Express Review Guides Grammar

Grammar
Grammar
New York
Copyright 2007 LearningExpress, LLC.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright
Conventions. Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC,
New York.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Express review guides. Grammar.1st ed.
p. cm.
ISBN: 978-1-57685-626-0
1. English languageGrammarProblems, exercises, etc. I.
LearningExpress (Organization)
PE1112.E97 2007
428'.0076dc22
2007017305
Printed in the United States of America
9 8
First Edition
ISBN: 978-1-57685-626-0
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Contents
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
GLOSSARY
v
Pretest
1
Capitalization and PunctuationFirst Things First 15
SpellingSpell Well . . . with a Few Exceptions
51
VerbsThe Movers and Shakers of Language
69
Adjectives and AdverbsThe 5 Ws and 4 Hs
of Good Writing
89
AgreementA Matter of Compatibility
107
ModifiersDoes It Dangle or Squint or Split?
127
Sentence StructureFrom the Simple to the
Complex
143
ParagraphsAs Easy as Announce-Build-Close!
157
Tricky WordsBee a Wear of Why Lee Words!
171
Posttest
187
201
Introduction
ur earliest ancestors invented language out of

necessity and the need to improve their quality of life. It could not
have taken long for early humans to come to detest the endless aggravation
of not being able to get their points across to others around them. The
adage Necessity is the mother of invention held true then, as it does even
today, as the complexity of our world increases. Our language constantly
evolves in order to adapt to our needs and to maintain and improve our quality of life. It doesnt happen overnight, though, and it didnt back then either,
but the evolution of language is like clockworkits change is unswerving.
English is complex, but luckily, it comes with a users manualgrammar
and usagea voluminous set of rules and guidelines that helps you make
sense of the many intricate and dynamic parts of our language. And while
you may be studying grammar right now in school, figuring out the inner
workings of sentence structure and writing can be fun and challenging. The
benefits of your efforts will especially be rewarded in your writing.
You write more often than you think. Essays, notes, e-mail, listsall
require writing, just in different formats. Sometimes, what you write requires
you to be more formal, and you have to follow certain guidelines for etiquette. At other times, your writing may resemble some kind of code or language that your friends understand perfectly well, but that an English
teacher would have nightmares about. Thats okay. Really. Flexibility is the
key, and knowing when and where to use proper English is important. No
viii Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

one expects you to be a walking grammar book, but having a grounded
understanding in the whys and hows of English will impact your spoken and
written communication skills forever. If you make a concerted and consistent effort to apply some of the skills you have learned in this book, you will
create good habitshabits that will stay with you when you write term
papers, a letter of introduction to a prospective employer, and perhaps even
an acceptance speech for a prestigious award. All of these scenarios hinge
on someone understanding and appreciating what you say and how you say
it, whether written or spoken.
This book will equip you with the basic tools you will need to build an
essay that is clear and logical and that you can be proud of. It also includes
the following helpful hints and exercises to help you further develop your
writing skills.
Fuel for Thought: critical information and definitions that can help you
learn more about a particular topic
Inside Track: tips for reducing your study and practice timewithout
sacrificing accuracy
Practice Lap: quick practice exercises and activities to let you test your
knowledge
The chapters, which include lessons, along with examples and practice
questions, are meant to be read in order, so the lessons build upon themselves
as you read. Heres a brief description of each chapter, so that you get an idea
of the flow.
CHAPTER 1: PRETEST
Take this test to see where you need to focus before you start the book. Any
surprises? This will give you a good idea about your strengths and where you
need to improve. Read through each lesson, do the practice questions along
the way, and youre bound to strengthen your writing skills.
Introduction
CHAPTER 2: CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATIONFIRST

THINGS FIRST
Theres more to capitalization than just capitalizing the first word of every
sentence. Learn about the basic dos and donts of proper capitalization. As
the pulse of the sentence, punctuation leads the reader through a sentence
just as road signs lead a driver. Learn the ins and outs of punctuation, from
apostrophes to dashes to quotations to semicolons.
CHAPTER 3: SPELLINGSPELL WELL . . . WITH A FEW EXCEPTIONS

Learn basic spelling rules (and their exceptions), and learn how prefixes and
suffixes play an important role in our language.
CHAPTER 4: VERBSTHE MOVERS AND SHAKERS OF LANGUAGE

The movers and shakers of language, verbs come in many shapes and varieties
and present many vivid pictures. Learn how verbs make a sentence come alive.
CHAPTER 5: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBSTHE 5 Ws AND 4 Hs OF

GOOD WRITING
Like the colors on an artists palette, these modifiers brighten and enliven
language to help paint pictures in a readers mind. Learn how useful and powerful these words can be.
CHAPTER 6: AGREEMENTA MATTER OF COMPATIBILITY

Agreement between a sentences verbs and nouns is paramount. Learn how
to decide whether to make a verb plural or singular, and how to make your
pronouns compatible with your antecedents. Your what? Find out here!
CHAPTER 7: MODIFIERSDOES IT DANGLE OR SQUINT OR SPLIT?

Care to know whether your modifiers dangle, squint, or split? Learn about
phrases and clauses and their uncanny ability to throw a curveball or two
when you least expect it.
ix
x Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 8: SENTENCE STRUCTUREFROM THE SIMPLE TO THE

COMPLEX
Proper sentence structure can make or break your message. Learn how
phrases and clauses improve your sentence structure and how to avoid runons and fragments.
CHAPTER 9: PARAGRAPHSAS EASY AS ANNOUNCE-BUILD-CLOSE

Identify paragraph components and their proper organization, and then
apply that knowledge to create a sound five-paragraph essay.
CHAPTER 10: TRICKY WORDSBEE A WEAR OF WHY LEE WORDS!

English is filled with words that sound alike but are spelled differently
(homonyms) and words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently
(homographs). Then there are words that just, well, trick usbetter word
choice is just a chapter away.
CHAPTER 11: POSTTEST

Now that youve finished the book, how much have you improved? This
posttest will give you a chance to see how much youve learned and how far
youve come since you took the pretest. Do you still need any improvement? Go back to the relevant chapters and review.
GLOSSARY
This chapter contains an extensive list of important words you may already
know, or you may have learned throughout this book. Refer to it as often as
you need to.
Ready? Lets get started!
Pretest
his pretest contains 70 questions and is designed to

test your knowledge of various topics that are covered in the book.
By taking this test and then checking your answers against the answer key
that follows, youll be able to determine what you already know and what you
need to learn. For each question you answer incorrectly, be sure to read the
explanation that accompanies the correct answer in the answer key. Also, the
answer key contains chapter references, so that you know which lesson deals
with that questions topic. It should take you no more than one hour to complete the pretest. Good luck!
CAPITALIZATION
Correct the words that require proper capitalization.
1.
dean asked, may i borrow your markers when youre finished?
2.
my teacher asked me to write an essay titled if i could live forever.
3.
when hailey saw the latest issue of vogue, she eagerly bought it.
4.
brielle said, theres a lost cat sitting outside the door.
2 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

5.
my dentist, dr. benjamin feldman, always gives me a free toothbrush.
6.
tammy enjoys taking walks in the park.
7.
have you read the biography of queen elizabeth i?
8.
the warm carribbean breeze blew gently across the island.
9.
i traveled to burma, a country northwest of thailand.
10.
I see mrs. alessi on thursdays only.
PUNCTUATION
Insert proper punctuation into the following sentences.
11.
The playful puppy pushed the little girl
12.
Should Polly play outside with her friends or practice her piano
13.
The hungry penguin sat on the ice waiting for its mother
14.
Wow How did you do that
15.
its time to go home
16.
Rebeccas long blond hair blew in the breeze
17.
The cat chased the mouse into the barn and returned later with a smile
on its face
18.
The lost hiker tired and hungry searched through his bag for food
19.
As Ashley flew to London she thought of her friends and family back
home
Pretest
20.
Butch a bully popped all of Chelseas balloons and made her cry
21.
The caterpillar crawled over the leaf along the branch and down the
trunk of the tree
22.
After a long talk they decided to go home cook dinner watch TV and
chill
23.
March 17 1993 is Saras birthday she will be 15 years old this year
24.
The midnight sky was still except for one tiny sparkle of a star
25.
You must know how to catch throw hit and slide
26.
They finally reached the far side of the island however help was nowhere
in sight
27.
Amanda placed Martins Encyclopedia Book H in her book bag
28.
Elliott wants to study genetics in college he hopes to become a doctor
29.
That was a good one remarked Tony Do it again
30.
Im hungry Do we have anything to eat whined Brandon
MODIFIERS
Adjectives
In each sentence, circle the adjective(s).

31.
The car got a flat tire.
32.
Toms cotton shirt was wrinkled.
33.
The loud music hurts my ears.

34.
Southern peaches are exceptionally delicious and juicy.
Adverbs
In each sentence, circle the adverb(s).

35.
The orange ball glowed and sank slowly on the horizon.
36.
Linda completely misunderstood the directions the teacher gave.
37.
Nikki quickly decided to turn right at the corner.
38.
Westerns can be very exciting.
39.
Her fourth-quarter grades had improved slightly.
40.
Twenty minutes too late, she removed the burned tuna casserole from
the oven.
Prepositional Phrases
In each sentence, circle the prepositional phrase(s).

41.
The grandfather clock in the hallway chimed each hour.
42.
The shed in the backyard was covered with English ivy.
43.
Steven cut the grass in the front yard yesterday.
Tricky Words
In each sentence, circle the tricky word(s).

44.
Will ewe please take three dollars and by sum milk?
45.
Joe tries to due his assignments early.
46.
Nell kneads two go two bed.
Pretest
47.
Hour daughter, Meghan, had the flew.
48.
Theyre is only ate scents in my pocket.
49.
The plain arrived with the pear of twins a bored.
50.
Weight here! Aisle get sum stationary for you.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Identify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex. Underline the
subject once and underline the predicate twice.
51.
The judges watched the dancers closely and gave prizes to the highest
scorers.
52.
Karens sandwich store serves subs, soups, and salads.
53.
Zachary slept well after washing cars for the fund-raiser all day.
54.
Mrs. Milling recorded the test grades, and her student teacher passed
them back to the students.
55.
The nurse gently held the newborn baby, who was crying.
56.
Presidential conventions occur every four years during the summer.
57.
Ivy was afraid to watch horror movies, but she enjoyed comedies.
58.
The bakery, which was built next to the grocery store, was always busy.
59.
Although he was a good student, sometimes Matthew forgot to do his

homework.
60.
The teacher, who taught health and gym, quickly made his way to the
meeting.
COMBINING SENTENCES
Choppy sentences in a paragraph are unappealing. Combine the following
sentences, rewriting them when necessary, to create an informative, interesting sentence. Although there are many possible combinations, a sample
sentence of each question is provided for you at the end of the pretest.
61.
My worst trip was not, in fact, the actual vacation.

My worst trip was the plane ride to the vacation spot.
62.
This wasnt just one of those two-hour trips to Florida.

This was a 16-hour direct flight.
It was a flight across the Atlantic over the North Pole.
63.
I was boarding the plane.

I was anxiously waiting to see how the leg room and the food would be.
I was anxiously waiting to see who would be seated around me.
64.
Naturally, I did not have high expectations on a flight as long as this.

I considered how they cant expect you to be too comfortable.
I considered how they cant expect you to not be bored.
Pretest
65.
Of course, I was not surprised.

I think more things went wrong than right on this flight.
66.
As I was sitting down, the first thing I noticed was two babies.
I noticed the babies seated within three rows of me.
I thought that wasnt a good sign.
67.
The babies werent the only things I became aware of as I took my seat.
I realized how close the back of the seat in front of me was to my knees.
68.
By then, I was already telling my sister she could have the window seat.
I was supposed to have the window seat.
I knew I would need the aisle for extra leg room.
69.
I settled in.
Eventually, I started dozing off.
I would be interrupted by the flight attendants.
They were kicking my feet, which were in the aisle.
I cant complain, though, because they werent supposed to be there
anyway.

70.
The food was actually quite good.

The tray holder that comes out of the back of the seat in front of you was
not.
It was like trying to balance your meal on the head of a needle.
I ended up spilling my soda and dinner all over my lap.
ANSWERS
Capitalization
We capitalize (1) the first word of every sentence, (2) the first word of a direct
quotation, (3) the pronoun I and all contractions made using the word I, (4)
proper nouns, (5) proper adjectives, and (6) the first word and all key words
in titles. (To better understand capitalization, please see Chapter 2.)
1. Dean asked, May I borrow your markers when youre finished?
2. My teacher asked me to write an essay titled If I Could Live Forever.
3. When Hailey saw the latest issue of Vogue, she eagerly bought it.
4. Brielle said, Theres a lost cat sitting outside the door.
5. My dentist, Dr. Benjamin Feldman, always gives me a free toothbrush.
6. Tammy enjoys taking walks in the park.
7. Have you read the biography of Queen Elizabeth I?
8. The warm Caribbean breeze blew gently across the island.
9. I traveled to Burma, a country northwest of Thailand.
10. I see Mrs. Alessi on Thursdays only.
Punctuation
(1) Periods signify the end of declarative and imperative sentences; (2)
question marks are used after a question; and (3) exclamations signify
strong feelings or emotion. (To better understand punctuation, please see
Chapter 2.)
11. The playful puppy pushed the little girl.
12. Should Polly play outside with her friends or practice her piano?
13. The hungry penguin sat on the ice waiting for its mother.
Pretest
Wow! How did you do that?

15. Its time to go home.
16. Rebeccas long, blond hair blew in the breeze.
17. The cat chased the mouse into the barn and returned later with a smile
on its face.
14.
Use commas (1) to separate series of three or more items or phrases in a sentence, (2) with an introductory word or phrase, (3) before and after a word
or phrase that is meant to rename or describe a noun that precedes it (an
appositive), and (4) in dates and addresses.
18. The lost hiker, tired and hungry, searched through his bag for food.
19. As Ashley flew to London, she thought of her friends and family back
home.
20. Butch, a bully, popped all of Chelseas balloons and made her cry.
21. The caterpillar crawled over the leaf, along the branch, and down the
trunk of the tree.
22. After a long talk, they decided to go home, cook dinner, watch TV,
and chill.
23. March 17, 1993, is Saras birthday. She will be 15 years old this year.
24. The midnight sky was still, except for one tiny sparkle of a star.
Use colons to (1) introduce a list, (2) introduce the subtitle of a movie or
book, (3) separate hours from minutes when writing the time. Use a semicolon (4) to separate two related sentences and (5) between two complete
sentences that are separated by transitional words or phrases.
25. You must know how to do all of the following: catch, throw, hit, and slide.
26. They finally reached the far side of the island; however, help was
nowhere in sight.
27. Amanda placed Martins Encyclopedia:: Book H in her book bag.
28. Elliott wants to study genetics in college; he hopes to become a doctor.
Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending quotation marks.
29. That was a good one, remarked Tony. Do it again.
30. Im hungry. Do we have anything to eat? whined Brandon.

Modifiers
Adjectives (1) modify only nouns; (2) answer What kind? Which one? and How
many? about the nouns they are modifying; (3) imply something belongs to
someone; and (4) are sometimes proper nouns that behave like adjectives.
(To better understand adjectives, please see Chapter 5.)
31. The car got a flat tire.
32. Toms cotton shirt was wrinkled.
33. The loud music hurts my ears.
34. Southern peaches are exceptionally delicious and juicy.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer Where?
When? How? How much? How often? and How long? (To better understand
adverbs, please see Chapter 5.)
35. The orange ball glowed and sank slowly on the horizon.
36. Linda completely misunderstood the directions the teacher gave.
37. Nikki quickly decided to turn right at the corner.
38. Westerns can be very exciting.
39. Her fourth-quarter grades had improved slightly.
40. Twenty minutes too late, she removed the burned tuna casserole from
the oven.
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and
ends with a noun or pronoun. (To better understand prepositional phrases,
please see Chapters 6 and 7.)
41. The grandfather clock in the hallway chimed each hour.
42. The shed in the backyard was covered with English ivy.
43. Steven cut the grass in the front yard yesterday.
Words that are spelled differently and have dissimilar meanings, but are pronounced exactly the same, are called homonyms. (To better understand
tricky words, please see Chapter 10.)
44. Will you please take three dollars and buy some milk?
45. Joe tries to do his assignments early.
46. Nell needs to go to bed.
47. Our daughter, Meghan, had the flu.
48. There is only eight cents in my pocket.
Pretest
The plane arrived with the pair of twins aboard.

