite

-r:
E-ln-'?-ffrFf
l-+ts+-+-+-+.'i.'.H

Satellite

r) --.i:tEtE::EFFEE:Fl
I Er:{
EEEEEltf:ftt

l,/r\l

MasterControl
Station(the l,ub)

w
(a)

w
VS..1-S

\t

VSATS

(b)
:if"i

FIOUiF :,5 {a} lllustration of a Star VSAT network. In this network arclitecture, all of the traffic is -':',$
r o u t e' l v i a t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o ls t a t i o n ,o r h u b . t f a V S A T w i s h e s t o c o m m u n i c a t ew i t h a n o t h e r V S A T , l i f
they have to go via the hub, thus necessitatinga "double hop'" link via tire satelfite. Since all of the i
traffic radiatesat one time or anotherfrom the hub, this architectureis .'eterredto as a Star nctwork. :l
{bl lllustrationof a Mesh VSAT network.In this network architecturc,dach of the VSATshas the abilitY$
to communicate directly with any of the other VSATs.Sinc* 'ilte traffic can go to or from any VSAT,
;,r;
this architectureis referredto as a Mestr network. lt will still be necessaryto have network controfandi
the duties of the hub can either be handled by one of the VSATsor the master control stationfunc' i
tions can be shared among the VSATs,

i
9.4 ACCESS CONTROL PROTOCOLS

\
H

@{

EK

349

ffi*>fq

/
(a)

,|
t

I vsAij{

t-\

t@(

<---+

+-----+

t]l^l< .-4
[- c-r

>@
)@

>@
>@

\
(b)

FIGURE9.6 Jrl Topologyof a StarVSATnewvorkviewedfrom the satellite'sperspective.

Notehow the VSATcommunications
linksare routedvia the satelliteto the huh in all cases.
(bl Topologyof a MeshVSATnetworkfrom the satellite's
perspective.
Notehow all of the
.lirectlyto eachothervia the satellitewithoutpassingthrougha larger
VSATscommunicate
m as te cr o n rrosl ta ti o n(h u b ).
, t,
r' .l i t

cost of the hub was therefore quite high and, at least for the smaller VSAT networks,
somewhatprohibitive.This led to the conceptof a sharedhub, where severalnetwrrks
operatethrough one main hub. The difficulty with this approachfor large countries witl
widely dispersedcommunitiesis that the host computersfor the small VSAT networks
are larely close to the hub. A high-speedterrestrialdatalink is requiredbetweenthe host
computers of the networks and the hub, which increasesthe cost of the network" Rather
than have one large hub for all of the VSAT networks sharingthe same satellite,the overall network evolved to allow each subnetworkto havo lts own hub as soon as the economics made it attractive,In this way, the host comluter of eachVSAT network can be
co-locatedwith its own hub, thus eliminatingthe ;ost of the interconnectionbetweenthe
hub earth station and the computer controlling the service offered through the VSAT network. Whether the hub is sharedor dedicatedon the one hand or the VSAT is connected
to a single user or a local areanetwork (LAN) with multiple userssharing accessthrough
an Ethe.rnetconnectionon the other, ir^ every casethere will need to be an accesscontrol
protocol.

ACCESSCOfTTROLPROTOCOT-S
The InternationalStandardsOrganization(essentiallya standardscommittee of the United
Nations)has specifiedthe open systemsinterconnection(IS0/OSI) that mandatesa sevenlayer model for a data communicationsystem,as shown in Figure 9.?.

ri:
: i

'.:
I
l:1,

35O

cHAPTER
e vsATsysrEMs

(-;

Application
Presentation
Session

Transport
Network
Link

Physical
FIGURE 9,7 The ISO-OSIseven-layer"stack" for interconnectingdata terminafs.In this
example, user one and user two are conductinga two-way communicationssessionwith
each other. Each user interactswith their local device (e.9",d computer keyboard/visualdisplay unit) at the applicationlayer of the ISO-OSIstack,Their transactionis then routed via
tite various layers,with suitableconversions,etc., until the content is ready to be trarrsmitted via the physicallayer.

