CONCEPT OF STRESS

normal (axial) and shear stresses

NORMAL STRESS
AND SHEAR STRESS
Objectives:
a)
b)
c)

Understand the concepts of normal and shear stress

U d t d th
Understand
the concepts
t off normall strains
t i
Hookes Law

Shear

PREDICTION OF
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
The behaviour of the whole structure is deduced
from
o tthe
e be
behaviour
av ou o
of its
ts co
components.
po e ts.
The resistance of a material to deformation under load and other
influences is governed fundamentally by its atomic and molecular
structure.
The material deformation depends
p
on many
y factors: the load to
which it is subjected, whether the load is steady or fluctuating,
the duration of loading or heating, etc.
etc.
From a knowledge of the properties of the material we can derive
the deformation characteristics of simple structural components.
i.e. BEAMS, COLUMNS, TIE
TIE--RODS, COMPRESSION STRUTS
(commonly referred to as members/bars
members/bars))

PREDICTION OF
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
In engineering construction elements of a
structure must exist with definite physical sizes.
These elements must be properly proportioned
to resist the forces that may be imposed upon
them.
In engineering practice, economy is desirable
When selecting materials.

i.e.

Steel Structures

b
beams,
columns,
l
beam
beamb
-columns,
l
struts,
t t ti
ties

FORCES
One important objective in strength of materials is the investigation of
the internal resistance of a body (i.e. the forces set up internally to
balance the externally
y applied
pp
forces))

These are called internal actions.

If a body as a whole is in equilibrium any part of it must also be in
equilibrium.
q
For such parts
p
of a body,
y however, some of the forces
necessary to maintain equilibrium must act at the face of the section.
These considerations lead to the following fundamental conclusion:
The externally applied forces to one side of an arbitrary cut must
be balanced by the internal forces developed at the cut.

The external forces are balanced by the internal forces.

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

free body diagram
UDL

cross-section

beam
A

x
L
UDL

S
M

FBD

N
RA

S shear stress resultant

N axial force stress resultant
M bending
g moment stress
resultant

FORCES
External forces
forces imposed on the body

Internal forces
act between two different portions of the body under
consideration. Imagine any plane within the material, then
the force transmitted across this plane is an internal force.
force
(recall free body diagram concept)

can also occur independently of external forces (i.e.if

((iii.e.if
e if the
central portion of a bar is heated it tends to expand but is
restrained by the surrounding material thus, the central
part will
i be in
i compression
i while
i the outer par will
i be in
i
tension))
tension

CONCEPT OF STRESS
F5

F1
y

Externall forces
E
f
acting on a body

F2
z
x

F3

F4
F1

Force
Resultant

Internal forces
g on a Cross-Section
acting

R
F2

z
x

F3

M
Moment
Resultant

NORMAL and SHEAR STRESS

z = lim Fz
A0 A
Units:

zx = lim Fx
A0 A

zy = lim Fy
A0 A

N/m2 ( 1 Pa)
N/mm2 ( 1 MPa)

NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES

acting on a CrossCross-Section
1.

Normal (axial)
stresses

F1
y

NOTE:
Force Resultant R can be
resolved in 2 components:
p
1.

F2
z

2.

Acting perpendicular to the cross

section
(NORMAL OR AXIAL FORCE)
Acting parallel to the cross section
(SHEAR FORCE)

F3

2
2.

F1

F2

z
x

Shear
(tangential) stresses

F3

AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS

= P
A

CONCEPT OF NORMAL
AXIAL STRESS
A point force is an idealisation we make, in reality forces are
applied over a certain area similar to pressure.
At a crosscross-section the
h internall action must have
h
a force resultant
l
equal to P.
The internal action can be represented as a point force or as a
stress.
stress
A stress is defined as the intensity over an area of force similar
to the concept of pressure.
Normal or direct stress is produced by a force which is normal to
the plane of the cross
cross--section on which the force acts.
It is denoted s (sigma) and is defined by:

P dP
= lim
=
A 0 A
dA

Units Pascal (Pa) = N/m2

We use MPa = N/mm2 or 103 kN/m2

CONCEPT OF NORMAL
AXIAL STRESS
The Resultant of the Direct Stress over the crosscrosssection must be equal
q
to the internal action,
action, in this
case the axial force P:
P:

P = dA
A

If the stress distribution is uniform over the

cross--section, then
cross

= P/ A

(constant over the crosscross-section)

CONCEPT OF NORMAL AXIAL

STRESS
Consider a bar of length L
acted by forces P at each end.

CONCEPT OF NORMAL AXIAL

STRESS
When
h an element
l
is loaded
l d d so that
h the
h normall stresses that
h
exist are one dimensional this is known as an axial member
(i.e. axially stressed)
P

TENSION TIE

N
x

COMPRESSION STRUT

N
x

NOTE: One must investigate buckling when compressive loads are considered.
Slender
Sl d members
b
have
h
a tendency
d
to buckle
b kl sideways
id
and
d collapse.
ll
We will assume our members are chunky or stocky and cannot buckle.

AXIAL BAR
free body diagram
bar

TENSION
TIE

N
x

COMPRESSION
STRUT

cross-section

To study the internal actions of a member a

FREEBODY DIAGRAM is drawn.
A free
f
b
body
d diagram
di
includes
i l d all
ll the
th relevant
l
t
reactions and external forces.

FBD

EXAMPLE

AFD

Average Normal Stress:

3) N
P
30
(10
BC
BC =
85 7 MPa
MP
=
= 85.7
A
(0.035 m)(0.010 m)

CONCEPT OF SHEAR STRESS

If a Shear Force S
S acts on a crosscross-section the associated
stresses are tangential to the crosscross-section and are called

Shear Stresses denoted by t (tau).