50. Wait here! Ill get some stationery for you.
49.
Sentence Structure
(1) A simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word) and a simple
predicate (one word); (2) a compound sentence is two complete sentences
joined by a conjunction; (3) a complex sentence is made up of at least one
independent clause and one subordinate (dependent) clause. (For more help
with sentence structure, please see Chapter 8.)
51. The judges watched the dancers closely and gave prizes to the highest
scorers.
compound
52. Karens sandwich store serves subs, soups, and salads.
simple
53. Zachary slept well after washing cars for the fund-raiser all day.
simple
54. Mrs. Milling recorded the test grades, and her student teacher passed
them back to the students.
compound
55. The nurse gently held the newborn baby, who was crying.
complex
56. Presidential conventions occur every four years during the summer.
simple
57. Ivy was afraid to watch horror movies, but she enjoyed comedies.
compound
58. The bakery, which was built next to the grocery store, was always busy.
complex
59. Although he was a good student, sometimes Matthew forgot to do his
homework.
complex
60. The teacher, who taught health and gym, quickly made his way to the
meeting.
complex
11

Combining Sentences
(For more help with combining sentences, please see Chapters 8 and 9.)
61. My worst trip was not, in fact, the actual vacation, but the plane ride to
the vacation spot.
The choppiness of these sentences is obvious because the subjects
are repeated. Combine the subjects to make one sentence.
62. This wasnt just one of those two-hour trips to Florida but a 16-hour
direct flight across the Atlantic over the North Pole.
Again, the choppiness is evident with the repetition of the words
this and flight. Combine for fluidity.
63. As I was boarding the plane, I anxiously waited to see how the leg
room and the food would be, and to see who would be seated around me.
The subject, I, is written three times, which means the sentences
can be combined. Also, notice the word anxiously being used twice.
Avoid repetition.
64. Naturally, I did not have high expectations on a flight as long as this; I
considered how they cant expect you to be too comfortable and to not
be bored.
The sentence topics are directly related, so they can be joined using
a semicolon. The last two sentences need combining for fluidity.
65. Not to my surprise, I think more things went wrong than right on this
flight.
Just a little rewording brings the two sentences together.
66. As I was sitting down, the first thing I noticed was two babies within
three rows of me, and I immediately thought that wasnt a good sign.
Notice some of the repetition avoided with combining and a little
rewording.
67. The babies werent the only things I became aware of as I took my seat;
I realized how close the back of the seat in front of me was to my knees.
The semicolon joins the sentences, as they complement each other.
68. By then, I was already telling my sister she could have the window seat,
even though I was supposed to. I knew I would need the aisle for extra
leg room.
Combining the first two sentences makes sense. Leave the last one
alone for the added emphasis.
Pretest
I settled in and eventually started dozing off, only to be interrupted by

the flight attendants kicking my feet, which were in the aisle. I cant
complain, though; they werent supposed to be there anyway.
Notice the same subject, I, in the first three choppy sentences.
They need combining with a bit of rewording. Leave the last sentence alone for emphasis.
70. The food was actually quite good, but the tray holder that comes out of
the back of the seat in front of you was not. It was like trying to balance
your meal on the head of a pin, and I ended up spilling my soda and dinner all over my lap.
The first two sentences contrast each other nicely, and combining
them with the conjunction but works well. The last two sentences
can be made into a compound sentence using the conjunction and.
69.
13
Capitalization and
Punctuation
First Things First
hat if no one had to follow the same rules or conventions

of punctuation and capitalization for written English? It is certain that whatever message the writer means to get across will fall short, if
not get lost altogether. Take a look.
when igo to thanksgiving Dinner at. grandmas house my cousin
nathan and I, watch football on my uncles? big screen tv and Cheer
on our . . . favorite teams, later on the Entire family young; and old
gathers in the living room, and plays bingo a time! honored custom
started when grandma was a little girl growing up in st louis mo?
Without the use of standard punctuation and capitalization, you would
find that reading the preceding passage is tedious and requires too much time
and trouble. If it is rewritten appropriately, however, reading and understanding it becomes effortless.
When I go to Thanksgiving dinner at Grandmas house, my cousin
Nathan and I watch football on my uncles big-screen TV and cheer on
our favorite teams. Later on, the entire family, young and old, gathers
in the living room and plays bingo, a time-honored tradition started
when Grandma was a little girl growing up in St. Louis, Missouri.
What a difference!
PART 1: CAPITALIZATIONFIRST THINGS FIRST

Capitalize the first word of every sentence.
Take the dog for a walk, please.
Fifty-two weeks make up one year.
Capitalization signifies the beginning of a sentence. It provides visual separation clues for readers as to when a new sentence begins, which is helpful when several sentences follow one another in a paragraph, as you
observed in the preceding passage.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IF THE FIRST word of a sentence is a number, it should be written
out as a word.
When a sentence includes a persons exact words, capitalize the first

word of the direct quotation . . .
Looking wide-eyed at the list of ice cream choices, Anthony said,
There are so many flavors.
Im so hungry, I could eat them all! exclaimed Anthonys friend,
Jason.
. . . however, do not capitalize the first word of a partial quotation.
We can have a feast, Alex replied with resolve, if we order the
seven-scoop Kitchen Sink Sundae!
Capitalize the pronoun I and all contractions made using the word I (Im,
Ive, Ill, Id).
Capitalization and Punctuation
Im sure Ive never borrowed Alicias sequined green-and-pink

sweater, said Rhonda. Ill look in my closet, but I think Id remember wearing something that outlandish.
Capitalize proper nouns.
Unlike common, garden-variety nouns, which are general names for people, places, and things (city, building, man, holiday, etc.), proper nouns are
specific (New York City, Empire State Building, Thomas Edison, Thanksgiving,
etc.) and require capitalization to acknowledge their importance.
When referring to a specific person, for example, Mr. James W. Dunlap, Jr., or Dr. Sara E. Mahanirananda, PhD, notice that their initials
are capitalized, as are their titles (Mr., Mrs., Miss, Rev., Dr.) and the
abbreviations following their names (Jr., Sr., Esq., PhD).
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

SOME NOUNS MAY act as both a common and proper noun,
depending on how they are used in a sentence. For instance, when
used alone, the word governor is a common noun.
The governor took a much-needed vacation after the arduous primaries this fall.
When used before a persons name, however, governor should be
capitalized.
When asked where he was headed, Governor Braxton commented that
he was looking forward to his two-week reprieve in upstate New York.
This rule also applies to family relationships when a specific person
is referred to, except when it follows a possessive noun or possessive pronoun.
I made my grandmother a scarf for her birthday; Aunt Nancy
commented on how colorful it was.
17
INSIDE TRACK
THE CARDINAL DIRECTIONS (north, south, east, and west) are
not capitalized; however, when youre referring to a specific section
of the country, like the Southwest, you capitalize the word.
The seasons (spring, summer, fall, and winter) are not capitalized
unless they are being used in the title of something, like Spring Fling.
The names of gods and religious figures are always capitalized
except when you are not referring to one specific god, like Roman gods.
PRACTICE LAP
Identify and correct improperly capitalized words in the following dialogue.
Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
1.
all right, jack conceded, you win this time.
2.
its getting late and i have homework to do, jack sighed.
3.
can we play one more time, asked julie. please?
4.
jack smiled and remarked, only if i can go first!
5.
deal! julie replied with a sly smile, handing jack the wireless controller.
good luck!
Capitalize proper adjectives.

Adjectives modify, or enhance, nouns to tell you more information about
the person, place, or thing being described. Sometimes, a proper noun acts
like an adjectivefor example, April showers, Chinese yo-yo, and English muffin. When proper adjectives refer to a nationality, the suffix -n or -ian is generally added, such as with Victorian era, American flag, and Mexican food.
Capitalize the first word and all key words in titles of books, movies, songs,
short stories, works of art, etc. Articles (a, an, the) and the conjunctions so,
for, and, but, nor, or, yet are not capitalized, unless they are the first word of
the title. Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, they, them, we, us, etc.) and verbs
are always capitalized.
Titling Written Works
Book
Bridge to Terabithia
Short Story
The Lawyer and the Ghost
Newspaper
The New York Daily News
Movie
Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone
Painting
Starry Night
Song
Sunshine on My Shoulders
Magazine
Newsweek
PRACTICE LAP
Identify and correct any proper adjectives or titles that should be capitalized in
the following sentences. Then, check your answers on page 20.
6.
Have you read Mark Twains the adventures of huckleberry finn?
7.
Thomas Jeffersons declaration of independence of the united states of

america is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
8.
Kauai, a hawaiian island, is among one of the most exotic places in the
world.
9.
One of Pierre-Auguste Renoirs famous paintings is called lady at the

piano.
10.
march winds blow, before april showers show, which make may
flowers grow.
19
ANSWERS
Reminder: Capitalize (1) the first word of every sentence, (2) the first word
of a direct quotation, (3) the pronoun I and all contractions made using the
word I, and (4) proper nouns.
1. All right, Jack conceded, you win this time.
2. Its getting late and I have homework to do, Jack sighed.
3. Can we play one more time? asked Julie. Please?
4. Jack smiled and remarked, Only if I can go first!
5. Deal! Julie replied with a sly smile, handing Jack the wireless controller. Good luck!
Reminder: Capitalize (1) proper adjectives and (2) the first word and all key
words in titles.
6. Have you read Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn?
7. Thomas Jeffersons Declaration of Independence of the United States of
America is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
8. Kauai, a Hawaiian island, is among one of the most exotic places in the
world.
9. One of Pierre-Auguste Renoirs famous paintings is called Lady at the
Piano.
10. March winds blow, before April showers show, which make May flowers grow.
PART 2: PUNCTUATIONTHE PULSE OF THE SENTENCE

Periods
Periods signify the end of a declarative sentence (a statement of fact) or an

imperative sentence (a command or request is stated). For example:
Declarative: There is a test on the Westward Expansion on Tuesday.
Imperative: Study hard if you want to do well.
Periods also follow most abbreviations (Mr., Mrs., lb., oz., A.M., P.M.,
Mon., Tue., Jan. Feb., etc.), except for abbreviations that use all capital letters (NASA, CIA, FBI, YMCA, etc.) and abbreviations for states (DE, NJ, CA,
KN, MO, etc.). Periods must also follow a persons initials (John F. Kennedy,
T.S. Eliot, etc.).
INSIDE TRACK
WHEN A SENTENCE ends with an abbreviation that has a period,
do NOT add another period at the end. Instead, leave the abbreviations period as the endmark. If the sentence is an exclamatory sentence or question, you MUST place the exclamation mark or question
mark at the end, after the abbreviations period.
Correct: I was supposed to meet you at 4 P.M.!
Was I supposed to meet you at 4 P.M.?
Incorrect: I will meet you at 4 P.M..
Question MarksGo Ahead and Ask
Question marks are used after a question (an interrogatory sentence).

This is a difficult rule, isnt it?
Dont get indirect questions mixed up with questions. Sometimes a sentence sounds like it has a question in it, but its really just a statement
reporting a question:
I was wondering if Lucas, Sean, and I could get together to study
tonight at my house.
I asked whether I could get together with my friends to study.
The statements I was wondering and I asked are just thatstatements.
Hence, they end with periods.
21

Exclamation MarksTurn Up the Volume
Exclamations signify strong feelings or emotion. When a sentence is exclamatory, use an exclamation mark to end it; this includes an imperative sentence, which gives an authoritative or earnest command.
Exclamatory Sentences: Hey! This is pretty simple! I cant
believe it!
Look at the size of that dog! Im glad I
dont feed it!
Imperative Sentences: Stop! I mean it!
Be quiet now! This is important!
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

BE CAREFUL NOT to overuse the exclamation mark in your writing.
For emphasis, people tend to end their sentences with not only one,
but sometimes two, three, or more. Yikes!!!!!!!
PRACTICE LAP
Place the correct punctuation at the end of each sentence. Check your
answers on page 47.
1.
The sun was shining in my window when I woke up
2.
Did you see the tightrope walker at the circus
3.
The honest stranger found a wallet and returned it to its owner
4.
Ouch That hurt
5.
Excellent work class, I am very proud of you

CommasA Common Sense Approach
Of all the punctuation marks, commas are used more frequently than any
other, and tend to cause writers the most headaches. Their usage is really a
matter of personal style, which leaves some writers dropping them into sentences all over the place, and others placing them so sparingly, youd think
they were being charged for each one. All kidding aside, just how do you
know when to use one and when not to? Here are some suggestions to help
you avoid confusion, yet not cramp your style.
When you have a series of three or more items in a sentence, use a

comma to separate them. The items may be words or phrases.
Words in a Series: Yellow, blue, red, and green are my
favorite colors.
Phrases in a Series: The cardinal flew around the house, above
the tree, and under the power line.
When you have two or more adjectives describing a noun or pronoun, use a comma to separate them.
The young cat had gray, matted fur due to lack of care by its owner.
If you have a series of items where the words or, and, or nor are
connecting them, a comma is not necessary.
Cats and dogs and hamsters are popular pets. I like more exotic pets
like guinea pigs or parakeets or iguanas. However, I like neither
snakes nor mice nor spiders as pets.
23
INSIDE TRACK
COMMON SENSE MUST prevail when using commas. Read your
sentence to make certain that the meaning is not misconstrued with
too many or too few commas. Consider the following:
Robert danced with Barbara, Anne, Cassidy, and Katie Lee at
the prom.
Robert had a very busy evening at the prom and probably went
home exhausted.
Robert danced with Barbara Anne Cassidy and Katie Lee at
the prom.
While Robert did dance with two girls, Barbara Anne, whose last
name is Cassidy, and Katie, whose last name is Lee, its unlikely he
went home worn out.
If a sentence begins with an introductory word or phrase, it is, in

most cases, generally followed by a comma. The use of a comma
after introductory sentence parts helps the reader from carrying the
meaning of the introduction into the main part of the sentence,
which can lead to misinterpretation. For example:
Confusing: After eating the three little pigs and the big bad wolf
played a round of golf to catch up on old times.
(My, someone was very hungry!)
Less Confusing: After eating, the three little pigs and the big bad
wolf played a round of golf to catch up on old times.
(Friendly bunch, arent they?)
Confusing: Bugged Bob went to the manager to complain about his
cold dinner.
(What a strange name, Bugged Bob. Does he have a sister Irked
Irene, or perhaps Mad Margaret?)
Less Confusing: Bugged, Bob went to the manager to complain

about his cold dinner.
When a word or phrase immediately follows a noun, it should be

set off by commas. The word or phrase is meant to rename or
enhance the nouns meaning by providing the reader with more
information. This sentence interrupter is called an appositive.
Brian, a varsity soccer player, trains daily at the gym to stay in shape.
The phrase a varsity soccer player renames Brian and adds to our understanding about who he is. This phrase, however, can be removed and the sentence
will remain completeBrian trains daily at the gym to stay in shape.
Lets look at another:
My teacher, Mr. Moyer, is also a football coach at the high school.
Again, if we remove the appositive Mr. Moyer, the meaning of the sentence
remains completeMy teacher is also a football coach at the high school.
One more:
The pies, pumpkin and chocolate cream, were the perfect ending to our
dinner.
We know exactly what kinds of pies were the perfect ending to dinner
because of the appositive provided. If we remove the phrase, does the
sentence meaning remain intact? Yes.
Besides enhancing a noun, appositives typically have two other functions in a sentence. They name a person being addressed in the sentence:
See, Danielle, I told you the principal saw you running in the hall.
Look, Courtney, I found my earring under my dresser.
25

And they set off expressions of opinions, conclusions, etc.:
George Washington, in fact, is known as the father of our country.
Abraham Lincoln, on the other hand, was the most revolutionary
president in American history.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

OTHER EXPRESSIONS YOU may encounter are yes, no, well,
indeed, nevertheless, however, I believe, of course, for once, obviously, in my opinion, to tell the truth, and on the contrary.
PRACTICE LAP
Place all missing commas in the following sentences. Then, check your
answers at the end of the chapter.
6.
Sals uncle Joe is a mail carrier in Mississippi.
7.
Believe it or not Joe walks about five miles a day on his route.
8.
Last month he was chased by a neighborhood dog Rex while working

on his route.
9.
Fortunately he was able to run jump a fence and hop into his truck
for safety.
10.
Joes customer Mr. Henderson was careful to keep Rex inside from
then on.
Use commas in dates, addresses, salutations (friendly letters

only!), and closings of letters.
Dates
Place a comma after the day of the week (if its mentioned), the day
of the month, and the year (if the sentence continues only):
Michael Jordan was born Sunday, February 17, 1963, in Brooklyn,

New York.
INSIDE TRACK
NO COMMA IS necessary if youre writing only the day and month
or the month and year in a sentence:
Michael Jordan was born February 17.
Michael Jordan was born in February 1963.
Addresses
In friendly and business letters, and in sentences, there are places in
addresses you are expected to place commas:
Sentence/Text Form:
In order to receive credit for your payment, please remit check or
money order to Lamp Lighters Co., 54321 Main St., Roxbury, NJ 07876.
As you can see, commas need to be placed between the business or persons name and the start of the street address, then after the street address,
and then between the city and state. No commas are necessary between the
state and the zip code.
27
INSIDE TRACK
WHEN MENTIONING A city and state in a sentence (without a zip
code), a comma must also follow the state.
Last week, my dad traveled to Chicago, Illinois, on business.
The same rule holds true if you mention a country name:
He sometimes travels to Paris, France, in the spring.
Letter/Envelope Form:
Lamp Lighters Co.
54321 Main St.
Roxbury, NJ 07876
Only a comma between the city and state is necessary in this format.
Salutations and Closings

When greeting someone in a friendly letter, use a comma after his or
her name and after your closing:
Dear Aunt Josie,

Love,
Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that are followed

by an independent clause (a sentence). Coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, yet, and so.
I am 14 years old, and my brother, Jonathan, is 15.
He is older than I am, yet Im taller than he is, so people think Im older.
These can all be written as separate sentences:

I am 14 years old. My brother, Jonathan, is 15. He is older than I am.
Im taller than he is. People think Im older.
It is better, though, to combine them to avoid choppiness.
Commas are used in direct quotations (the exact words that a person says).
Direct Quotation Identifying the Speaker First:
Kevin said, Theres a big rip in the back of your pants!
These are the exact words of Kevin.
Direct Quotation with an Interrupter:
Theres a big rip, Kevin said, in the back of your pants!

Notice that the first part of Kevins sentence ends with a comma (after rip),
and again after the interrupting words Kevin said.
Indirect Quotation:
Kevin said that there is a big rip in the back of your pants.
This is someone conveying what Kevin said. No commas are needed.
Use commas with titles and degrees only when they follow a persons name.
Commas: In an emergency, call Jackson Foster, MD.
Lorraine Devonshire, PhD, has become president
of our state college.
No Commas: Call Dr. Foster in an emergency.
Dr. Lorraine Devonshire has become president of
our state college.
Use commas when writing long numbers.

When writing numbers, especially long ones, your teachers expect you
to place commas in them to help readers understand the number more
easily. For instance, if you had the number 6307200 or 378432000, it
would take quite a bit of thought to decipher the numbers; what with
29

counting how many numbers there are and then mentally grouping
them into threes to divide them into their billions, millions, hundred
thousands, thousands, hundreds, and so on. With the help of commas,
numbers are easily interpreted:
The average student spends 6,307,200 minutes, or 378,432,000
seconds, in school from first grade through high school graduation!
INSIDE TRACK
TO PLACE COMMAS properly in long numbers, begin at the far
right of the number and place a comma after every three digits:
The 2006 population of New Jersey, an area of 8,729 square miles,
was 8,724,560.
Numbers from 1 to 999 dont require a comma. Nor do phone
numbers, page numbers, zip codes, years, serial numbers, and house
numbers. However, when you are writing a series of numbers, commas should be placed in between each number:
Study pages 112, 113, and 114 in your textbook to prepare for
tomorrows quiz on commas.
Red Bank, New Jersey, has four zip codes: 07701, 07702, 07703,
and 07704.
PRACTICE LAP
Add periods and commas where necessary in the following sentences. Then,
check your answers at the end of the chapter.
11.
Mr Eatmore S Pinach president of the Ban Brussels Sprouts Association

(BBSA) is heading a worldwide protest against the sale and consumption of the so-called wild cabbage.
12.
It seems its popularity has soared to new heights since the latest campaign The Brussels Sprout Tout has gone on tour throughout Europe
Asia and North America.
13.
The operation has prompted many widespread international antisprout movements among dark leafy greens lovers led by Chinas Bok
Choy Switzerlands Swiss Chard and North Americas renowned Dan
D Lyon Green.
14.
Donations to support the cause are greatly appreciated so please feel free
to give your time or money generously.
15.
Send all correspondence and contributions to BBSA 481 Bountiful

Blvd Verdant Valley CA 98765.
Colons and SemicolonsThe Introducers and Connectors of

Punctuation
Colons are used to introduce a particular bit of information. Unlike commas,

which seem to have a million and one rules to follow, a colon simply introduces anything: a word, a sentence, a list, a quotation, a phrase. It says here
is an example or an example is going to follow to the reader (figuratively,
of course). Now, thats not to say you can simply throw colons into your writing. There is some simple, yet important, colon etiquette to follow:
Use a colon to introduce a list.

Please bring the following items to school on the first day: pencils,
a pen, notebook paper, and a binder. A more detailed list of needed
items will be given in class.
While colons usually signify a list to follow, the colons themselves may
NOT follow a verb or preposition:
Incorrect: On the first day of school, please bring: pencils, a
pen, notebook paper, and a binder.
31

Incorrect: On the first day of school, please bring pencils, a pen,
notebook paper, and a binder to: Mr. Stewart, Mrs.
Hodges, or Ms. Louise.
TIP: To play it safe, use a phrase like as follows or the following before the
colon (for example, the list is as follows: OR bring the following:).
Use a colon to introduce an excerpt or long quotation.