A satellitecommunicationslink occupiesprinrarily the physicallayer, which is whe

bits are carried tletweenthe terminals.A VSAT network must have terminal controllersi
each end of the link and these occupy the network and link layers, the two layers
the physical layer. The network control center typieally controls the system and is ri
sponsible for the remaining layers. Unfortunately, few communicationssystemsconfor
in an easily identifiableway to the sevenlayersof the ISO-OSI,model.(For example,
lP protocol stack of five layers simply puts the ftrst three laye:s of the ISO/OSI stack
one layer). It is, however,very useful as a conceptual modei which identifies functii
that must be performedsomewherein every data communication network. Most data
munication networks use some form of packet transmission,in which blocks of
taggedwith an adclress,
error control parity bits, and other useful information before
mission.The receivingend of a link checksarriving paeketsfor errors,and then
aeknowlerigementsignal (ACK) that the packet was receivedcorrectly, or a not
edge signal (NAK) that tells the transmit end to resenda particularpacketbec
packet had an elror. Some systemsdo not send acknowledgements,only NAK si
requesta retransmissionof a packet with an error, since this speedsup data transm!
This is the error control method used in the Intemet protocol TCP/IP. Genericall
systemsare known as automaticrepeatreqnest(ARQ systems.Chapter7 discusses
transmissionsystemsand the.problemof error detectionand correctionin packet
using satellitelinks.
The ISO-OSI stackwas init^rlly developedfbr terrestrialeommunicatinnss
Fbr ttris reason,the protocolstlrat implement tl:-efunctions of'each hyer werefor ttse in terrestrialcircuits with low delay and lcw bit error rale {BER), that is,
performance levels. T,researe key points when .rying to use such protocols
lites, particularly those in geo(tationary earth orbit (GEO). Many of the ea'rly
had a connectiontime-outof a few milliseconds.If po reply wasreceivedfrom the'

s.4ACCESS
CONTROL
PRCTOCOLS
351
in this interval,transmissionsceased.Similarly,an enored signalreceivedfro.urthe source
or an interveningnode would trigger an automaticerror recovery sequence.For example, the X.25 and X.75 packet systemsuse an ARQ approach,which, on detecting an
error in a packet,immediately requestsa retransmissionand halts further transmissions
until fhe correctedpacketis received.Framerelay andATM (asynehronoustransfermode)
systems flag the elror but continue the flow of information (continuous transmission
ARQ" In both cases,the errored transmissionmust be correctedand suitable buffers at
the receiverend (or internrecliate
node) used fo restorethe packetsin their original order. The lnore enors that occur in the link, necessitatingmany retransmissionsof packets, tlte slower the effective data throughput rate of the link becomes.The potential for
delay and (propagationinduced) errors are thereforecritical design elementsin digital
VSAf eonnections.

Delay Consideraticns

'here
)ts at
bove
Src"
form
:, the
into
tions
:om'
'4 ale

rans'
ls
rowl

rls

A typical slant range to a GEO satellite is 39,000 km. The one-way delay over such a
GEO link (earth stationto satellite to earth station) is 2 X (range/velocity) : 260 ms.
J'he one-way delay in a typical 4000-km transcontinentallink via fiber-optic cable is
a little over l3 ms. Neither example includesprocessingdelay (e"g.,source coding
and/or compression,chantrelcocling,basebandproce.ssing
in the switehing elements,
frarne length) which can add several tens of millisecondsor even over'a hundred
rnilliseconds.
The time out elenrentof a protoccll is often referred to as the window of the conneetiotl.As long as the window is "r)pen,"communicationscan continue without interruption. Figure 9.8 iilustratesa corrtinuoustransmissionARQ system that has a 60-ms

Packetsreceivedby User 2

1 0m s
transmission
delay
AEK window
A

Time
A1

sl

Packetstransmittedbv User 1
F l G t ? R E9 . 8 l l l u s t r a t i o no f a c o m m u n i c a t i o n sl i n k w i t h a 1 0 - m so n e - w a yd e l a y a n d ' i 6 0 - m s
wincow, In this example,a packet or frame is sent at instant41 from user 1 to use!'2: ..ser 2
receivc: the irans;,",ission
without error anrJsends an aeknowledgementback, wh.c.r is ree e i v e eal t i n s t a n t A 2 , 2 A m s a f t e r t h e i n i t i a lt r a n s m i s s i o nf r o m u s e r 1 . T h i s i s w e ! l w i t h i n t h e
time window of 60 ms, The time window rolls forward afte, each successfulac<nowledgement. Thus the transmissionfrom user 1 at instant B1 is receivedbryuser 2, and the acknowledgernentreceivedby user 2 at instant 82, within the new rolling time rr.rindowof 60
m s , E a c h p a c k e to r f r a m e i s s u c c e s s f u l l yr e c e i v e ci ln t h i s e x a m p l e .