(tau)

S dS
= lim
=
A 0 A
dA

The distribution of shear stresses is

often complex
complex, but we can get an
average measure from:

av = S / A

CONCEPT OF SHEAR STRESS

Shearing stress is cause through the transmission of a force from one part
off a body
b d to the
h other
h iin the
h plane
l
parallel
ll l to the
h applied
li d fforce.

a
A

Single
shear

P
t

A
A

A
A

P
t

A
A
Rivet connection

Single
shear

P
e

P/2

P A

P/2

P/2

Double
shear

P
P/2

AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS

Single Shear

Double Shear

EXAMPLE

Design
g for the pins:
p

EXAMPLE (Continued)

STRAIN
Objectives:
j
a) Understand the concept of normal and shear
strain,, and
b) Apply the concept to determine the strains for
various types
yp of p
problems

Concept
p of Strain
If a bodyy is displaced
p
such that its shape
p and size
does not change, it has gone a rigid body
displacement
displacement.
- Transverse displacement

- Rotation

RIGID
BODY
MOTION

Deformation of a bar under

an axial force
When a body undergoes a set of displacements such that its
size or shape is changed then the body has undergone some
sort of deformation
deformation..
Example 1 T

Extension of a bar
under an axial
(tensile) force

Change in length - elongation

Change in length - contraction

Contraction of a bar
under an axial
(compressive) force

Concept of Strain
Strain is a quantity,
quantity which is used to
measure the amount and direction of the
d f
deformation.
i
It is defined as the ratio
of tthe
o
e de
deformation
o at o to tthe
e original
o g al size
s eo
of the
t e body.
There are two sorts of strains:
-

NORMAL STRAIN

SHEAR STRAIN

NORMAL ((direct)) STRAIN

The Normal Strain
is a measure of the change
g in length.
g
It is denoted by (epsilon).
(epsilon).
de
d
dx

NORMAL (direct) STRAIN

Uniform strain through crosscross-section

de
(strain ) =
dx
L

e = dx
0

For uniform strain

= e/ L

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS
Objectives:
Obj ti
:
a) Understand how to measure the stress and
strain through experiments, and
b) Correlate the behavior of some engineering
materials to the stressstress-strain diagram.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The relationship between normal stress and strain
y experiment.
p
can be determined by
P

UNIAXIAL TENSION

s
TENSILE TEST
SPECIMEN

E
1

Limit of
proportionality

e
P

Stress versus Strain Relationship

TENSION AND
COMPRESSION TEST
Specimen

Equipment

APPLICATIONS

STRESS-STRAIN
STRESSDIAGRAM
It is common practice to plot diagrams on which a
relationship between stress and strain for a particular test
in tension and compression are obtained.
These diagrams establish a relationship between stress and strain,
and for most practical purposes are assumed to be independent of
the size of the specimen or its gauge length.
length

Experimentally
p
y obtained stress
stress--strain diagrams
g
depend
p
on:
-

Speed of test
T
Temperature
t
att which
hi h test
t t was conducted
d t d
Several other variables

ASPECTS of STRESSSTRESSSTRAIN DIAGRAM

Stress

Constant stressplastic range

ult
y

Proportional
limit

sh

Hardening
range
g

BEHAVIOUR OF
MILD STEEL

y yyield strain
sh - strain hardening
Strain

Points worth noting on a stressstress-strain diagram include:

- - PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (yield point)
- - ULTIMATE STRENGTH,
STRENGTH ultlt
- - YIELD STRESS, y

STRESS--STRAIN DIAGRAM
STRESS

Note the critical

status for strength
specification
p
proportional limit
elastic limit
yield stress
ultimate stress
fracture stress

STRESS-STRAIN
STRESSDIAGRAM
Two types of diagrams can be recognised:
-

DUCTILE materials widely used in construction (steel)

BR
BRITTLE
materials (concrete, glass)

BRITTLE (limited deformation)

DUCTILE (deform considerably)

SIMPLE HOOK
HOOKS
S LAW
For most materials the stress strain diagram is
linear for a certain range.
-

Glass is linear for the whole loading range

Mild steel is linear until yielding occurs

- stress

GLASS
MILD STEEL in tension
CONCRETE in compression

- strain

SIMPLE HOOK
HOOKS
S LAW
The stress and strain can be considered linear up to a
certain point.
This generalisation is known as Hookes
Hooke s Law and states:

= E

E = /

The stress is directly

proportional to strain

E is Youngs Modulus, units MPa (N/mm2)

200,000
200
000 - 210,000
210 000 MPa for Steel
20,000 - 40,000 MPa for Concrete

For Shear Stresses

is dimensionless

= G

G is the Shear Modulus (80,000 MPa for steel)

E
G=
2(1 + )

ELASTIC-PLASTIC MODEL
ELASTICfor STEEL

Yielding

Yield Stress
E

Unloading
g

Permanent Set

Th stress
The
t
strain
t i relationship
l ti
hi is approximated by
two straight lines.

STRESS-STRAIN
STRESSDIAGRAM

Yield Point

0.2%
0.
% ooffset
se
For materials without a specified yield or proportional limit,
the yield point is specified by taking a 0.2% offset
and drawing a parallel to the slope of the curve.
The elastic limit corresponds closely to the proportional limit of the material.

UNIAXIAL STRESS
Uniform stress:

= P/ A

Uniform strain:

= e/ L

Hookess Law:
Hooke

= E

P
e
=E
A
L

EA
P=
e
L

PL
e=
EA