In his first inaugural address to the United States of America, President John F. Kennedy said: . . . In your hands, my fellow citizens,
more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course.
Since this country was founded, each generation of Americans
has been summoned to give testimony to its national loyalty . . . And
so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you;
ask what you can do for your country.
Use a colon to introduce the subtitle of a movie or book.

Ethans favorite movie is Star Wars VI: Return of the Jedi.
Scott read Crispin: At the Edge of the World two times already this
summer.
Use a colon to separate hours from minutes when writing the time.
Its now 4:43 P.M.
The school record for the one-mile relay is 5:32:47.
Use a colon in the salutation of a formal or business letter.

Dear Sir:
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Mr. President:
The SemicolonThe Super Comma
The semicolon, a.k.a. the super comma, connects two related sentences to
emphasize their relationship to a reader. Typically, the second sentence
that follows makes a comment of some sort about the first or offers further
information about ithence the relationship.
Use a semicolon to separate two sentences (independent clauses)

that are related in topic and meaning.
Sentence 1: Waiting until the last minute, Jamon hurriedly finished his report.
Sentence 2: He made many careless mistakes.
Sentence 3: Waiting until the last minute, Jamon hurriedly finished his report; he made many careless mistakes.
Jamon made careless mistakes because he hurried to do his report. This

cause/effect is emphasized even more by being in the same sentence.
Use a semicolon between two complete sentences that are separated

by some transitional words or phrases, or conjunctive adverbs.
Waiting until the last minute, Jamon hurriedly finished his report;
consequently, he made many careless mistakes.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME common conjunctive adverbs:
afterward
accordingly
besides
consequently
furthermore
hence
however
indeed
instead
likewise
moreover
nevertheless
nonetheless
otherwise
similarly
so
still
then
therefore
thus
33
PRACTICE LAP
Add colons and semicolons where necessary in the following sentences.
16.
Moms list included the following milk, eggs, butter, toothpaste, and soap.
17.
I was supposed to be home at 1130 A.M., but I got home at 130 P.M.
instead.
18.
Pratishta couldnt decide whether to watch Ace Ventura Pet Detective or

Robin Hood Prince of Thieves.
19.
The weather on Sunday was spectacular however we had to stay home

to paint.
20.
His new baby sister was precious her blue eyes were riveting.
Quotation MarksIt Must Be the Real Deal
Quotation marks, a.k.a. quotes, are used in writing to show the exact words
someone saidexactly. This exact account is called a direct quotation.
Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending quotation marks.
Direct Quotation: Mark always thinks hes right, said his little sister, Cheryl.
Indirect Quotation: Marks little sister, Cheryl, says Mark,
always thinks hes right.
Here, the same message is conveyed, but the reader is able to distinguish
that the sentence with quotes are the exact wording from the speaker. The
indirect quotation, called hearsay, means just thatsomeone saying what
he or she heard someone else say . . . make sense?
Dont place quotes around someones thoughts (his or her ideas

that are not spoken aloud).
Correct: These math problems are pretty difficultwill I pass
this test? Elisabeth thought.
Incorrect: These math problems are pretty difficultwill I pass
this test? Elisabeth thought.
Use quotes to convey uncertainty or misgivings.

You know, Tracy, I dont know how you can call this a friendship
when all you do is avoid me every chance you get. We have been socalled friends, well, forever, and I cant believe you would do
this to me!
Sometimes, like in the sample you just read, people can get carried away
with using quotes to show emphasis, so just be cautious.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT
HERE ARE SOME helpful guidelines about quotations to guide you:
Capitalize the first letter to begin a quotation:
I feel like eating peppermint ice cream; do you? asked Alexa.
Periods, question marks, and exclamation marks usually go
inside the closing quotes. Colons and semicolons do NOT:
Mrs. Kirby, the librarian, told me about the rule of thumb:
Read the first page and hold up one finger for each word I
dont know. If I get to my thumb, the book is too hard.
Use a comma before the opening quotes when words that
identify the speaker come right before the quote:
Sandy chided, Your dog is staring at me and its giving me
the creeps.
When there is an interrupter to identify the speaker in the middle of the quote, each part of the quotation is enclosed in quotation marks. The first part of the quote ends with a comma
35
enclosed in the end quotes. The interrupting words are

followed by a comma before the opening quotes:
Soon Ill be 14, bragged Frank, so I can get a part-time job!
Notice also that so is not capitalized. That is because it is not starting a new sentence, but is a continuation of Franks first sentence.
If a speaker is saying two separate sentences, each sentence
begins with a capital letter within the opening quotes. As well,
a period, not a comma, is used to punctuate the interrupter:
Youre lucky, Frank, remarked Lauren. Fourteen doesnt
come for me until next October.
PRACTICE LAP
Identify any words or sentences that require quotation marks, and properly
place commas and endmarks in the following sentences. Then, check your
21.
Remember, class, said Mr. McDermott, tomorrow is Spirit Day, so wear

green!
22.
I dont think I have anything green, thought Julie. I wonder if Kevin will
let me borrow his football jersey.
23.
This will be the third thing youve borrowed from me this week! Kevin
said to Julie. Including the jersey, you have to make sure you return my
CD and my yearbook.
24.
Smiling, Julie replied, Ill go get your yearbook and CD right now. I
wanted to show Carol a picture of Mike Wiley, a boy she likes.
25.
Uh, thats more information than I needed to know, Jules. Just go get my
stuff, jibed Kevin, on his way out the door.

The ApostropheIts Not Just a Matter of Possession
Plurals, possessives, contractions . . . the apostrophe plays many important,

and highly misused, roles in English grammar. Why, just down the road, a
local business owner proudly displays several flashing neon signs advertising his tasty wares:
Tacos, Salads, and Soups to Go!
This, unfortunately, is an all-too-common appearance in stores from coast to
coast. Do you know whats wrong with this sign? None of the words in the sign
needs an apostrophe because each item is a regular plural (plural means more
than one). Only on rare occasions do you need to add an apostrophe to create a
plural, which well talk about later in the lesson. Lets talk about contractions first.
ContractionsThe Long and the Short of It
In informal writing, like a letter to your friend or your Aunt Josephine, you
can use shortened versions of words, called contractions. Contract means
to squeeze together or shorten, and contractions are two words that have
been shortened or squeezed together to make one. For instance, instead of
writing cannot, you write the contraction form of the word: cant. So what
happens to the n and the o? The apostrophe stands in for them (cannot =
cant). What is the contraction for I am? Right! Im is the answer.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME more contractions:
AM
WILL
HAVE/HAS
HAD/WOULD
Im
Ill
Ive
Id
YOU
youre
youll
youve
youd
HE
hes
hell
hes
hed
SHE
shes
shell
shes
hed
IT
its
itll
its
itd
THEY
theyre
theyll
theyve
theyd
WE
were
well
weve
wed
37
Here are the helping verbs in negative form:

IS + not = isnt
ARE + not = arent
WAS + not = wasnt
WERE + not = werent
HAVE + not = havent
HAS + not = hasnt
HAD + not = hadnt
CAN + not = cant
DO + not = dont
DID + not = didnt
SHOULD + not = shouldnt
WOULD + not = wouldnt
COULD + not = couldnt
INSIDE TRACK
REMEMBER THAT ONLY in informal writing is it acceptable to use
contractions. Your teachers will likely discourage you from using
contractions in schoolwork, such as reports and essays.
PossessivesWhose Is It, Anyway?
Possessives are nouns that show ownershipthat something belongs to

something else. Be careful, because these can be tricky. First, before adding
an apostrophe, you need to make certain that the word youre using actually
implies possession. Take the word story, for example:
Singular: The ghost story had a scary plot.
Plural: The ghost stories had a scary plot.
Neither of these sentences uses the word story or stories in a possessive way.
To make a singular noun possessive, add an s.

Singular Possessive: The ghost storys plot was scary.
Here, the sentence implies that the plot belonging to the one ghost story
was scary. The story possesses the plot, thus making it the storys plot. Lets
try another one:
My younger brothers name is Christian.
Where does the apostrophe need to be placed? What word is implying possession of something? Right, brothersthe name, Christian, belongs to my
younger brother. The word brother needs an s.
To make a plural noun ending in s possessive, add an apostrophe

AFTER the final s.
Plural Possessive: The ghost stories plots were scary.
Here, the sentence implies that the plots belonging to more than one ghost
story were scary. The stories possess the plots, thus making them the stories
plots. Lets try another one:
The boys soccer trophies were placed on the table in rows.
Again, where does the apostrophe need to be placed? What word is implying possession of something? Right, boysthe trophies belong to the boys.
The word boys needs an apostrophe AFTER the s in boys.
Do all plural nouns end in s? Most do, but not all. There are some nouns
that take on a completely different spelling when they turn plural, like children, for example. Or women. Can you think of others? How about geese,
mice, people, feet, men, teeth. . .? There are many more. In any of these cases,
these words are treated like the singular nouns, and s is added to them to
form a possessive.
The geeses V formation in the sky was impressive as they flew

overhead.
39
To make a singular noun ending in s possessive, you can add an s

OR add an apostrophe after the s.
To some, it may seem odd to add an s after another s somehow, but
thats one correct way to do it!
Marty Reynoldss jacket was left on the school bus yesterday.
You may also write the sentence like this:

Marty Reynolds jacket was left on the school bus yesterday.
It is best to follow the way your teacher wishes to avoid problems.
PRACTICE LAP
See if you can find all of the apostrophe mistakes in these sentences. You can
26.
I dont believe Ive ever seen a five-toed cat before, have you?
27.
Miss Marples detective skills are as clever as Sherlock Holmess flair for
solving crimes.
28.
These childrens picture books have become too easy for you. Lets
choose a more challenging book to read this time.
29.
Werent you at my sister Tracys birthday party two weeks ago?
30.
I heard that your fathers got two sports cars!
Hyphens and DashesSo Alike, Yet So Different
Aside from their similar lookshyphens getting the short end of the bargain,
so to saythey each perform completely different jobs in our writing.
Hyphens, for instance, divide words at the ends of lines, hyphenate numbers
and compound words, and help out some prefixes and suffixes to help avoid
confusion.
Use a hyphen with the prefixes great-, all-, half-, ex-, self-, and the
suffix -elect:
great--grandfather
all--knowing
half--hearted
ex--girlfriend
self--control
mayor--elect
great--grandmother
all--powerful
half--truth
ex--president
self--reliant
governor--elect
Use a hyphen to join capital letters to form a new word:

X--ray
T--square
T--shirt
R--rated
or at the syllable break and between double letters of a word at the

end of a line of writing:
Jan--u--ary
ten--nis
ad--o--les-cent
but--ter--fly
Use a hyphen to write numbers 2199 in word form and to write

fractions as words:
Twenty--nine forty--six one--third eight--tenths
or write numbers as a score or a date:

The final score of the Force vs. Sonics play-off game was 16-18.
The newspaper dated 3-17-06 contains the detailed article.
The date may also be written using slashes instead: 3/17/06.
Use a hyphen to clarify some words where re- means to redo

something, or where the spelling of two words put together
would be awkward:
Michael tried to recollect how he planned to re-collect the books
he mistakenly deposited in the library bin.
41

Michael is trying to remember how he planned to get the books back that
he gave to the library by mistake.
The shell-like glass dish was badly chipped.
Without the hyphen, shell--like would have been written shellllike, which
is an awkward combination of three ls together.
Use a dash to emphasize a by-the-way or incidental thought in

your writing:
Her father brought two-dozen rosesbeautiful pink and white
ones wrapped in tulleto her graduation party!
Use a dash to set off a short series or list in a sentence:

Acceptable: At the zoo, we saw many exotic animals like
bongos, capybaras, echidnas, kinkajous, and an
okapi.
Better Choice: At the zoo, we saw many exotic animalsbongos,
capybaras, echidnas, kinkajous, and an okapi.
INSIDE TRACK
A DASH CAN be used much like a colon. It gives your writing a less
formal tone, where colons are more formal.
Parentheses and BracketsBy the Way
Between the two punctuation marks, you are bound to see many more parentheses than brackets in writing simply because they are more functional.
When you want to provide your reader with extra information in

the middle, or even the end, of your sentence, you can place that
information inside parentheses (this is called a parenthetical
comment).
Margie (who is one of the best dancers on the team) took a spill
on stage last night and twisted her ankle.
Important: You can take the information in the parentheses out of the
sentence, and the sentence still will make sense to the reader.
Dates and page numbers are commonly placed inside

parentheses.
Ludwig van Beethoven (17701827), one of the worlds most
famous composers, continued to write musical masterpieces even
though he went deaf in his thirties. More information about
Beethoven can be found in Chapter 22 (pages 97113).
Parentheses can be used to enclose numbers or letters meant to

itemize information.
To make your bed, choose your favorite sheets and (a) place the fitted sheet snuggly around the mattress; (b) drape the flat sheet on
top (preferably straight and even) and tuck the bottom of the sheet
between the mattress and box spring; (c) place your pillow inside
the pillowcase and put it at the head of the bed; and (d) cover the
bed with a quilt or blanket to stay toasty-warm. All thats left is to
hop in and snooze!
Note: (a), (b), (c), and (d) may be replaced with (1), (2), (3), and (4).
When you want to insert an editorial (your own comments)

within quoted material, use brackets.
Bill said, It [the Super Bowl] was great! They [the Colts] played
like champions today!
43
Use brackets to alter the capitalization of a word in a quote in

order to make it fit in your sentence or paragraph scheme. For
example:
The directions specifically say to [t]urn off the power before trying to connect the VCR to the television.
The directions would have originally read Turn off the power . . . in the source
this quote came from.
Italics and UnderliningThe Attention Getters
Before modern technology, writing was done mostly by hand. The option of
italicizing words was all but impossible, so underlining was used to emphasize
words. Today, we use both interchangeably, with just the touch of a button.
Italicize or underline the titles of long works, such as books, magazines, newspapers, movies, TV shows, albums, plays, long poems, and
musicals.
Natalie Babbitts Tuck Everlasting
Natalie Babbitts Tuck Everlasting
The Chicago Sun
The Chicago Sun
Robert Frosts poem Birches
Robert Frosts poem Birches
Use quotation marks around the titles of stories, songs, short poems,
articles, and other smaller works.
INSIDE TRACK
DONT BE FICKLE and use italics in one paragraph or entry, and
then underline in the next one. You must be consistent in your choice.
Pick one and then stick with it the entire time.
Italicize foreign words in your writing.

The French word bonjour means hello.
Italicize or underline words in sentences you want to emphasize

for the reader.
Can you tell the difference in the meanings of these four sentences?
Maria was sad.
[Okay, Maria was sad.]
Maria was sad.
[Oh, it was Maria who was sad.]
Maria was sad.
[Good, Marias no longer sad.]
Maria was sad.
[I see; she wasnt glad, she was sad.]
When we read, we have to sometimes interpret the speech patterns of the

writer (or speaker). Using italics allows us to help our readers in that
interpretation.
The EllipsisYou Dont Say . . .
When you encounter three single-spaced periods in your reading . . . it means

one of a couple of things:
An ellipsis indicates that some words before or after the dots have
been left out.
. . . but I didnt do it! sobbed AJ.
Grandpa went on. You know, when I was a little boy I had to walk
seven miles, barefoot, in the snow . . . and then over that mountain
over there, and then . . .
An ellipsis indicates a pause in between words or thoughts.

Im not afraid of the dark . . . but Id still like the light on until I
fall asleep, Raymond whispered.
45

When you write and want to use an ellipsis, be careful not to leave out
important information that would intentionally mislead the reader of the
speakers message:
Journalist Jess D. Faks reports that actress superstar, Holly Wood,
said in her acceptance speech, I owe ALL of my success to . . . me
. . . not . . . my fans and my manager.
Hmm . . . it seems that Mr. Faks decided to omit some very important
words from his citation. If Mr. Faks had not misused the ellipses, we would
have known what Holly had REALLY said:
I owe ALL of my success to many special people who have supported me through my highs and lows: my parents and teachers,
and of course, I cannot forget my fans and my manager.
PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the mistakes in the following sentences? You may check
your answers at the end of the chapter.
31.
The vice president elect spoke briefly about the president.
32.
The Gary Paulsen novel Brians Winter, a story of survival in the Canadian wilderness, would make a good G rated movie for kids.
33.
Some ski resorts use gondolas and Tbars to transport skiers to the top
of the mountain.
34.
Twenty two is my lucky number. Whats yours?
35.
Louisa May Alcott 18321888 was thirty five when she wrote Little
Women.
ANSWERS
Reminder: (1) Periods signify the end of declarative and imperative sentences, (2) question marks are used after a question, and (3) exclamations
signify strong feelings or emotion.
1. The sun was shining in my window when I woke up.
2. Did you see the tightrope walker at the circus?
3. The honest stranger found a wallet and returned it to its owner.
4. Ouch! That hurt!
5. Excellent work class. I am very proud of you!
Reminder: Use commas (1) to separate series of three or more items in a sentence, (2) with an introductory word or phrase, and (3) before and after a
word or phrase that is meant to rename or describe a noun that precedes it
(an appositive).
6. Sals uncle, Joe, is a mail carrier in Mississippi.
7. Believe it or not, Joe walks about five miles a day on his route.
8. Last month, he was chased by a neighborhood dog, Rex, while working
on his route.
9. Fortunately, he was able to run, jump a fence, and hop into his truck
for safety.
10. Joes customer, Mr. Henderson, was careful to keep Rex inside from
then on.
Reminder: Also use commas (1) in dates and addresses, (2) to set off expressions, and (3) with titles and degrees.
11. Mr. Eatmore S. Pinach, president of the Ban Brussels Sprouts Association (BBSA), is heading a worldwide protest against the sale and consumption of the so-called wild cabbage.
12. It seems its popularity has soared to new heights since the latest campaign, The Brussels Sprout Tout, has gone on tour throughout Europe,
Asia, and North America.
13. The operation has prompted many widespread international anti-sprout
movements among dark, leafy greens lovers, led by Chinas Bok Choy,
47