35.2

e vsATsYsrEMs
cHAPTER
Packetsreceivedby user 2

Packetstransn,ittedby User 1
FIGURE 9.9 lllustration of a communications link with a 260-ms one-way delay and a
6 0 - m s . a r i n d o wI.n t h i s e x a m p l e ,a p a c k e to r f r a m e i s s e n t a t i n s t a n t A 1 f r o m u s e r 1 t o
u s e r 2 . U s e r 2 r e c e i v e st h e t r a n s m i s s i o nw i t h o u t r r o r a n d s e n d s a n a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t
b a c k ,w h i c h i s r e c e i v e da t i n s t a n t A 2 , 2 6 0 m s a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l t r a n s m i s s i o nf r o m u s e r 1 .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y i,n s t a n t A 2 i s w e l l a f t e r t h e r o l l i n g w i n d o w t i m e - o u t o f 6 0 m s . T r a n s m i s s i o n s f r o m u s e r 1 a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l ys h u t d o w n b y t h e p r o t o c o l w h e n t h e t i n i e - o u t o f
6 0 m s i s e x c e e d e d .l g n o r i n g p r o c e s s i n gd e l a y s i n t h i s e x a m p l e , u s e r 1 i s o n l y t r a n s r . i , ' . t i n g f o r 6 0 m s i n e v e r y 2 6 0 m s , t h u s d r a s t i c a l l yl o w e r i n g t h e t h r o u g h p t t t .A g a i n , n o
propagation errors are assumed to occur,
I

window with a l0-rns one-waydelayand Figure 9.9 illustratesa link with a 60-ms window
and a 260^msone-way delay.
Clearly, satellite systemshaveto operatesatisfactorily,and seamlessly(i.e., the user
has no idea whetherthe link is terrestrialor via a satellite),with existing terrcstrialnetworks or their utility is severelycompromised.This is particularly true for GEO systetns
and there are two ways to make terrestrial protocols work with a satellite linl:. First, the
protocolscan be changedso that the time-out window is well in excessof 260 ms; second, the satelliteelementof the packetnetwork can be configured to exist as'a separate
subnetwork within the global packet network. In practice, both solutions are adopted"
Figtrre9.10 illustratesthe concepta.
The VSAT' and hub "protocol" equipment act as processing buffers to separate
the satellite (VSAT) network from the terrestrial network. This is sometimesknownas
s:poofinghecausethe terrestrialpart of the system uses a-conventional protocol andis
unawareof the VSAT network's existence.The electronic processingand emulation
permit traffic to flow seamlesslybetween two very different networks without opera"
tor intervention. In essence,this is the interface through which the VSAT user is conrrectedto the VSA:I'network via the physical layer (see Figureg.ll). Once the user's
traffic has moved from the terrestrial network through the interface and is insidetne
VSAT network, the facket headeris reorganized,with the appropriaterouting andad'
l'
dressof the traffic attached,so that the information can passsu...stfully over the sate
lite network to the correct recipient.Network managementof the VSAT system'whrcn
incluc{escongestionqontrol, is also carried out in thls element of .the VSAT networN"
are
.ermerjthe network kernel. In actdition,all rif the necessaryprotocol conversions
carried <;ulso that the packetor frame ean suceessfuUypassover a satel'liteconnecti0n
with a long delay,
in a
, a typical iata link layer prclocol (layer 2 in the ISO-OSI stack) that is used
low delay,terrestriallink employsmodulo-8 operation.That is, the proio.ol will transntrl

s.4 ACCESS
PROTOCOLS 353
CONTROL

r-l
tl

;l

,..,',I
I rrigrrer

t"v'"I
It----- I
I

Laver
3

I
-___-1
r t-aver
2
I

t--

i'T:r-User
terminal

Hubstation

VSATnetwork

----gffi[?,ii-

indow
c user
ll netrstems
st, the
i, sgc[)arate
opted'
parate
IWRAS
and is
rlation
operas QOn-

user's
de the
nd ad'
: satol'
which
twork'
ns are
ection
:dina
anstnit

FfGUBE9.1O Protocolarchitecture
4
of a StarVSATnetwork(Figure2.2"1of reference
olTU,reproduced
with permissionl.
VSATnetworksare normallymaintained
as independent,
privatcnetworks,
with the packetization
handledat the userinterfaceunitsof the VSAT
terminals.Thesatelliteaccessprotocol(witha largertime-outwindow)is handledin the
VSAT/hub
networkkernel,whiehalsohandlespacketaddressing,
eongestion
control,packet
routingand switching,
functions.Protocolconversion
and,if
and networkmanagernent
neeessary,
emulationis handledby the gatewayequipment.