Switzerlands Swiss Chard, and North Americas renown Dan D. Lyon
Green.
14. Donations to support the cause are greatly appreciated, so please feel
free to give your time or money generously.
15. Send all correspondence and contributions to BBSA, 481 Bountiful
Blvd., Verdant Valley, CA, 98765.
Reminder: Use colons to (1) introduce a list, (2) introduce the subtitle of a
movie or book, and (3) separate hours from minutes when writing the time.
Use a semicolon (4) to separate two related sentences and (5) between two
complete sentences that are separated by transitional words or phrases.
16. Moms list included the following: milk, eggs, butter, toothpaste, and soap.
17. I was supposed to be home at 11:30 A.M., but I got home at 1:30 P.M.
instead.
18. Pratishta couldnt decide whether to watch Ace Ventura:: Pet Detective or
Robin Hood:: Prince of Thieves.
19. The weather on Sunday was spectacular; however, we had to stay home
to paint.
20. His new baby sister was precious; her blue eyes were riveting.
Reminder: (1) Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending
quotation marks; (2) dont place quote around someones thoughts; and (3)
use quotes to convey uncertainty or misgivings.
21. Remember, class, said Mr. McDermott, tomorrow is Spirit Day, so
wear green!
22. I dont think I have anything green, thought Julie. I wonder if Kevin will
let me borrow his football jersey.
23. This will be the third thing youve borrowed from me this week!
Kevin said to Julie. Including the jersey, you have to make sure you
return my CD and my yearbook.
24. Smiling, Julie replied, Ill go get your yearbook and CD right now. I
wanted to show Carol a picture of Mike Wiley, a boy she likes.
25. Uh, thats more information than I needed to know, Jules. Just go get
my stuff, jibed Kevin, on his way out the door.
Reminder: (1) Contractions are two words shortened or squeezed together

with an apostrophe; (2) to make a singular noun possessive, add an s; (3) to
make a plural noun ending in s possessive, add an apostrophe AFTER the
final s; (4) to make a singular noun ending in s possessive, add an s OR add
an apostrophe after the s; (5) when writing abbreviations with more than one
period, add an s to denote more than to make it plural.
26. I dont believe Ive ever seen a five-toed cat before, have you?
27. Miss Marples detective skills are as clever as Sherlock Holmes (or
Holmess) flair for solving crimes.
28. These childrens picture books have become too easy for you. Lets
choose a more challenging book to read this time.
29. Werent you at my sister Tracys birthday party two weeks ago?
30. I heard that your fathers got two sports cars!
Reminder: Use hyphens (1) with some prefixes, (2) to join capital letters to
form a new word, (3) to write numbers 2199 in word form or as a date. Also,
(4) dates and page numbers can be placed inside parentheses, and (5) italicize or underline the titles of long works, like books.
31. The vice president-elect spoke briefly about the president.
32. The Gary Paulsen novel Brians Winter, a story of survival in the Canadian wilderness, would make a good G-rated movie for kids.
(Brians Winter may also be italicized.)
33. Some ski resorts use gondolas and T-bars to transport skiers to the top
of the mountain.
34. Twenty-two is my lucky number. Whats yours?
35. Louisa May Alcott (18321888) was thirty-five when she wrote Little
Women.
(Little Women may also be italicized.)
49
3
Spelling
Spell Well . . . with a Few

Exceptions
ust how important is spelling anyway? Well, it can make

the difference between someone understanding and appreciating
your idea and someone walking away baffled. How important is that to you?
You know, it wasnt that long ago when students had only dictionaries to
turn to in order to check their spelling errors, and not the ones on the
Internet, but the books on shelves that lined the walls in classrooms and
libraries. In this high-tech age, when computers line the walls of classrooms and libraries, and are turning into common household items, many
think that dictionaries are becoming a thing of the pastwhat with the convenience of spell check just the click of a mouse away. But dont be too
quick to throw that dictionary away just yet! It could come in handy more
than you think. Take a look at this.
Ewe mite knot awl weighs sea yore riding miss takes write a weigh,
sew ewe halve two Czech care fully. Men knee mite yews tulles, like
ay computer, two tri too fined and altar thee mist aches, butt sum
thymes it seas write thru them.
The English language has 26 letters in its alphabet (21 consonants and 5
vowels) and 19 different vowel combinations to make up a total of 44
sounds, called phonemes. It would be easy if all you had to do was memorize
44 sounds to help you spell words . . . but, alas, this is English, and these 44

sounds are spelled in almost 1,000 different ways, thus making the household
dictionary not obsolete, but a necessity. Spelling rules and patterns can
help you learn to spell many words, although you must keep in mind that
youll regularly run into rule exceptions. Lets take a look at some basic
spelling rules.
COMMON SPELLING RULES

Words with ei or ie
Have you heard this mnemonic before?

Write i before e except after c or when sounding like a as in neighbor
and weigh.
I before E
Except after C
When Sounding Like A
thief
friend
ceiling
weigh neighbor
relief
achieve
deceive receive
vein
sleigh
niece
believe
conceit
reign
eight
receipt
deceit
INSIDE TRACK
FOLLOWING ARE SOME exceptions to the rule.
either, neither, seize, seizure, leisure, weird, foreign, height, glacier,
ancient, being, feisty, protein, counterfeit, sovereign
Spelling
PRACTICE LAP
For the following questions, choose either ie or ei to spell each word given
correctly. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
1.
rel
2.
dec
3.
ch
4.
5.
sh
6.
10.
for
7.
ve
11.
ld
rd
8.
fr
ght
12.
ce
ve
ld
ght
9.
gn
Doubling the Final Consonant
When a one-syllable word (bat, can, put) ends with a consonant (batt, cann, putt)
that is preceded by one vowel (baat, caan, puut), you should double the final consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel (e.g., -ed, -ing, -er). For
instance:
bat battting battted battter
can cannning cannned cannner
When a multisyllable word (patrol, forget, occur) ends with a consonant
(patroll, forgett, occurr) that is preceded by a vowel (patrool, refeer, occuur), and ends
TROL, re-FFER, oc-C
CUR), you should double the
with a stressed syllable (pa-T
final consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel (e.g., -ed,
-ing, -al, -ence, -ant). For instance:
repel repellling repellled repelllant
refer referrring referrred referrral
occur occurrring occurrred occurrrence
53
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IF THE MULTISYLLABLE word ends with a consonant preceded
by a vowel, but has its final syllable unstressed (TRA-vel, HON-or,
REV-el), do not double the final consonant before adding the suffix
(e.g., -ing, -ed, -er, -ary). For instance:
travel
traveling
traveled
traveler
honor
honoring
honored
honorary
revel
reveling
reveled
reveler
Also, words ending in -x, -y, or -w do not double the final consonant
before adding a suffix. For instance:
mix
mixing
mixed
mixer
crow
crowing
crowed
crower
play
playing
played
player
Last, words whose final consonant are preceded by two vowels do

not double the final consonant before adding a suffix. For instance:
reveal
revealing
revealed
revealer
wait
waiting
waiting
waiter
When a prefix being added to a word ends with the same letter the main
word begins with, include both letters in the new word. For instance:
miss + spell = missspell
unn + necessary = unnnecessary
ill + logical = illlogical
Spelling
Likewise, when a suffix is being added to a word that ends with the same
letter the suffix begins with, include both letters in the new word. For
example:
musicall + ly = musicallly
openn + ness = opennness
evenn + ness = evennness
INSIDE TRACK
ACCORDING TO THIS rule, eighteen should be spelled eight +
teen = eightteen, but it is not.
Finally, when you are making a compound word and the final consonant
letter of the first word is the same as the first consonant letter of the second
word, include all letters, even if the letters are repeated. For example:
cann + not = cannnot
bookk + keeper = bookkkeeper
newss + stand = newssstand
INSIDE TRACK
ACCORDING TO THIS rule, pastime should be spelled past +
time = pasttime, but it is not.
55
PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct ending to spell each word correctly. Then, check your
13.
steal
stealling
stealing
14.
shop
shopped
shoped
15.
tax
taxing
taxxing
16.
step
stepping
steping
17.
compel
compelling
compeling
18.
portray
portrayed
portrayyed
19.
draw
drawwing
drawing
20.
need
needed
needded
21.
perplex
perplexxing
perplexing
22.
keep
keeping
keepping
The Silent E
When a word ends with a silent e, the e is dropped before adding the suffix
that begins with a vowel (e.g., -ing, -ed, -er, -able). For instance:
usee
using
debatee debating
movee moving
used
user
debated debater
moved mover
usable
debatable
movable
Spelling
When a suffix is being added that begins with a consonant (e.g., -ly, -ment,
-ful), leave the e at the end of the word. For instance:
lovee loveely
agreee agreeement
gracee graceeful
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

WORDS THAT END in -ce and -ge and have a suffix beginning with
-a or -o added to it (e.g., -able and -ous) keep the final e. For instance:
outrage
outrageous
enforce
enforceable
courage
courageous
service
serviceable
Also, words that end in -ee keep the final e before some suffixes
beginning with a vowel (e.g., -ing, -able). For instance:
agree
agreeing
agreeable
see
seeing
seeable
foresee
foreseeing
foreseeable
Finally, there are words that dont follow the aforementioned rules and
whose spelling will need to be memorized. For instance:
argument
truly
ninth
These words keep the final e because dropping it would lead the
reader to think it was a completely different word. For instance:
singe
singeing
Without the e, the word would read fa-la-la singing, not oh, this is
burning singeing. For another instance:
dye
dyeing
Without the e, the word would read soon to be not living dying, not
I prefer this shade of red for streaking my hair dyeing.
57
PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct ending to spell each word given correctly. Then, check
23.
compete
competting
competing
24.
hope
hopful
hopeful
25.
pale
paling
paleing
26.
state
stated
statted
27.
compile
compilling
compiling
28.
like
likly
likely
29.
manage
management managment
30.
take
taken
takn
31.
amaze
amazeing
amazing
32.
arrive
arrived
arriveed
Words Ending in -Y
When -y is the final letter, change the -y to -i before adding the suffix. For
instance:
happyy
lazyy
faultyy
happiily happiiness
laziily
laziiness
faultiily faultiiness
Spelling
INSIDE TRACK
IF THE SUFFIX being added to the word ending in y begins with
an -i (e.g., -ing), the y should remain. For example:
try
trying
qualify
qualifying
horrify
horrifying
When the -y at the end of the word is preceded by a vowel, the -y is not
changed but remains the same when a suffix is added. For instance:
employy employying
annoyy annoyying
enjoyying
enjoyy
employyed employyment
annoyyed annoyyance
enjoyyed
enjoyyment
INSIDE TRACK
HERE ARE SOME words that dont follow this rule.
day daily
gay gaily
pay paid
lay laid
say said
PRACTICE LAP
Identify the word in each group that is spelled correctly. Then, check your
33.
beauty
beautyful
beautiful
beautuful
34.
fancy
fanciful
fanceful
fancyful
35.
duty
dutiful
duteful
dutyful
59

36.
fuzzy
fuzzyness
fuzzieness
fuzziness
37.
lazy
laziness
lazyness
lazieness
-tion, -cian, or -sion?
The shun sound, spelled three different ways (-tion, -cian, -sion), is pronounced the same in all three spellings. Each suffix, though, is used with different kinds of root words. How will you know which one to choose? Its
simple. Take a look.
Here is a list of words ending in -cian. Can you see a pattern for the spelling
rule this suffix will follow?
electriccian
beauticcian
musiccian
magiccian
physiccian
opticcian
politiccian
mathematiccian
All of these -cian words involve people and their careers or hobbies. So,
-cian is used only when the spelling word has to do with people. The suffixes
-tion and -sion are never used with these people words.
Okay, lets see if you can identify the next spelling pattern for the spelling
rule for the suffix -sion.
extendd
suspendd
suppresss
extenssion
suspenssion
suppresssion
comprehendd
apprehendd
aggresss
comprehenssion
apprehenssion
aggresssion
Notice that all of the root words end in -s or -d. When the root word ends
in -s or -d, the suffix -sion is used to make the noun form of verbs ending in
-s or -d.
Additionally, one more rule applies to the -sion suffix. Can you spot it?
division
conclusion
adhesion
exclusion
vision
Do you hear a heavy zhun sound instead of the soft shun sound in these
words? When a word contains a heavy zhun, it is spelled with -sion only.
Spelling
INSIDE TRACK
VERBS WITH THE ending -mit use the suffix -mission to make the
noun form of the word. For instance:
permit
permission
submit
submission
commit
commission
Last, if the root word ends in -t or -te, then -tion is used to make the noun
form of the verb. For instance:
protectt
rejectt
contributte
protecttion
rejecttion
contributtion
projectt
attributte
educatte
projecttion
attributtion
educattion
PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct ending for the following words. Then, check your
38.
confuse
39.
opposite
opposi
(-sion, -cian, -tion)
40.
confess
confes
41.
elect
elec
42.
magic
magi
43.
describe
descrip
44.
collide
colli
confu

61

45.
extend
enten
46.
explode
explo
47.
beauty
beauti
The Letter Q
With the rapid growth and assimilation of world cultures in the United States
over the past century, and the swift development of technology making the
world smaller every day, American English becomes more and more infused
with the influence of foreign words. With that comes the ever-growing list of
exceptions to the spelling rules, some of which you have seen already.
In the English language, the letter q must be followed by a u in a word. Primarily, the use of the letter q in English is derived from the influence of the
French language. Words such as queue, quarter, question, and picturesque are
a ubiquitous part of everyday spoken language. You may run into other q
words, such as Qatar, Iraq, Iraqi, Qantas, and Compaq in the news and in
advertisements. All of these words are proper nouns, and simply because they
are proper nouns, they become exceptions to this rule. Why? Because
spelling rules apply only to common, everyday words, not special ones.
PRACTICE LAP
Use the clues to help you choose the correct q word from the word bank to
place in the blank. The letter q may be found at the beginning, middle, or end
of the words. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
Q WORD BANK
quizzical
quick
quagmire
quail
quality
question
quake
quack
racquet
bouquet
unique
physique
plaque
conquer
banquet
sequel
frequently
opaque
48.
a bunch of flowers
49.
a dilemma
Spelling
50.
a large spread of food
51.
the continuation of a story
52.
a query
53.
to shake
54.
to overtake by force
55.
not transparent or see-through
56.
fast
57.
reward of recognition
58.
often
59.
a small game bird
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Adding prefixes, groups of letters that have a significant meaning, to the
beginnings of words does not change the spelling of the original words
(called root words). When a prefix is added, its meaning is combined with
the original root words meaning to form a new word. English prefixes and
suffixes commonly come from Latin and Greek words, although Old English
(Anglo-Saxon) was borrowed from as well. Take the Greek prefix astro-, for
example. Astro- means star in Greek. Can you think of words beginning
with astro- that have to do with stars and space? What about astronaut,
astrology, astronomy, or asteroid?
Suffixes are added to the ends of words. Many suffixes actually change
the original words part of speech when they are added. For example, the verb
bowl becomes the noun bowler when the suffix -er is added. Adding suffixes
often requires that the spelling of the original word alter in some way,
which is what makes spelling so challenging. Like prefixes, suffixes are
63

derived from Greek, Latin, and Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words. Following are some of these common prefixes and suffixes.
Common Prefixes and Suffixes
Prefix
Meaning
Example
acro-
high, top
acrobatics
aero-
air
aerobics
agri-
fields
agriculture
alti-
high
altitude
ambul-
walk, move around
ambulance
amphi-
around, both
amphibian
anima-
life, breath, soul
animal
ante-
before, prior
antecedent
anthro-
man
anthropologist
anti-
against
antipathy
aqua-
water
aquarium
arthro-
joint
arthropod
atom-
gas, vapor
atmosphere
audio-
sound, hearing
audience
auto-
self, itself
automatic
bi-
two, double
bicycle
biblio-
book
bibliography
bio-
life
biography
cardio-
heart
cardiologist
centi-
hundred
centipede
chlor-
green
chlorophyll
chrono-
time
chronology
circum-
round
circumference
co-
together
cooperation
cour-
heart
courage
crypto-
secret
cryptography
deca-
ten
decade
deci-
tenth
decimal
dent-
tooth
dentist
Spelling
Prefix
Meaning
Example
dino-
terrible
dinosaur
eco-
house
ecology
equi-
same
equivalent
geo-
earth, land
geography
graph-
written
graphic
hemi-
half
hemisphere
hexa-
six
hexagon
hydr-
water
hydration
il-
not
illegal
im-
not
impossible
inter-
between
international
intra-
within
intrapersonal
liber-
free
liberty
lingua-
tongue
linguistics
magni-
big, great
magnify
mega-
great, large
megaphone
metro-
measure
metric
micro-
small, tiny
microscope
mini-
small, little
miniature
mono-
one, alone
monologue
multi-
many
multicolored
neo-
new
neoclassical
nocti-
night
nocturnal
nom-
name
nominate
non-
not
nonworking
octa-
eight
octagon
ortho-
upright, straight
orthodontist
ped-
foot
pedestrian
pedi-
child
pediatrics
pre-
before
preview
pro-
for
pronoun
re-
again
replay
sens-
feeling
sensory
soli-
alone, only
solitary
65
Prefix
Meaning
Example
sub-
below, under
submarine
terra-
land
terrain
thermo-
heat
thermometer
trans-
across, beyond
transportation
un-
not
unhappy
uni-
one
united
vice-
in place of
vice president
zoo-
animal
zoology
Suffix
Meaning
Example
-able
can do
capable
-ancy
condition
vacancy
-archy
rule
monarchy
-chrome
color
monochrome
-cide
kill
homicide
-cracy
rule
democracy
-derm
skin
dermatologist
-ful
characterized by
cheerful
-gram
writing
telegram
-graph
writing
autograph
-ist
one who
pianist
-itis
disease
bronchitis
-less
without
homeless
-ment
act of, result
disappointment
-meter
instrument
speedometer
-ness
state of, quality
goodness
-pathy
feeling, suffering
sympathy
-phobia
fear of
claustrophobia
-phone
sound
telephone
-ward
direction of
westward
-y
full of
salty
Spelling
ANSWERS
Reminder: Write i before e except after c or when sounding like a as in neighbor and weigh (with a few exceptions).
1. relief
5. shield
9. eight
2. deceive
6. vein
10. foreign
3. chief
7. sieve
11. yield
4. weird
8. freight
12. niece
Reminder: (1) When a one-syllable word ends with a consonant that is preceded by a vowel, double the final consonant before adding a suffix that
begins with a vowel; (2) when a multisyllable word ends with a consonant
that is preceded by a vowel, and ends with a stressed syllable, double the final
consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel; (3) when a prefix or suffix is being added to a word that begins or ends with the same letter, include both letters in the new word.
13. steal
stealing
14. shop
shopped
15. tax
taxing
16. step
stepping
17. compel
compelling
18. portray
portrayed
19. draw
drawing
20. need
needed
21. perplex
perplexing
22. keep
keeping
Reminder: (1) When a word ends with a silent e, the e is dropped before
adding the suffix that begins with a vowel; and (2) when a suffix is being
added that begins with a consonant, leave the e at the end of the word.
23. compete competing
24. hope
hopeful
25. pale
paling
26. state
stated
27. compile compiling
67

28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
like
manage
take
amaze
arrive
likely
management
taken
amazing
arrived
Reminder: (1) When -y is the final letter, change the -y to -i before adding
the suffix.
33. beauty
beautiful
34. fancy
fanciful
35. duty
dutiful
36. fuzzy
fuzziness
37. lazy
laziness
Reminder: (1) Words with the -cian suffix involve people and their careers
or hobbies; (2) when the root word ends in -s or -d, the suffix -sion is used
to make the noun form of verbs; and (3) if the root word ends in -t or -te, then
-tion is used to make the noun form of the verb.
38. confuse
confusion
39. oppose
opposition
40. confess
confession
41. elect
election
42. magic
magician
43. describe description
44. collide
collision
45. extend
extension
46. explode explosion
47. beauty
beautician
Reminder: In English, the letter q must be followed by a u.
48. bouquet
54. conquer
49. quagmire
55. opaque
50. banquet
56. quick
51. sequel
57. plaque
52. question
58. frequently
53. quake
59. quail
4
Verbs
The Movers and Shakers

of Language
magine having a lively conversation with your friend

about a recent hit movie, each of you contorting your faces and waving your arms about, as in a game of charades. If we lacked verbs in our language, this would be about the only way that we could get our points across:
by mimicking. Luckily, with the use of verbsthe movers and shakers of any
written and spoken languageyou can convey your ideas not only expressively, but also with a wide variety of colorful, vivid choices. For instance, lets
see in how many ways L. E. Phant and Pac A. Derm, a pair of loxodonta
africanus, trek across the Kenyan savannah.
The pair walk . . . then decide to stomp . . . and march . . . and then
parade . . . after which, they lumber . . . trudge . . . and plod . . . then
finally, overcome with exhaustion, they hobble and limp their way
to the forest.
Okay, so these action verbs are pretty obvious. But are they all? Well, no.
Some are less physical, and more mental: want, need, require, think, suppose,
know, wonder, hope, feel, mean, remember, understand, see, find, consider,
love, like, etc. The action is there; its just not visible.
LINKING AND HELPING VERBS: MAKE THE CONNECTION!

The linking verb does not express action, but expresses a state of being or
a condition. Specifically, this kind of verb links, or connects, a noun to an
adjective or other noun.
Rosemarie is thoughtful. (Thoughtful describes Rosemarie; is links
the two.)
Mark became a soccer coach. (Coach identifies Mark; became links
the two.)
The bananas looked ripe. (Ripe describes bananas; looked links the
two.)
Identifying some linking verbs can be tricky because they look like action
verbs. Their job, however, is to clarify the condition of the related noun in the
sentence. Following is a short list of verbs that perform multiple tasks, and
act not only as action verbs, but also as linking verbs.
appear become
seem
smell
prove
act
feel
sound
turned
grow
stay
fall
look
taste
get
prove
come
remain
lie
How can one tell the difference with these tricky verbs? Take the word feels:
Meghan gently pets the cat and feels its soft fur.
Meghan is performing the action, to feel. Can you visualize her hand petting
and feeling the cats soft fur?
The cat begins to purr because it feels content.
The word feel connects the adjective content to the noun cat. Feel is acting
as a linking verb, not an action verb.
Verbs
Lets try another one.

Mom remained calm even though she burned last nights dinner.
The odor of charred fish remained in the house for a week.
In the first sentence, remained links Mom and the adjective calm, which
describes how Mom felt, whereas in the second sentence, remained is an
action verb, implying that the odor stayed behind.
An easy way to tell if a verb is an action or linking verb is to substitute the
verb with a verb form of to be, or another linking verb, like seem or become.
If you substitute the verb and it still makes sense, then you have a linking verb.
If it doesnt, then its an action verb. Take a look at these examples.
The leaves turn orange and red every autumn.

Now, replace turn with the verb are.
The leaves are orange and red every autumn.
Or use the verb seem.
The leaves seem orange and red every autumn.
When I turn the hair dryer on, it is very noisy.
Now, replace turn again with the verb was.
When I was the hair dryer on, it is noisy.
Or use became here.
When I became the hair dryer on, it is noisy.
These just dont make sense, because the word turn in this sentence is an
action verb, not a linking verb.
71
PRACTICE LAP
See if you can tell whether the verbs in the following sentences is an action
verb or a linking verb. Remember to use the seem/became trick if you need
help. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
1.
The ghost appeared in the window.
2.
The ghost appeared disgruntled as it passed by the window.
3.
Can you prove the theory of relativity?
4.
Your answer could prove faulty if you are not careful.
5.
We arrived late and had to stay overnight at a hotel this weekend.
6.
Mom asked us to stay quiet as we walked down the hallway.
7.
Have you tasted my newest candy bar creation?
8.
Yes, the Summit Sensation tasted delectable.
9.
The lunch bell sounds melodic, especially when you have a hungry
stomach.
10.
At noon, the clock sounds the bell to inform the students that its
lunchtime.
Verbs
Sometimes, youll encounter another type of verb in your writing and reading called a helping verb. Helping verbs enhance the main verb by providing more information about its tense. Some common helping verbs are am,
are, be, can, could, do, have, had, has, may, might, should, was, were, and
would, among others. A main verb can have as many as three helping verbs.
For instance:
Nathan was playing guitar yesterday.
He has been playing for quite a while now.
Next year, he will have been playing for 11 years total.
PRINCIPLE PARTS OF VERBS: PART AND PARCEL

Participles, verb forms that act like verbs or adjectives, are broken into four
principle parts:
1. Presentthe verb form that is usually found as the main or first entry
in the dictionary, e.g., throw, sleep, dance, sit, ride, etc. Sometimes, an s
is added to the end of the verb when it is used in conjunction with a singular noun.
2. Present participlethe verb form used with to be verbs to express ongoing action, e.g., am throwing, is sleeping, are dancing, was sitting, were riding, etc. The suffix -ing is added to the present infinitive and is always
accompanied by a helping verb, forming what is called a verb phrase.
When the verb is acting as an adjective, a helping verb is not required.
3. Pastthe verb form that describes actions that happened in the past,
e.g., threw, slept, danced, sat, rode, etc. All regular verbs in past tense end
in -ed. Irregular verbs end in a variety of ways.
4. Past participlea verb form that must be accompanied by the helping
verb have with the past tense form of the verb (regular or irregular), e.g.,
have thrown, has slept, had danced, have sat, has ridden, etc. When the
verb is acting as an adjective, a helping verb is not required.
73

Regular Verbs
Present
Present Participle*
Past
Past Participle**
walk, walks
am walking
walked
have walked
jump, jumps
are jumping
jumped
had jumped
listen, listens
are listening
listened
has listened
Irregular Verbs
Present
Present Participle*
Past
Past Participle**
sing, sings
is singing
sang
has sung
think, thinks
was thinking
thought
have thought
see, sees
were seeing
saw
has seen
Irregular Verbs Whose Form Does Not Change
Present
Present Participle*
Past
Past Participle**
cost, costs
is costing
cost
has cost
cut, cuts
am cutting
cut
have cut
hurt, hurts
are hurting
hurt
has hurt
* Uses am, is, are, was, or were

** Uses have, has, or had
VERB TENSES: CONSIS-TENSE-CY IS THE KEY!

When you speak or write, you help your listeners and readers understand
when something happens, has happened, or will happen using three basic
tenses: present, past, and future. To avoid confusion, you should be consistent with tenses as you speak and write. If your passage begins in past
tense, then continue in past tense; likewise if you are using present or
future. Consistency is the key!
Present Tenseimplies present action or action that happens again and
again
I meet my friends every day at school. We have many of the same
classes.
Past Tenseimplies that the action already happened
I met them at lunchtime today. We sat at the same table.
Verbs
Future Tenseimplies that the action hasnt happened yet, but will
I will meet with Nicole after school. We will study for our midterms.
Present Progressive Tenseimplies that the action is currently in
progress. Always add -ing to the verb and with the helping verbs am, is,
or are.
Katelyn is learning how to skateboard from her brother, Andrew.
They are riding on the sidewalk in front of their house.
Past Progressiveimplies that the action was happening at some specific
time in the past. Add -ing to the verb and use the helping verbs was and
were.
I was sweeping the basement floor yesterday while my parents were
painting the dining room ceiling. Kurt, my younger brother, was
helping also.
Future Progressiveimplies that the action will occur in the future or is
continuous. Use the verb form ending in -ing and the helping verbs will be
or shall be.
Tom will be traveling to Thailand again this summer. I shall be going
with him next year when I graduate.
Present Perfect Tenseimplies that the action started in the past and continues up to the present time. Use the helping verb have or has with the
past participle form of the verb.
Suzanne and David have gone to the theater to see a movie.
Past Perfect Tenseimplies that the action happened in the past and was
completed before some other past action. Use only the helping verb had
with the past participle form of the verb.
They had planned to see the 4:30 show. Last week, the line for tickets had been long, and the seats had sold out quickly.
Future Perfect Tenseimplies that the action will start and finish in the
future. Use the helping verb will have, would have, or will have been with
the past participle form of the verb.
Because they arrived early this time, it is unlikely the show will have
sold out by the time they reach the ticket counter.
75
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HAVE YOU EVER heard anyone say or write should of, as in I
should of ordered strawberry instead? Because many people tend
to write what they hear, the misconception is that what is being said
is of, not have. Quite the contrary, what really should be said and written is I shouldve ordered strawberry instead, in which shouldve is
the contraction for the words should have. Be careful! The terms
couldve (could of) and wouldve (would of) also fall victim to this
ghastly grammatical error.
PRACTICE LAP
Which tense of the verb or verb phrase is needed to complete the following
sentences? Check your answers at the end of the chapter.
11.
I think parties (were, are) always fun, especially during the holidays.
12.
I (waited, wait) with anticipation every year for my invitations to arrive.
13.
Last year, the parties (are, were) small gatherings with just a few close
friends. I (enjoy, enjoyed) that.
14.
This year, my friends (will have, will have had) big parties with oodles
of people, loud music, and lots of good food.
15.
I (will have, will) attend every celebration this holiday season. Cheers!
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Have you ever noticed how little kids tend to add -ed to the end of every verb
they say? For instance:
Verbs
When Mommy goed to work, I cried. I gotted my toys and played,

and then I feeled better.
Why is this? Many English verbs, although not all, follow the same pattern when expressing past actionthey end in -d or -ed. Those that end with
-d or -ed are called regular verbs and are the ones you learned first when you
learned to read and write.
I bike along the boardwalk often. This afternoon, though, I biked
through park trails with my friends.
She must learn how to text with her cell phone. I learned already.
Irregular verbs, on the other hand, have no set way of forming the past
tense and should be memorized.
I cut the grass this morning. Yesterday, I cut my neighbors grass.
Here, the irregular verb cut stays the same whether it is past or present.
Other verbs that follow suit are cost, burst, bid, put, and set, to name a few.
I usually tear the wrapper right off my pack of gum, but I carefully
tore my fathers open.
My friends and I eat pizza at Nicks. We ate three pies today.
Other irregular verbs include the following:
Common Irregular Verbs
Present
Past
Past Participle
be
was/were
been
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
77

Present
Past
Past Participle
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
build
built
built
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forget
forgot
forgotten
forgive
forgave
forgiven
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
Verbs
Present
Past
Past Participle
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
learn
learned/learnt
learned/learnt
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
light
lit
lit
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
mistake
mistook
mistaken
mow
mowed
mowed/mown
pay
paid
paid
proofread
proofread
proofread
put
put
put
quit
quit
quit
read
read
read
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
sew
sewed
sewed/sewn
shake
shook
shaken
shave
shaved
shaved/shaven
shine
shone
shone
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
showed/shown
79

Present
Past
Past Participle
shrink
shrank
shrunk
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
slid
speak
spoke
spoken
speed
speeded/sped
speeded/sped
spend
spent
spent
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
strike
struck
struck/stricken
strive
strove
striven/strived
swear
swore
sworn
swim
swam
swum
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
understand
understood
understood
upset
upset
upset
wake
woke
woken
wear
wore
worn
weep
wept
wept
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
write
wrote
written
Verbs
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THE VERBS hang and lie can be both regular and irregular. These
verbs have multiple meanings, and their proper conjugation hinges
on how you are using them in a sentence. Say you mean hang as in
a thief going to the gallows to hang for his crime, then hang conjugates as a regular verb (hang, hanged, hanged). On the other hand,
say you want to mean hang out with friends or hang a poster on the
wall. Hang should now conjugate as an irregular verb (hang, hung,
has hung). Likewise, if lie carries the meaning to tell an untruth or
falsehood, it should be conjugated as a regular verb (lie, lied, has
lied). Otherwise, it means to recline, which should conjugate as an
irregular verb (lie, lay, has lain).
INFINITIVES: TO SPLIT OR NOT TO SPLIT?

When the word to precedes a main verb, that verb is in the infinitive form.
The infinitive form of a verb can act as a noun, adjective, or adverb, depending upon its usage in the sentence.
To play Juliet in this years production is her dream. (noun)
Michael is going to the tennis courts to play. (adverb)
The need to play helps young children learn important social skills.
(adjective)
Long before the twenty-first century, grammarians held onto the notion
that it was wrong to split an infinitive (to insert an adverb between to and
the verb, as in to reluctantly move or to decidedly speak). At the time, Latin,
now a dead language, was a mandatory topic of study for students like yourself. Oddly, some of the rules of English reflected those of Latin grammar,
even though they were two completely different languages. In Latin grammar, an infinitive is written as one word and cannot be split; thus, the
grammarians said that English infinitives should not be split either. Fortunately, for the most part, the rule has since changed. After all, isnt the goal
81

of writing and speaking to make your meaning clearer and more understandable for your audience? Take this example.
Benjamin used his flash cards to quickly review his vocabulary
words for class.
This sentence reads far more clearly than the following, in which the infinitives are not split.
Benjamin used his flash cards to review quickly his vocabulary
words for class.
Benjamin used quickly his flash cards to review his vocabulary
words for class.
Bear in mind that some un-split infinitives are better left unchanged.
She is generally quick to make her decisions.
The alternative, She is quick to generally make her decisions, sounds a bit awkward. So does She is quick to make generally her decisions.
So, how do you decide whether or not to split the infinitive? Let your ear
tell you. If it sounds right, then it by all means, go with it. If it doesnt, then
youre better off leaving it whole.
WHEN IS A VERB A NOUN? WHEN ITS A GERUND, OF COURSE!

When you place -ing at the end of a verb, that verb can become a noun.
Smoking is bad for your health. (the verb smoke + ing = noun/gerund)
Running is wonderful exercise. (the verb run + ing = noun/gerund)
Listening to music is relaxing. (the verb listen + ing = noun/gerund)
Have you noticed that these, and other gerunds, look like something else
youve just learned about? Present participles, you say? Bravo! Youre correct!
Progressive verbs, you say? Congratulations! Youre correct, too!
Verbs
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

GRAMMAR IS LIKE a puzzle. To construct the picture correctly, you
have to look at each piece carefully to see how it fits into the adjoining piece. You must do the same for grammar. Because a word can
play many different roles in a sentence, you must look carefully at how
it is being used with the words surrounding it. This is especially
important with verbs, participles, and gerunds.
Running is wonderful exercise.
Here, running is a gerund, acting as a noun.
Running 20 miles each week, Jeremy became enthusiastic about
competing in the New York City marathon.
In this second sentence, running is functioning as a participle,
describing Jeremy.
Jeremy has finished running the marathon and feels tremendously
energized.
Last, the word running is acting as a verb in this sentence. It is
showing action.
OH, THOSE TROUBLESOME VERBS!

For the most part, by the time you graduate high school, you will know how
to say most any verb in the present tense, simple past tense, and simple past
participle (using has, have, and had as helping verbs) without much thought
at all. Okay, maybe youll have to use a bit more thought for the irregular verbs
because they dont follow any particular standard form. There are, though, two
irregular verbs that are known to make most people (even grammar-savvy
adults) stop and think for a moment or two: lay/lie and sit/set.
83

LAY / LIE
Present
lay, lays
Present Participle
Past
Past Participle
(am, is, are, was) laying
laid
(have, has) laid
Lay means to place or put an object somewhere. A noun must always follow the verb lay (making the noun a direct objectthe object receiving the
action) in the sentence.
Each night, Carly lays her clothes out for school. She laid her plaid
sweater and jean skirt on her chair after dinner this evening.
The nouns clothes and sweater, now direct objects, receive the action in each
sentence.
Present
Present Participle
Past
Past Participle
lie, lies
(am, is, are, was) lying
lay
(have, has) lain
Lie means to rest or recline or to be situated. No noun follows the verb

this time. A prepositional phrase or adverb sometimes follows, however.
The cat lies in the window to bask in the morning sun. He has lain
there almost every day this summer.
The prepositional phrase in the window and the adverb there follow the verb
lies and the verb phrase has lain in each sentence.
SET / SIT
Present
Present Participle
Past
Past Participle
set, sets
(am, is, are, was) setting
set
(have, has) set
Set means to place or put an object in a particular spot. Like lay, set must
be followed by a noun (which will become the direct objectthe object
receiving the action) in the sentence.
Verbs
Joanne carefully set the new crystal figurine inside the cabinet
hanging on the wall. She has already set two others in her special
collection this week.
The nouns figurine and the pronoun others, now direct objects, receive the
action in each sentence.
Present
Present Participle
Past
Past Participle
sit, sits
(am, is, are, was) sitting
sat
(have, has) sat
Sit means to be situated or to be seated or resting. Like lie, no noun need follow the verb, but an adverb or prepositional phrase very well may.
With a smile, Joanne sat proudly admiring her collection of crystal
figurines that were sitting in the cabinet.
The adverb proudly and the prepositional phrase in the cabinet follow the verb
sat and verb phrase were sitting in the sentence.
PRACTICE LAP
Identify the correct verb needed to complete the following sentences. Then,
16.
The county park (lies, lays) just north of Jackson Avenue in Humbolt.
17.
Sometimes, you can see people (sitting, setting) on park benches, or they
will (lay, lie) on a blanket they have (laid, lain) on the grass.
18.
Some enjoy watching the geese as they swim, (sit, set), and (lain, lie)
in the sun.
19.
Sometimes, people will (sit, sat) and throw bread crumbs to the basking geese.
20.
Many of the geese are so relaxed that they (lay, lie) their heads under
their wings for hours at a time.
85
ANSWERS
Reminder: An easy way to tell if a verb is an action verb or a linking verb is
to substitute the verb in the sentence with a form of the verb to be or the linking verb seem or become. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is a linking verb, and if it doesnt, then the verb is an action verb.
1. The ghost appeared in the window. (action)
2. The ghost appeared disgruntled as it passed by the window. (linking)
3. Can you prove the theory of relativity? (action)
4. Your answer could prove faulty if you are not careful. (linking)
5. We arrived late and had to stay overnight at a hotel this weekend.
(action)
6. Mom asked us to stay quiet as we walked down the hallway. (linking)
7. Have you tasted my newest candy bar creation? (action)
8. Yes, the Summit Sensation tasted delectable. (linking)
9. The lunch bell sounds melodic, especially when you have a hungry stomach. (linking)
10. At noon, the clock sounds the bell to inform the students that its
lunchtime. (action)
Reminder: Be consistent with verb tenses as you speak and write. If your passage begins in past tense, then continue in past tense; likewise, if you are
using present or future tenses, be consistent.
11. I think parties are always fun, especially during the holidays.
12. I wait with anticipation every year for my invitations to arrive.
13. Last year, the parties were small gatherings with just a few close friends.
I enjoyed that.
14. This year, my friends will have big parties with oodles of people, loud
music, and lots of good food.
15. I will attend every celebration this holiday season. Cheers!
Verbs
Reminder: (1) Lay means to place or put an object somewhere, and lie means
to rest or recline or to be situated; and (2) set means to place or put an object
in a particular spot, and sit means to be situated or to be seated or resting.
16. The county park lies just north of Jackson Avenue in Humboldt.
17. Sometimes, you can see people sitting on park benches, or they will lie
on a blanket they have laid on the grass.
18. Some enjoy watching the geese as they swim, sit, and lie in the sun.
19. Sometimes, people will sit and throw bread crumbs to the basking
geese.
20. Some of the geese are so relaxed that they lay their heads under their
wings for hours at a time.
87
Adjectives and Adverbs

The 5 Ws and 4 Hs of Good Writing
djectives and adverbs are like the vibrant paints on

an artists palette that she uses to create the picture she sees; likewise,
a writer paints pictures with his words so his readers can not only understand
his ideas, but enjoy reading about them, too. In other words, if you were hungry and went to the pantry or fridge to scope out a tasty snack, would you grab
the box of plain, low-sodium crackers or opt for a helping of chips and salsa?
Not to knock crackers. Sometimes they are just what the doctor ordered.
And, sometimes, a no-frills, get-to-the-point sentence or paragraph is what
you have to write. Lets face it, not all creations have to be a masterpiece.
But when the creative mood strikes, adjectives and adverbs add a spark to
your writing.
COMMON ADJECTIVES
Simply put, adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They give more specific
information about a person, place, or thing. Take the word house, for
instance. Alone, the word is general. Add the words two-story and yellow, and
you have a clearer picture of the house in your mind. Sometimes, you hear

adjectives referred to as modifiers. Modify means to change, and in truth,
adjectives change a noun by making it more specific.
Adjectives answer three specific questions about nouns and pronouns.
What kind?
Which one(s)?
How many?
long, short, heavy, red, excellent, difficult

this, that, these, those
some, few, many, eight, 4,000
To decide if a word is an adjective, simply ask yourself these three questions. Lets put it to the test.
The moldy, green bread made Josh lose his appetite for the milehigh turkey sub.
The words green and moldy seem to describe the noun bread (a thing), but
just to make certain, lets ask ourselves whether they answer What kind?
Which one? How many? Both words answer what kind of bread (moldy and
greenyuck!), making them both adjectives. Now, do you see any other
adjectives in the sentence? If you pointed to mile-high and turkey, you are correct. Both words answer what kind of sub (a thing). Excellent!
That striped shirt clashes with your plaid pants.
The noun shirt (a thing) is being described, or modified, by two words: that
(which answers which shirt) and striped (which answers what kind of shirt).
The other noun, pants (a thing), is being described by the adjectives your
(which answers which pants) and plaid (which answers what kind of pants).
Good job!
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

ADJECTIVES USUALLY COME before the noun they are modifying, but not always. Lets go back to the moldy sub for a moment.
The moldy, green bread made Josh lose his appetite for the milehigh turkey sub.
With a little tweak here and there, you can easily reword the sentence
to make the adjectives come after the noun.
The bread, moldy and green, made Josh lose his appetite for the
sub piled a mile high with turkey.
PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the adjectives in the following sentences? Check your
1.
Leslie bought a new white-and-silver beach cruiser.
2.
Her old bike had a broken rim and pedal.
3.
Every weekend, she rode on the wooden boardwalk at the local beach.
4.
Her father will repair her damaged bike and paint it blue and red.
5.
Then, Leslie will give it to her younger brother, Matthew.
91
ARTICLES: ARE YOU DEFINITE?