only 7 unacknowledged frames before it stops transmissions; this leads to the low
throughput demonstratedin Figure 9.9, particularly for GEO satellite links. The high
level data link control (HDLC) protocol used in layer 2 for satellite systemstherefore
usually employs a modulo-I28 operation.That is, 127 frames may he sent without receiving any acknowledgementsbefore the protocol shuts down transmissions.Moving
from modulo-E to modulo-128operationsignificantly increasesthe "window" size permitted for the link layer control.The concept,calledprotoccllemulation,is demonstrated
i n F i g u r e9 . 1 1 4 .
Another critical function performed in the VSAT' interfaee/kernelsections is to
respondto polling activity from the terrestrialpacket networks. [t is normal for packet
ttetworks to poll users to see if there are packets to be sent. The interface/kernel
elements in the VSAT network respond to the polling signals of the terrestrial network immediately, thus avoiding the long delay that would oecur if the polling signal
had to be passedover the satellite link. Negative acknowledgementsare made to the
polling signals until a requestto senddata is receivedover the satellitelink. Siven that
ttte eorrect protocols have been insertedat ISO-OSI layer 2 within the VSAT system,
and the managementfunctions have been carried out (i.e., polling, switehing, ro-uting,
acldressing,and flow control) so that the link can operate suecessfullyat a p;otocbl
level, there still remains ti:e major pafl ttf tl,e system design question t; rnswer: how
is the physical connectionto tre establishedr-rverthe satellite?To ans,,verthis question
we must move from protocol design/emulation to transmission engineering. First,
we will cover some of the basic techniquesinvolved in developing a transmission
design.

s.sEAstcrEcHNtouEs 359
InboundnarrowbandVSATchannels

Outbound
wideband
TDMstream

36-MHz satellitetransponder
FIGURE 9.14 lllustrationof a VSAT network frequencyassignmentin which the inbound
and outbound channelsshare the same transponderin the satellite.In the exampfehere, 19
MHz of spectrum is allocatedfor each side of the system connection.On the uplink to the
satellite,the collection of FDMA narrowband channels transmitted by the VSATscoexists in
the same transponderwith the wideband TDM stream transmittedup by the hub. on the
downlink from the satellite,the hub receivesthe collectionof individualnarrowbandchannels while the wideband TDM downlink stream is received by each VSAT.The precise frequency assignment can vary to suit the capacity of the VSAT network.

:q

that usesTDMA on the uplink is requiredto transmitar rhe full burstrateof the TDMA
scheme,andmustthereforehavea muchmorepowerfultransmitterthanan SCPC-FDMA
VSAT.If the averagetraffic for an individualVSAT is only oneequivalentvoicecircuit
(64 kbit/s),havingto transmitat 5 Mbit/s,say,insteadof 64 kbiVscanposemajordifficulties"TheVSATtransmitpowermustbeincreased
by a factorof 500019{= ?8 to maintain the siuncuplink C/N, sincethe eafthstationreceivermusthavea bandwidththat is
wider by the samefactor.VSAT economicsandbandwidthefficiencytrade-offshaveled
to a hybrid TDMA-FDMA approachcalledMF-DMA (multifrequencyTDMA). This is
illustratedin Figure9.15.
In the MF-DMA exampleshownin Figure9.15,eachof theVSATshasto ransmir
at a btrnt ratethat is approximately
five timesthe normalsingleVSAT single+hannel
rate.
If eachVSATtransmitsat a message
datarateof 64 kbit/sandtherearefive VSATssharing

'errestrial
channelto
UserequiPment
=,----+

Inbound,
ctownlink
TDMstreamto hub

om the hub, via the

nd, "inbound'chanr single,wideband'
i. Each VSAT receivcs
ranges the modulated
line code is thcn
rrt of the strcam thrt
erminal"Canicr rg@vto identifY the exad

Hub

tcllite transPonder

FIGURE 9.15 Examplc of a muftifrequencyTDMA (MF-TDMA)scheme.ln this pafticularcase,

five VSATterminafs(A, B, C, D, and E) share the same frequencyassignmenuthat is, they all
transmit at the same frequency,However,they each have a unique time slot in the TDMA frame
when they transmit, so that they do not interfere with each other. The bursts from each VSAT
are timed to arrive at the satellitein the correctsequencefor onward transmissionto the hub.

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