The three wordsa, an, and theare special adjectives called articles. You
encounter them when reading all the time. The is called a definite article
because it implies a specific person, place, or thing (the cafeteria, the principal). A and an are called indefinite articles because they do not imply anything
specific (a boy, a movie).
Definite:
Class, please line up at the door. (a specific door)
Indefinite: Class, please line up at a door.
(any door)
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THE ARTICLE A is placed before words that begin with a consonant sound, and an is placed before words beginning with a vowel
sound. Here are some examples.
a tiger
an open window
a quarter
an igloo
a shoestring
an ankle
Be careful! Not all words that begin with a vowel begin with a vowel
sound! Look at these examples.
a unicorn, a university (Both begin with a y sound.)
a one-eyed monster, a one-way street (Both begin with a w sound.)
PRACTICE LAP
See if you can correctly place the indefinite articles a or an in front of each
noun. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
6.
hour
14.
unicorn
7.
inspector
15.
honest person
8.
umbrella
16.
house
9.
yellow jacket
17.
unique opportunity
10.
European
18.
earthworm
11.
upperclassman
19.
university
12.
ounce
20.
hollow log
13.
one-eyed monster
PROPER ADJECTIVES: ITS ALL IN THE NAME

Sometimes, you may encounter a word that is capitalized like a proper
noun, but its job in the sentence is to be an adjective. Take the phrases French
toast, English muffin, and Smith family. Each one begins with a proper adjective, and each proper adjective answers the questions What kind? or Which
one? about the nouns that they are modifying.
What kind of toast?
What kind of muffins?
Which family?
French
English
Smith
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Many proper adjectives are derived from country or cultural names. You
often need to adjust the proper noun by adding a suffix to the end of the
word.
America
Italy
Vietnam
Japan
Peru
Paris
Americaan
Italiian
Vietnameese
Japaneese
Peruvvian
Parisiian
PRACTICE LAP
Can you revise the following phrases to change the proper noun into a
proper adjective? For instance, the phrase the students from Japan becomes
the Japanese students. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
21.
some grapefruits from Florida
22.
the ancient empire belonging to the Mayas
23.
a symphony by Mozart
24.
a pyramid in Egypt
25.
a store in Paris
PRONOUNS AS ADJECTIVES: IS IT MINE, YOURS, OR OURS?

Like nouns, can pronouns can be used as adjectives? Yes! Personal pronouns, called possessive adjectives, can act as adjectives when preceding
a noun. Here are some examples.
Liza carried her books to class.
His name is Milo, said the little boy.
I hope that their recital is successful.
INSIDE TRACK
SOMETIMES PERSONAL PRONOUNS act as adjectives:
Singular
Plural
my
our
your
your
his, her
their
its
their
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES: WHICH ONE?

Made up of four wordsthis, that, these, and thosedemonstrative adjectives answer the question, Which one(s)? Demonstrative adjectives always
appear before the noun they are modifying.
That video game looks cool.
This lamp is broken.
These shells are pretty.
Those waves seem dangerous.
INSIDE TRACK
WHEN THIS, THAT, these, and those are not followed by a noun,
they are pronouns (a word that replaces a noun).
That looks cool.
This is broken.
These are pretty.
Those seem dangerous.
95
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

DETERMINING WHICH DEMONSTRATIVE adjective or demonstrative pronoun to use depends upon your distance from the object
or objects.
If you are holding or touching an object, you would use this; when
referring to two or more objects, you would use these.
Demonstrative Adjective: This pen is mine.
Demonstrative Pronoun:
These are yours.
If you are pointing to an object at a distance, you would say that;

when referring to two or more objects, you would say those.
Demonstrative Adjective: That pen is mine.
Demonstrative Pronoun:
Those are yours.
PRACTICE LAP
Can you tell whether the italicized word in the sentence is a demonstrative
adjective, a demonstrative pronoun, or a possessive adjective? Check your
26.
This is an adorable puppy. Just look at its eyes.
27.
That toothbrush belongs to Emily, not Keith. This one is his.
28.
Hopefully, my payment will reach this company on time.
29.
These are really delicious. May I have more please?
30.
The peanuts in their bag are boiled; these in our bag are roasted.
USING ADJECTIVES TO COMPARE: GOOD, BETTER, BEST!

Sometimes, you need to be able to show how one object compares to another.
You can make these comparisons with adjectives on three levels: the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree. Heres how
they work.
With the positive degree, a person makes a simple statement about the
noun.
This balloon is big.
The comparative degree makes a comparison between two nouns only.
This balloon is big, but that one is bigger.
In the superlative degree, a person compares more than two nouns.
Of all the balloons, this one is the biggest.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
small
smaller
smallest
red
redder
reddest
cute
cuter
cutest
thick
thicker
thickest
close
closer
closest
You need to remember three rules when using the comparative and the
superlative degrees.
Rule 1: Add -er and -est to one-syllable adjectives (see the previous table).
Rule 2: When using adjectives with two or more syllables, use more and
most to enhance their degree or less and least to decrease the degree.
Use this book for the advanced class, that one for the more advanced
class, and any of those for the most advanced class.
97

His mother was less apprehensive about him when he walked to
school, and was least apprehensive when he took the bus.
Rule 3: There are some exceptions to the second rule. Some two-syllable
adjectives use -er and -est.
happy
picky
silly
happier happiest
pickier pickiest
sillier
silliest
Others wont follow any of these forms; they are considered irregular.
good
bad
many
better
worse
more
best
worst
most
INSIDE TRACK
IF YOU ARE uncertain as to which comparative form to use, consult a dictionary to help you decide. If the comparative and superlative forms arent given, play it safe and use more and most with the
positive degree of comparison.
This puppy is more silly than that one.
This puppy is the most silly of all.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

SOME ADJECTIVES JUST cant be compared no matter how hard
you try. They are referred to as absolute adjectives. Take the word
round, for instance. Can something be rounder than round? How
about the word unique? What can be more unique than something
that is already one of a kind? Words like favorite, true, false, perfect,
square, free, and complete also fall into this category.
PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct form of the comparative or superlative adjective that best
completes each sentence. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
31.
Victorias dog, Shadow, is the (friendlier, friendliest) dog Ive ever met.
32.
Which is (cuter, cutest), the yellow purse with flowers or the pink
purse with stripes?
33.
President Lincoln is one of the (most famous, famousest) U.S. presidents.
34.
Jacks piano lesson went (good, well) because he practiced every day.
35.
Sheila is (happiest, most happy) when she gets to nap during the afternoon.
ADVERBS
Like adjectives, adverbs modify words, specifically verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs. Of those three, verbs are the most often modified.
Adverbs answer five specific questions about the words they modify.
Where?
When?
How?
How much?
(To what extent?)
How often?
How long?
here, there, everywhere, outside, underneath

now, then, sometimes, often, infrequently, yesterday
slowly, timidly, suspiciously, curiously, fervently
really, too, extremely, very, so
daily, weekly, sometimes, never, once, twice
forever, all day, not long, all night, for a while
Just as when you are trying to identify adjectives, you can ask yourself these
questions to help you determine whether a word is an adverb. Lets try it.
The mouse scampered hastily across the kitchen floor yesterday.
Notice the -ly word hastily. Does it answer how something was done? Yes,
it answers how the mouse scampered (a verb): It scampered hastily. Do you
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notice any other words that may be adverbs? How about yesterday? Does yesterday answer any adverb questions? Yes, it answers when the mouse scampered hastily: yesterday. Good! Lets try another one.
His hair grows so fast that it has to be trimmed often.
There arent any -ly words this time. Dont panic! Notice the word fast. This
word answers how his hair growsit grows fastand, therefore, it is an
adverb. Now, take the word so. So answers to what extent of fast it grows
it grows so fastmaking so an adverb (modifying another adverb). The next
word, often, answers when haircuts are needed: often.
INSIDE TRACK
NOT ALL WORDS ending in -ly are adverbs. There are some adjectives that share the same ending.
friendly, neighborly, costly, ugly, burly, lovely, cowardly
Comparing Adverbs
Just like adjectives, adverbs use -er and -est, as well as more, most, less, and
least to show degrees of comparison. The comparative degree is used when
comparing only two persons or things; the superlative degree is used when
comparing three or more persons or things.
For short one-syllable adverbs, use the -er and -est endings.
soon
sooner
soonest
For longer two-syllable adverbs, use more and most to enhance their
degree or less and least to decrease the degree.
often
frequently
more often
most often
more frequently most frequently
Additionally, irregular adverbs dont follow either form.

well
badly
far
better
worse
farther/further
best
worst
farthest/furthest
Last, some adverbs just cant be intensified, no matter how hard you try.
They are referred to as absolute adverbs. The words all, every, completely,
and entirely, for instance, imply everything possiblehow could there be
more? Likewise, never and always imply the two extremes of when. You certainly would have trouble trying to do something more always or less never,
wouldnt you agree?
PRACTICE LAP
Choose the correct form of comparative or superlative adverb that best completes each sentence. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
36.
Mariah can hold her breath (longer, longest) than her sister, Tanya.
37.
In my family, I can shower the (fastest, faster), which gives me more

time to eat breakfast in the morning.
38.
Most students sleep (later, latest) during the summer break than during the school year.
39.
Mr. Thomas reminded the class that the (sooner, soonest) they finished
the lesson, the (quicker, quickest) they could start their homework.
40.
Unfortunately, the group behaved so (poorly, poorer) in the museum

that they were asked to leave.
101
ADVERB OR ADJECTIVE
It isnt unusual, as you already know, to encounter a word that looks like it
is one part of speech when, in fact, it is really another. For instance:
Shelly studied hard for the test on the Industrial Revolution.
Shelly thought the test on the Industrial Revolution was hard.
In the first sentence, hard is modifying, or enhancing, the verb studied. It
is answering the question how Shelly studied: She studied hard. In the second sentence, hard is modifying, or enhancing, the noun test. It answers the
question what kind of test: It was a hard test.
Here are some words that can be more than one part of speech.
Adjective
Adverb
His sports car is fast.
He drives too fast.
The early class was filled quickly.
I arrived early to class.
The straight line looked crooked.
Please come straight home.
Sue and Brittany are close friends.
You shouldnt sit too close to the TV.
She has fair skin and burns easily.
People expect others to play fair.
The hikers climbed the high hills.
The eagle soared high into the air.
My daily exercise routine is simple.
She eats fruits and vegetables daily.
Jasons late uncle left him a house.
Michael got to stay up late last night.
There are many others. Can you think of some?
PRACTICE LAP
Try to determine whether the underlined words in the sentences are adjectives or adverbs. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
41.
My plane will fly straight to Chicago and arrive late on Saturday evening.
42.
Daily doses of vitamin C will help prevent colds during the winter.
43.
We saw many high buildings from our hotel room, which was situated
high on the top floor.
44.
It was a close call when my kitten, sitting close to the open window,
decided to move onto the sill.
45.
Open wide, said the dentist playfully, holding the huge toothbrush. My
wide-eyed stare made him grin.
ANSWERS
Reminder: Adjectives (1) modify only nouns and (2) answer What kind?
Which one? and How many? about the nouns they are modifying.
1. Leslie bought a new white-and-silver beach cruiser.
2. Her old bike had a broken rim and pedal.
3. Every weekend, she rode on the wooden boardwalk at the local beach.
4. Her father will repair her damaged bike and paint it blue and red.
5. Then, Leslie will give it to her younger brother, Matthew.
Reminder: The indefinite article a is placed before words that begin with a
consonant sound, and the indefinite article an is placed before words beginning with a vowel sound.
6. an hour
14. a unicorn
7. an inspector
15. an honest person
8. an umbrella
16. a house
9. a yellow jacket
17. a unique opportunity
10. a European
18. an earthworm
11. an upperclassman
19. a university
12. an ounce
20. a hollow log
13. a one-eyed monster
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Reminder: Proper adjectives (1) are proper nouns that behave like adjectives and (2) answer Which one? and What kind? about the nouns they are
modifying.
21. some grapefruits from FloridaFlorida grapefruits
22. the ancient empire belonging to the Mayasthe ancient Mayan
empire
23. a symphony by Mozarta Mozart symphony
24. a pyramid in Egyptan Egyptian pyramid
25. a store in Parisa Parisian store
Reminder: Possessive adjectives are pronouns that imply something belongs
to someone. Demonstrative adjectives (1) consist of the four words this, that,
these, and those, which are always followed by a noun; and (2) answer the
question Which one(s)? about the nouns they are modifying.
26. This is . . . (demonstrative pronoun) . . . its eyes. (possessive adjective)
27. That toothbrush . . . (demonstrative adjective) This one . . . (demonstrative adjective) . . . is his (possessive adjective)
28. . . . my payment . . . (possessive adjective) . . . this company (demonstrative adjective)
29. These are . . . (demonstrative pronoun)
30. their bag . . . (possessive adjective) these . . . (demonstrative pronoun)
our bag . . . (possessive adjective)
Reminder: The comparative degree makes a comparison between only two
nouns, and the superlative degree is used when more than two nouns are
compared.
31. Victorias dog, Shadow, is the friendliest dog Ive ever met.
32. Which is cuter, the yellow purse with flowers or the pink purse with
stripes?
33. President Lincoln is one of the most famous U.S. presidents.
34. Jacks piano lesson went well because he practiced every day.
35. Sheila is happiest when she gets to nap during the afternoon.
Reminder: The comparative degree of the adverb is used when comparing

only two persons or things; the superlative degree of the adverb is used when
comparing three or more persons or things.
36. Mariah can hold her breath longer than her sister, Tanya.
37. In my family, I can shower the fastest, which gives me more time to eat
breakfast in the morning.
38. Most students sleep later during the summer break than during the
school year.
39. Mr. Thomas reminded the class that the sooner they finished the lesson, the quicker they could start their homework.
40. Unfortunately, the group behaved so poorly in the museum that they
were asked to leave.
Reminder: Adjectives modify only nouns and answer What kind? Which
one? and How many? about the nouns they are modifying. Adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer Where? When? How? How
much? How often? and How long?
41. My plane will fly straight (adverb) to Chicago and arrive late (adverb)
on Saturday evening.
42. Daily (adjective) doses of vitamin C will help prevent colds during the
winter.
43. We saw many high (adjective) buildings from our hotel room, which
was situated high (adverb) on the top floor.
44. It was a close (adjective) call when my kitten, sitting close (adverb) to
the open window, decided to move onto the sill.
45. Open wide (adverb), said the dentist playfully, holding the huge
toothbrush. My wide-eyed (adjective) stare made him grin.
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6
Agreement
A Matter of Compatibility
n polite settings, such as school and work, you are expected

to use a socially acceptable form of grammar, but sometimes, you can
make an inadvertent mistake. One of the most obvious blunders in socially
acceptable grammar is poor subject-verb agreement, and it sticks out like a
big nose on your forehead when you do it!
I is having a bad day today. My alarm clock be going off late this
morning and I be getting to school late. I hope Mr. Smith dont get
mad because I werent there for class.
Singular subjects must be coupled with singular verbs, and likewise, plural subjects with plural verbs.
A singular subject, usually a noun, refers to one person, place, or thing.
class, hamburger, book report, locker, child, woman, mouse
A plural noun refers to more than one. Most nouns become plural just by
adding an -s or -es to the end of the word.
classes, hamburgers, book reports, lockers

Other nouns take a different form when made plural.
children, women, mice
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

SOME NOUNS KEEP the same spelling whether plural or singular.
deer, moose, sheep, scissors, species, series, jellyfish
Use the meaning of the surrounding words to determine whether
these nouns are meant to be plural or singular.
WANTED
A gang of wild moose, sheep, and deer are wanted for a series of
coupon-clipping crime sprees. Considered armed and dangerous,
they are known to roam neighborhood streets in the early morning
hours pilfering newspapers from the driveways and front porches
of unsuspecting victims. Wielding sharp scissors, the hooligans
swiftly snip away at the highly valued shopping coupons and leave
behind piles of shredded paper to blow about the streets haplessly.
A reward is offered for the capture of these elusive felons.
Verbs have singular and plural forms as well (see Chapter 4), in both regular and irregular forms.
Agreement
Regular Verb
Singular
Plural
First person
I study, studied
we study, studied
Second person
you study, studied
you study, studied
Third person
he, she, it studies, studied
they study, studied
Irregular Verb
First person
I go, went
we go, went
Second person
you go, went
you go, went
Third person
he, she, it goes, went
they go, went
When you write a sentence, your subject and verb have to be compatible
in number and person. For instance:
Singular:
Plural:
Singular:
Plural:
She [singular subject] dances [singular verb] every day.

They [plural subject] dance [plural verb] every day.
She [singular subject] goes [singular verb] to dance class every day.
They [plural subject] go [plural verb] to dance class every day.
INSIDE TRACK
WHEN MAKING A regular verb singular, add an -s or -es to the end
of the word.
score scores
cheer
cheers
study
drum
drums
studies
For the most part, the subject-verb agreement rule is pretty straightforward. There can, however, be some tricky situations. Lets take a look at them.
109
THE VERB FORM TO BE

Most verbs are easy to recognize and, when used improperly, are exceptionally harsh on the ears and eyes. It is especially true of the most widely used verb
in the English language: words formed from the verb to be (which often dont
look anything like be, oddly enough, except being and been). For instance:
Subject
Present
Past
Past Participle
am
was
have been
you
are
were
have been
he, she, it
is
were
has been
we
are
were
have been
they
are
were
have been
Do not use the verb be after a subject.

Incorrect:
Correct:
I be going to the school dance. They be going, too.

The teacher be asking us to read.
I am going to the school dance. They are going, too.
The teacher is asking us to read.
PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the verb that agrees with the sentence subject? Check your
1.
Ian and Dawn (live, lives) in Washington.
2.
They (be, are) siblings.
3.
Every summer, their parents (take, takes) them white-water rafting on

the Colorado River.
Agreement
4.
Last year, Ian (got, gets) thrown from the raft into the river.
5.
Luckily, he could (swim, swims) well and was strong enough to (pull,
pulls) himself back into the raft.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Sometimes, the subject of the sentence is followed by a prepositional
phrase (phrases that start with prepositions such as of, at, between, on,
under, beside, etc.). If youre not careful, these phrases can confuse you into
picking the wrong verb form to agree with the subject.
When a subject is followed by a prepositional phrase, ignore that phrase
and look only at the subject to determine the correct verb. For instance:
The box of staples (was, were) in the cabinet.
The plural word staples may lead you to choose the plural verb were, but you
must ignore the phrase of staples because box, not staples, is the subject.
Therefore, the sentence would read as follows.
The box [singular subject] of staples was [singular verb] in the cabinet.
Lets look at another one.
The clothes in the hamper (are, is) dirty.
Again, ignore the prepositional phrase in the hamper, and focus on the subject, clothes. Then, the sentence should read as follows.
The clothes [plural subject] in the hamper are [plural verb] dirty.
Other prepositional phrasessuch as along with, as well as, including,
and in addition tocan also throw you off. For instance:
Daniel, along with Stephen and Anthony, (are, is) a member of the
school marching band.
Vegetables, in addition to fruit, (is, are) a healthy choice for a snack.
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If you disregard the phrases along with Stephen and Anthony and in addition
to fruit, you are able to focus better on the subjects Daniel and vegetables and
choose the correct verb to agree with them.
Daniel [singular subject], along with Stephen and Anthony, is [singular verb] a member of the school marching band.
Vegetables [plural subject], in addition to fruit, are [plural verb] a
healthy choice for a snack.
Prepositional phrases with plurals in them can create subject agreement
havoc, too. Take a look at the following.
Every one of these cards (are, is) ruined because of the sticky spill.
The subject of these four research reports (is, are) the Alaskan
wilderness.
When you disregard the prepositional phrases of these cards and of these
four research reports to find the subject of each sentence, the sentences
should read as follows.
Every one [singular subject] of these cards is ruined [singular verb]
because of the sticky spill.
The subject [singular subject] of these four research reports is [singular subject] the Alaskan wilderness.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns take the place of nouns with words like everyone,
both, few, and all. Determining whether these words are singular or plural
is sometimes easy.
Several from the group are walking to the movie, while a few others
are staying behind to chat.
The plural verb are agrees with the plural subjects several and few.
Agreement
Each of the students is encouraged to share a little bit about himor herself.
Anyone was allowed to volunteer to share first.
The singular verb is agrees with the singular subjects each and anyone.
Indefinite Pronouns
Singular
Plural
Both
anybody
anyone
several
all
anything
each
both
more
either
everybody
others
some
everyone
everything
few
most
much
nobody
many
none
neither
no one
any
nothing
one
other
somebody
someone
something
When you encounter the indefinite pronouns all, more, none, most, any,
and some before a prepositional phrase, dont ignore the phrase. Instead, use
the noun at the end of the prepositional phrase, called the object of the
preposition (OOP), to help you decide whether to use a singular or plural
verb. For instance:
Some of the cars [OOP] are driving slowly.
The noun cars following the pronoun some is plural, so a plural verb is needed.
Some of the road [OOP] is slippery.
The noun road following the pronoun some is singular, so a singular verb is
needed.
Most of the desserts [OOP] are delicious.
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The noun desserts following the pronoun most is plural, so a plural verb is
required.
Most of the pie [OOP] is frozen.
The noun pie following the pronoun most is singular, so a singular verb is
needed.
INSIDE TRACK
THIS IS THE only time that you should break the ignore the prepositional phrase rule stated earlier and not ignore it in the sentence.
The OOP will determine what kind of verb will follow.
PRACTICE LAP
Identify the verb that will agree with the indefinite pronouns in the following sentences. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
6.
All of the flowers in the vase (were, was) beautiful.
7.
Some of the tourists (were eating, was eating) pizza with cheese and
pepperoni.
8.
Yesterday, each of the trains (was, were) on time for once.
9.
It is likely that everyone from the class (are, is) going on the trip to the
planetarium.
10.
Both of the pears in the basket (is, are) ripe.
Agreement
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns are words that name groups of people, animals, and
objects as a single unit, such as team or dozen.
A collective noun can take on either a singular or a plural form, depending on how it is used in the sentence. For instance:
Singular:
Plural:
The soccer team places its logo on the banner.

The team, as a single unit, has a logo.
The soccer team place trophies in the display case.
The teams members have trophies to display and place them
in the case.

Singular:
Plural:
A dozen roses is such a thoughtful gift.

The roses are purchased by the dozen, as a single unit.
A dozen friends are coming over tonight.
Friends dont come by the dozen, like roses. They come as
individuals.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THE TERM THE number is a singular collective noun, where a
number is the plural form.
Singular: The number of cats in the shelter has grown since
September.
One by one, the number of cats in the shelter increased
since September.
Plural:
A number of cats were brought to the shelter last night.

Several cats were brought to the shelter last night.
115
WORDS EXPRESSING MEASURE

Expressions of measure include words like dollars, cents, tons, pounds, ounces,
grams, days, weeks, months, years, gallons, quarts, pints, cups, pieces, slices, cartons, etc. These words denote a quantity of money, weight, time, volume,
food, and fractions.
Determine whether the words are referring to a single unit or to separate
items, to determine what type of verb is required.
Words falling into this category can often trick you because they look plural, even though they imply a single unit, which makes them singular.
Two gallons of milk is all that is left in the refrigerator.
The gallons are considered a single unit and require a singular verb.
Two one-gallon containers of milk are all that is left in the refrigerator.
This time, the milk is referred to as separate units, containers, so you would
use a plural verb to complete the sentence.
Nine dollars is a lot of money for a toll.
Again, the nine dollars are being lumped together as a single unit, so you
would use a singular verb.
Five one-dollar bills are all I have in my pocket.
Here, the dollars are separated into smaller units, bills, so the verb is plural.
Lets try one more.
Singular:
Plural:
Nine hours of sleep is ideal for teens.

Ideally, nine hours of sleep are needed for teens.
Agreement
PRACTICE LAP
Identify which verb properly completes each sentence. Then, check your
11.
Look! A herd of cows (are, is) crossing the road ahead.
12.
Nan saw schools of colorful fish (swim, swims) around her while she
was snorkeling.
13.
A number of geese (has made, have made) their home by the pond in
my backyard.
14.
Fifty-two weeks (make, makes) up a year.
15.
Three cups of flour (is, are) needed to make the cake batter.
COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND VERBS

When two or more subjects share the same verb, that sentence has a compound subject. Compound subjects are connected with the conjunctions
and, or, or nor.
When the conjunction and is used, the verb will be plural. For instance:
My sister and brother go to the same college.
Annabelle, Molly, and Taylor sit by one another in class.
INSIDE TRACK
THE EXCEPTION TO this rule is when the subjects are thought of
as a single unit, even though they are joined by the conjunction and.
For instance:
Spaghetti and meatballs is one of my favorite meals, as is macaroni
and cheese.
117

When singular subjects are joined by the conjunctions or or nor, the verb
used will be singular, and when plural subjects are joined by or or nor, the
verb used will be plural. For instance:
Singular:
Plural:
A cat or a dog is a good choice for a pet.

Neither a bear nor a lion makes a good choice for a pet.
Musicians or dancers may attend the musical arts convention.
Neither landscapers nor masons would likely be interested in
attending.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

OH, NO! YOU have a sentence that uses a singular and a plural subject. What kind of verb do you choose nowsingular or plural? The
answer is simple: Choose the verb that agrees with the subject you
mention last in the sentence (the one closest to the verb):
Neither fries nor a hot dog is offered for lunch today, only salad.
Neither a hot dog nor fries are offered for lunch today, only salad.
PRACTICE LAP
See if you can identify the correct verb to complete the following sentences
with compound subjects and predicates. Then, check your answers at the end
of the chapter.
16.
Alexa and Maya (enjoys, enjoy) camping.
17.
Dolphins and turtles (is, are) Lindsays favorite animals.
18.
Peanut butter and jelly (was, were) all that we ate for lunch.
19.
Either Richard or Chelsea (plan, plans) to help with the school play.
20.
Neither eggplant nor carrots (is, are) on the menu.
Agreement
AGREEMENT BETWEEN ANTECEDENTS AND PRONOUNS

How important are pronouns? Lets see:
Every now and then, Tom liked to play a round of golf. Tom would
bring Toms golf bag and Toms cart to the course Tom belonged to,
and Tom would often meet with Toms golf partner, Joe. Tom and
Joe would usually warm up at the putting green before Tom and Joe
played an 18-hole round. Then, Tom and Joe would grab a bite to
eat at the clubhouse. Afterward, Tom and Joe would drive Toms and
Joes cars back home to Toms and Joes families.
This sounds ridiculous, right? Without pronouns, though, this is how you
would have to tell about an event.
Pronouns take the place of a noun (the name of a person, place, or thing).
An antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers. For instance:
Brianna studied all day, and she was too tired to go out with friends.
The pronoun she refers to Brianna in the sentence, making Brianna the
antecedent. Because Brianna is one girl, the pronoun she is used, as opposed
to, say, he or they. A singular noun must agree in number with its pronoun.
Jimmy and Penny went to the statehouse to visit a friend. Later, they
had lunch and walked through the park.
They, a plural pronoun, agrees with the compound subject it is referring to,
Jimmy and Penny.
Common English Pronouns
all
another
any
anybody
anyone
anything
both
each
either
everybody
everyone
everything
few
he
her
hers
herself
him
himself
his
119
Common English Pronouns
it
its
itself
many
me
mine
my
myself
neither
no one
nobody
none
nothing
one
others
our
ours
ourselves
she
some
somebody
someone
something
that
their
theirs
them
themselves
these
they
this
us
we
what
which
who
whom
whose
you
your
yours
yourself
yourselves
Pronouns must be compatible in gender, number, and person with their

antecedents.
Singular
Plural
First person
I, me, my, mine
we, us, our
Second person
you your, yours
you, your, yours
Third person
he, she, it
they, them, their
Before going downstairs to dinner, Meredith placed his skirt, pompoms, and flags for cheerleading into the closet.
Needless to say, Meredith is not a male but a female. The pronoun he should
agree with the subject. Therefore, she would be the correct pronoun.
James likes to read, and you is always carrying a book with them.
You, a second-person pronoun, does not work here. The writer is referring
to a male, James, so the pronoun needs to be third-person male, or he. Also,
the pronoun them is plural, and James can be only one person. The correct
pronoun, then, would be him.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, anybody, either, neither, everybody, everyone, everything, no one, nobody, somebody, someone, each, none, and one are considered singular in number and are compatible only with singular pronouns.
Agreement
Incorrect: Somebody left their phone on the table.

Somebody is a singular pronoun, and their is plural. Even
though this is probably the way most people would say this, it
is grammatically incorrect.
Okay:
Somebody left his or her phone on the table.
This is grammatically correct, but a bit stuffy.
Best:
Somebodys phone was left on the table.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THESE DAYS, PEOPLE try to be more sensitive in their formal writing and public speaking. They try to not generalize by using he when
referring to just anybody in general (which had previously been fairly
customary).
If anybody wants seconds, he should just ask for it. Theres plenty
to go around.
In casual conversation and writing, though, using he to refer to some
person in general is generally accepted. You need to decide what is
best for your particular situation. So, how would you handle this sentence in a less casual situation? Lets see.
Okay:
If anybody wants seconds, he or she should just ask for it.

Theres plenty to go around.
Like the previous example, this is grammatically correct, but awkward.

Better:
If you want seconds, just ask for it. Theres plenty to go

around.
Change the subject to you. It is still neutral in gender and includes

everyone in the reading or listening audience.
121

When using pronouns, you must be cautious that the antecedent-pronoun
agreement be clear to avoid confusion on the listeners or readers part. For
instance:
Michael texted Mark, who IMed Jaleel about a video they rented
last week. He said it was boring and wanted to go bowling instead.
Who thought the movie was boring: Mark, Jaleel, or Michael?
Carol and Julie went to the mountains for a weekend of skiing with
Doug and Edward. They were having a great time until she got hurt
when they collided on the slopes. They are going to try snowboarding next time.
My, thats confusing. Who collided: Carol and Doug? Julie and Doug? Carol
and Edward? Julie and Edward? Is they referring to Carol and Julie? Carol and
Doug? Carol, Doug, and Julie? Only Julie and Doug? Carol, Doug, and
Edward? Maybe Julie, Doug, and Edward? Perhaps just the boys, or just the
girls, or just maybe the entire group? Whew! Get the point?
When using heres or theres in a sentence, keep in mind that these contractions mean here is and there isboth contain the singular verb is. Therefore, the subject has to be singular.
Its not uncommon to hear sentences like the following:
Heres the pages we did for homework, Carla said to Rebecca.
Awesome! Theres only a few days left of school before summer
break!
While they may sound okay, they are wrong. They should be said or written like this.
Here are the pages we did for homework, Carla said to Rebecca.
Awesome! There are only a few days left of school before summer
break!
Agreement
PRACTICE LAP
See if you can identify the mistakes in the following sentences. Then, check
21.
Alyssa tried to tie her shoes by himself.
22.
Everybody should fasten their seatbelt before takeoff.
23.
Janice told her mom that she had a stain on her blouse.
24.
Theres some ants crawling on the sidewalk.
25.
Each student signed their name to the petition.
ANSWERS
Reminder: (1) Singular subjects must be coupled with singular verbs and,
likewise, plural subjects with plural verbs; and (2) do not use the verb be after
a subject.
1. Ian and Dawn live in Washington.
2. They are siblings.
3. Every summer, their parents take them white-water rafting on the Colorado River.
4. Last year, Ian got thrown from the raft into the river.
5. Luckily, he could swim well and was strong enough to pull himself back
into the raft.
Reminder: (1) When a subject is followed by a prepositional phrase, look at
the subject to determine the verbs form; and (2) when you encounter the
indefinite pronouns all, more, none, most, any, and some before a prepositional
phrase, use the noun at the end of the prepositional phrase to decide whether
to use a singular or plural verb.
6. All of the flowers in the vase were beautiful.
7. Some of the tourists were eating pizza with cheese and pepperoni.
8. Yesterday, each of the trains was on time for once.
123

It is likely that everyone from the class is going on the trip to the
planetarium.
10. Both of the pears in the basket are ripe.
9.
Reminder: Determine whether the words are referring to a single unit or separate items to determine what type of verb is required. Singular nouns must
be coupled with singular verbs, and, likewise, plural nouns with plural verbs.
11. Look! A herd (singular) of cows is crossing the road ahead.
12. Nan saw schools (plural) of colorful fish swim around her while she was
snorkeling.
13. A number (singular) of geese have made their home by the pond in my
backyard.
14. Fifty-two weeks (plural) make up a year.
15. Three cups (plural) of flour are needed to make the cake batter.
Reminder: (1) When the conjunction and is used to join two subject nouns,
the verb will be plural; (2) when singular subjects are joined by the conjunctions or or nor, the verb will be singular; and (3) when plural subjects are
joined by or or nor, the verb will be plural.
16. Alexa and Maya enjoy camping.
17. Dolphins and turtles are Lindsays favorite animals.
18. Peanut butter and jelly was all that we ate for lunch.
(Note: Peanut butter and jelly is thought of as a single unit and is, therefore, singular.)
19. Either Richard or Chelsea plans to help with the school play.
20. Neither eggplant nor carrots are on the menu.
(Note: Choose the verb that agrees with the subject mentioned last in
the sentence.)
Reminder: (1) Pronouns must be compatible in gender, number, and person
with their antecedents; (2) indefinite pronouns are considered singular in
number and are compatible only with singular pronouns; (3) antecedentpronoun agreement must be clear to avoid confusion; (4) heres and theres
mean here is and there is, and the subject has to be singular.
21. Alyssa tried to tie her shoes by herself.
22. Everybody should fasten his or her seatbelt before takeoff.
Agreement
Janice had a stain on her blouse, and she told her mom.
Janices mom had a stain on her blouse, and Janice told her.
24. Theres an ant crawling on the sidewalk.
There are some ants crawling on the sidewalk.
25. Each student signed his or her name to the petition.
23.
125
7
Modifiers
Does It Dangle or Squint or Split?
n addition to single-word adjectives and adverbs, modifiers

include phrases and clauses that behave like adjectives and adverbs.
Without these modifiers, writing and speech would be dull, dry, and boring.
Writers use all types of modifiers to enhance their writing by making it more
vivid in order to help their readers understand more clearly what they are
saying. Of course, you want to present your readers with writing that is interesting and meaningful. Otherwise, why write? Lets see how you can use
these other modifiers to enliven your writing that much more.
PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Any group of words that expresses an incomplete thought is a phrase.
Phrases do not have both a subject and a predicate (a verb). For instance:
my favorite team [no verb]
eat popcorn every night [no subject]
Clauses are heavier hitters than phrases. Like phrases, clauses act like a
particular part of speech, but they do have a subject and a predicate (verb).

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Prepositions and prepositional phrases show how words relate to one

another. Typically, these words will tell where something is or where something is going, with some exceptions. Here are some common prepositions.
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
despite
down
during
except
for
from
in
into
like
near
next
of
off
on
onto
out
outside
over
past
since
through
throughout
to
toward
under
underneath
unlike
until
under
up
upon
with
within
without
There are some compound prepositions as well.

Compound Prepositions
prior to
next to
on top of
because of
in addition to
in place of
according to
in front of
aside from
on account of
INSIDE TRACK
TO HELP YOU decide whether or not a word is a preposition, you can
plug many of them into this sentence, and they should make sense.
The mouse went
it to get the cheese.
Obviously, not all of the prepositions will work. How can a mouse
went concerning it? Or except it? Or of it?
Modifiers
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition

and ends with a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun at the end of the
phrase is called the object of the preposition (OOP). For instance:
across the meadow (OOP)
under the bridge (OOP)
beyond the Milky Way (OOP)
for him (OOP)
after it (OOP)
A prepositional phrase can function as an adjective or an adverb in a sentence, adding color and depth to your writing. For instance:
An adjective phrase can tell what kind or which one.
His report about tsunamis was well written. (adjective phrase)
His tsunami report was well written. (adjective)
The prepositional phrase about tsunamis behaves like an adjective and
modifies the noun report.
An adverb phrase can tell where, when, or how.
The tennis ball landed on the court. (adverb phrase)
The tennis ball landed there. (adverb)
The prepositional phrase on the court behaves like an adverb and modifies
the verb landed.
PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the prepositional phrases in the following sentences? Check
1.
The mysterious container in the corner of the attic had not been opened
for many years.
2.
After school, many of the students stayed to practice for the play.
129

3.
Do you plan to travel over spring break?
4.
The wooden chair beside the desk had splinters.
5.
I watched the ants scurry back and forth over the deck rails and across
the patio for food.
Appositives
An appositive is a word or phrase that directly follows a noun with the sole
purpose of identifying that noun. For instance:
Martha, George Washingtons wife, died on May 22, 1802.
George Washington, our first president, took his oath of office on
April 30, 1789.
Participial Phrases
Participial phrases begin with a participle (an -ing verb in present tense or
an -ed , -en, -t, or -n verb in past tense) and act like an adjective, describing
a noun or pronoun in your sentence. For instance:
Wielding his sword, the chivalrous knight bravely defeated the
dragon.
Wiped out from his run, he took a dip in the pool.
The participial phrases wielding his sword and wiped out from his run behave
like adjectives and modify the noun knight and the pronoun he, respectively.
Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive phrases begin with the word to and end with a verb or a verb plus
an adverb. Lets take a look.
To answer confidently was the least he could do.
The infinitive to answer and the adverb confidently make up the infinitive
phrase, which acts as the subject of the sentence.
Modifiers
His plans to go to Europe after graduation fell through.

The infinitive verb to go makes up the infinitive phrase, which acts like an
adjective and modifies the plural noun plans.
Gerunds
A gerund is a group of two or more words that contains an -ing verb that acts
as a noun. For instance:
Cramming the night before a test is never a good idea.
The gerund phrase cramming the night before a test acts like a noun and is the
subject of the sentence.
Benjamin enjoys climbing mountains.
The gerund phrase climbing mountains acts like a noun and is the direct object
of the sentence.
PRACTICE LAP
Correctly identify the types of phrases in the following sentences. Then,
6.
Marty, Angelinas cousin, is attending Brown University next fall.

(a) prepositional phrase
(b) appositive phrase
(c) gerund phrase
7.
The abandoned building at the end of the road will be razed for the
construction of a new community center.
(a) adverb phrase
(b) adjective phrase
(c) appositive phrase
131

8.
To close, I would like to thank Michelle for her assistance in making the
program a success.
(a) participial phrase
(b) prepositional phrase
(c) infinitive phrase
9.
Excusing the boys from their irresponsible behavior is not an option.

(a) gerund phrase
(b) adverb phrase
(c) adjective phrase
10.
Shaken by the fall, the youngster ran to his mother and cried.
(b) adverb phrase
(c) gerund phrase
Independent Clauses
Sometimes referred to as a main clause, the independent clause has its own
subject and verb and can stand alone (independently) as a sentence. Here
is an example.
The magicians helper stood at his side to assist.
This is a simple enough sentence. Now, lets look at another one.
The magicians helper remained at his side to assist, and with poise, she
held his magic hat.
This longer sentence is made up of two independent clauses. The first
onethe magicians helper remained at his side to assistcontains a subject
and verb, helper and remained. The second independent clausewith poise,
she held his magic hatalso contains a subject and verb, she and held. The second independent clause could also stand alone as a simple sentence.
Modifiers
Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses, also called dependent clauses, contain a subject and a

verb, but they differ from independent clauses because they cant stand by
themselves as simple sentences. They depend on another clause in the sentence. Look at this sentence.
The assistant had just placed the magic hat into the magicians hand
when he, POOF, disappeared into thin air.
The clause, when he, POOF, disappeared into thin air, contains a subject and
verb, he and disappeared. It cannot stand alone as a sentence, however,
because its not a complete thought. If you said to someone, When he,
POOF, disappeared into thin air, they would first look at you like you had
six heads, and then probably say something like, He who? And why?
Thats because the subordinate clause you said lacks important information
that a complete sentence would have. Make sense?
Adjective Clauses
A subordinate clause can act as an adjective when it describes or modifies

a noun or pronoun (just as adjectives do). These clauses will answer the questions what kind and which one about the noun they are modifying. Adjective
clauses begin with who, whom, that, which, when, where, or why. For instance:
Evan, who began practicing magic when he was seven, was now a
celebrity magician.
Who began practicing when he was seven is a subordinate clause (the subject is who, and the verb is began) that acts as an adjective modifying the noun
Evan. It gives us more information about the subject of this sentence.
133

Adverb Clauses
When a subordinate clause can answer where, when, how, or why, it is

behaving as an adverb and is called an adverb clause. Adverb clauses begin
with words such as because, although, once, until, and after. Take a look at
this sentence.
Chris had a hard time convincing Nancy that he would make a good
DJ for her party because he had a chronic case of the hiccups.
The adverb clause is because he had a chronic case of the hiccups. Lets check
to see that it has a subject and a verb.
because he [subject] had [verb] a chronic case of the hiccups
Noun Clauses
Last, a subordinate clause that behaves as a noun in a sentence is called a noun

clause. Because noun clauses act as nouns, they share the same qualities that
a noun would and, therefore, can be the subject, object, or appositive, among
others, in a sentence. A noun clause answers who, whom, or what. For
instance:
The recipe is confusing.
Here, the noun recipe is the subject of the sentence. You can determine
the subject by asking, Whom or what is confusing? The word recipe is the
answer, making it the subject.
What the recipe says to do with the mixture is confusing.
In this sentence, what the recipe says to do with the mixture is the subject
of the sentence. Again, you can determine that when you ask, Whom or what
is confusing? The noun clause what the recipe says to do with the mixture is the
answer, making it the subject.
Modifiers
PRACTICE LAP
Correctly identify the type of subordinate clause in each sentence: adjective,
adverb, or noun. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
11.
People who read often are well informed.

(a) adverb clause
(b) noun clause
(c) adjective clause
12.
The Canada geese, which flew overhead, were headed south.

(a) noun clause
(b) adjective clause
(c) adverb clause
13.
When the last guest had arrived, the ship set sail for the small island.
(a) adverb clause
(b) adjective clause
(c) noun clause
14.
The swimmer swam laps until he was tired.

(a) adverb clause
(b) noun clause
(c) adjective clause
15.
The balloon that was drifting higher in the air became a tiny speck in
the sky.
(a) adjective clause
(b) noun clause
(c) adverb clause
135
MISPLACED MODIFIERS
If modifiers are supposed to be so helpful, then how do they become misplaced? Its not hard. When you are writing, you know what you mean to say,
and overlooking misplaced modifiers is easy. Reading with a critical eye is
essential. If you apply the following simple placement rules, many of these
misplacement mishaps can be avoided.
Lets see how this works.
Here is a simple sentence: The bus rode.
There is little information here. Is this a city bus? A school bus? Perhaps
a charter bus? And where did it go? Without more information, you
dont know.
This is a better sentence: The yellow school bus rode slowly up the hill.
Okay, the adjectives yellow and school make it clearer, as do the adverb
slowly and the phrase up the hill. Your mental picture of what the writer is
telling you should be less ambiguous.
Huh?: The yellow school bus rode slowly up the hill with children bouncing in
their seats.
Thats odd; have you seen many hills strewn with bouncing children?
This sentence has a misplaced modifier. Can you tell where it is? In its current spot in the sentence, the phrase with children bouncing in their seats modifies the hill, making it sound as though the children were bouncing in their
seats on the hill, not on the bus. The sentence needs to be reworded. Here
are a couple of ways that can be done.
The yellow school bus, with children bouncing in their seats, rode
slowly up the hill.
With children bouncing in their seats, the yellow school bus rode
slowly up the hill.
In both sentences, the children are where they should beon the bus, not
on the hill.
Modifiers
DANGLING MODIFIERS
Just like single-word adverbs, adverb phrases need to be placed near the word
they are modifying to maintain clear sentence meaning. For instance:
My science teacher showed me a book about mummification at
the library.
Do the librarians moonlight as Egyptian embalmers and, at closing, transform the library into a mummification chamber?
Instead, the sentence should read as follows.
My science teacher showed me a book at the library about
mummification.
At the library, my science teacher showed me a book abut
mummification.
Sometimes, you may try to start a sentence with a phrase to add detail to,
or clarify, your message. The phrase appears to be related to the subject of
the sentence, but it really isnt, and so it unfortunately creates the opposite
effect for readers. Take a look at these sentences.
While singing in the shower, Jackies mom [subject] vacuumed the living room drapes and washed the kitchen windows.
Wow, what a multitasker! Jackies mom is a very talented and flexible lady,
wouldnt you agree?
Chained to the post, Scott [subject] saw the motorcycle hes always
dreamed of.
Hmm . . . why was Scott chained to the post as he admired a motorcycle?
Badly stained, Angelica [subject] tossed the expensive blouse into the
trash with disgust.
137

Why was Angelica stained? Did a bucket of paint or ink fall on her?
These sentences need to be reworded so that the phrases add to the
meaning, not take away from it.
While Jackie sang in the shower, her mom vacuumed the living
room drapes and washed the kitchen windows.
Scott saw the motorcycle he had always dreamed of chained to a post.
Disgusted, Angelica tossed the stained, expensive blouse into the trash.
When the cool breeze blew, Martin closed the window in his pajamas.
Do your pajamas have a window in them like Martins? How can you fix the
sentence to make it correct?
In his pajamas, Martin closed the window when the cool breeze blew.
Martin, in his pajamas, closed the window when the cool breeze blew.
Incorrect: Martin closed the window when the cool breeze blew in
his pajamas.
It should be fairly obvious that this wont work. The phrase in his pajamas is
still misplaced, so it sounds as if the cool breeze was now blowing in Martins
pajamas.
SQUINTING MODIFIERS
When a modifier could be describing the words or phrases on either side of
it, it is called a squinting modifier. For instance:
Not studying notes regularly keeps students from being successful.
Does the word regularly describe how infrequently notes arent studied?
Not regularly studying notes keeps students from being successful.
Modifiers
Or does it describe how the practice often keeps students from being successful?
Not studying notes keeps students from regularly being successful.
PRACTICE LAP
Rewrite each sentence so that the modifier is properly placed. Then, check
16.
While turning left at the light, the baby began to cry.
17.
She stared at the spider on the wall with wide eyes.
18.
Alice served prime rib and baked potatoes to her guests on her best china.
19.
Did you see a boy with a dog riding his bike?
20.
The expensive diamond necklace was reported stolen by the Middletown police.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

MANAGING YOUR MODIFIERS
Rule 1: Place a simple adjective before the noun it is modifying.
Wearing a green raincoat, the exhausted student walked
home in the rain.
Rule 2: Place phrases and clauses acting as adjectives after the
noun being modified.
The surfer with long blond hair rode the ten-foot wave
with ease.
Rule 3: The placement of simple adverbs is flexible.
The blue suede shoes got dirty quickly; the blue suede shoes
quickly got dirty; quickly, the blue suede shoes got dirty.
139
Rule 4: Place the words only, barely, just, and almost before the
noun or verb they are modifying. Sentence meaning can vary
widely depending on where you place these special limiters.
Only she says she likes sushi.
[No one else says it . . . only her.]
She only says she likes sushi.
[She may like something else . . . but wont say so.]
She says only she likes sushi.
[No one else likes it but her.]
She says she only likes sushi.
[She doesnt love it . . . just likes it.]
She says she likes only sushi.
[Its sushi . . . or nothing.]
ANSWERS
Reminder: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a
preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.
1. The mysterious container in the corner of the attic had not been
opened for many years.
2. After school, many of the students stayed to practice for the play.
3. Do you plan to travel over spring break?
4. The wooden chair beside the desk had splinters.
5. I watched the ants scurry back and forth over the deck rails and across
the patio for food.
Reminder: (1) An appositive is a word or phrase that directly follows the
noun it is identifying; (2) participial phrases begin with a participle (an -ing,
-ed , -en, -t, or -n verb); and (3) infinitive phrases begin with the word to and
end with a verb or a verb plus an adverb.
Modifiers
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Marty, Angelinas cousin, is attending Brown University next fall.

(b) appositive phrase
The abandoned building at the end of the road will be razed for the construction of a new community center.
(a) adverb phrase
To close, I would like to thank Michelle for her assistance in making the
program a success.
(c) infinitive phrase
Excusing the boys from their irresponsible behavior is not an option.
(a) gerund phrase
Shaken by the fall, the youngster ran to his mother and cried.
Reminder: Subordinate clauses (1) cant stand by themselves as simple sentences; (2) can behave like adjectives when they answer what kind or which
one; (3) behave as adverbs when they answer where, when, how, or why; and
(4) can behave as nouns in a sentence when they answer whom or what.
11. People who read often are well informed.
(c) adjective clause (answers what kind of people)
12. The Canada geese, which flew overhead, were headed south.
(b) adjective clause (answers which geese)
13. Once the last guest had finally arrived, the ship set sail for the small
island.
(a) adverb clause (answers when the ship sailed)
14. The swimmer swam laps until he was tired.
(a) adverb clause (answers when the swimmer swam)
15. The balloon that was drifting high in the air became a tiny speck in the sky.
(b) noun clause (answers what became a tiny speck)
Reminder: Modifiers need to be placed near the word they are modifying to
maintain clear sentence meaning.
16. Turning left at the light, the baby began to cry.
The baby began to cry as I turned left at the light.
As I turned left at the light, the baby began to cry.
17. She stared at the spider on the wall with wide eyes.
With wide eyes, she stared at the spider on the wall.
141

Alice served prime rib and baked potatoes to her guests on her best
china.
Alice served prime rib and baked potato to her guests, using her best
china.
Using her best china, Alice served her guests prime rib and baked
potatoes.
19. Did you see a boy with a dog riding his bike?
Did you see a boy riding a bike with his dog?
Did you see a boy riding his bike with a dog?
20. The expensive diamond necklace was reported stolen by the Middletown police.
The Middletown police reported that an expensive diamond necklace had been stolen.
An expensive diamond necklace was reported stolen, according to
by the Middletown police.
18.
Sentence Structure
From the Simple to the Complex
s a student, and even later in life as an adult, you need to

know how to write coherent (sensible) sentences and paragraphs.
And being able to do so well is especially desirable, particularly if you aim
to excel in your education and achieve your career goals. What, you may ask,
does writing well have to do with my potential level of success? A lot, if you
think about it. Take school, for example. What good teacher lets you write
your essays in any way you want, using slang, poor grammar, or misspellings?
If your grade on a test or an essay is based on your teacher being able to
understand your message, then it would be in your best interest to write well,
wouldnt you agree? Now, that same teacher has to read not only your essay,
but the essays of all the other studentsprobably numbering anywhere
from 20 to more than 100, depending on the grade level. When your essay
is well written, it stands out to your teacher, like a breath of cool, fresh air.
If you think that this is not important, think again! It can mean the difference between receiving an okay grade and a terrific grade! Which would you
like to have?
Now lets see how you can apply what youve learned to make some awesome sentences and paragraphs! First, lets look at some basic sentence
structure.
BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Every sentence must have a subject and a verb called a predicate. The subject of a sentence is who or what the sentence is about. For instance:
Isaac went to baseball practice.
In this sentence, the proper noun Isaac is who the sentence is about, so it is
the subject. A subject can also be a common noun.
The ice cream cone melted.
Or it can be a pronoun.
He was tired after his long day at school.
The predicate, or verb, moves the sentence along and tells you what the
subject is doing or what condition the subject is in. For instance:
Isaac went to baseball practice.
You know what Isaac didhe went.
The ice cream cone melted.
You know what happened to the ice cream coneit melted.
Sometimes, sentences have more than one subject, known as a compound
subject, or more than one verb, known as a compound verb. For instance:
Halley and Jon are starring in this years school play.
The compound subject is Halley and Jon.
Snickers, my cat, climbed the fence and walked along the top of it.
The compound verbs are climbed and walked.
Sentence Structure
Jan and Martin played cards and ate pizza last night.
This sentence has a compound subjectJan and Martinand two compound verbsplayed and ate.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IN MORE COMPLEX sentences, finding the subject can be tricky.
An easy way to find it is to ask yourself who or what performed the
action of the verb. The subject(s) will answer that.
Many people, if given the chance to do so, would jump at the
opportunity to travel abroad.
The verb in this sentence is jump. Ask yourself, Who or what would
jump? The answer, people, is the subject.
Sometimes, sentences have a subject that is not written. Look at this example.
Wash the dishes before watching television.
When you have a sentence that is telling you to do something (an imperative), the subject is implied or understood to be you. So, the sentence really
means (You) wash the dishes before watching television. To make this even more
confusing, even if someones name is mentioned in the imperative sentence, the subject is still you.
Kelly, wash the dishes before watching television.
This really means:
Kelly, (you) wash the dishes before watching television.
The subject, again, is you.
145
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

FINDING A SUBJECT in a question can be tricky, too, because the
subject often follows the verb in this sentence form. The easiest way
to find the subject is to turn the question into a statement, which
brings the subject before the verb. Heres an example.
What time does Nicholas go to swim practice on Thursdays?
Now, change the question into a statement and identify the verb.
Nicholas goes to swim practice on Thursdays at
Ask yourself, Who goes? Nicholas is the subject.
Last, another tricky situation is finding subjects in sentences that start

with the words here and there. Lets look at this sentence:
There are no monsters in your closet or under your bed.
The verb is are, but if you try to ask yourself, Who or what . . . are?, it
appears as though there is the answer (there are). This is incorrect, though,
because here and there are adverbs, not nouns. So, you have to rearrange the
sentence to move or eliminate the word there.
No monsters are in your closet or under your bed.
Now, you can easily tell that the subject is monsters.
Sentence Structure
PRACTICE LAP
Underline the simple subject once and underline the predicate twice in the
following sentences. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
1.
Rosemary was glad to see her best friend, Joanne.
2.
Here is your new pencil case that I bought this afternoon.
3.
Molly, please bring this note to the office.
4.
Is there any ice cream in the freezer?
5.
His favorite place to relax was in the hammock.
6.
My bicycle is in the garage.
7.
Potato chips taste great with or without dip.
8.
Jerry, my uncle, is taller than Jerome.
9.
Does Elisabeth get her drivers permit next month?
10.
I should have bought that video game when I had the chance.
TYPES OF SENTENCES
In the last chapter, you learned that an independent clause is a simple sentence, meaning that a simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word)
and a simple predicate (one word), as follows.
Shane runs.
Dennis tosses.
Judy jumps.
147

Thankfully, you dont have to limit your sentence writing to just two
wordswhich leads to compound subjects and predicates. Here, multiple
subjects or verbs appear in one complete thought, or sentence.
Shane, Dennis, and Judy enjoy running, hiding, and jumping.
This sentence structure allows you to liven up your writing a bit, but its
still rather limiting. So you can get more complex in your sentence structure
by joining two complete sentences together with a conjunction, a sentence
structure called a compound sentence. Here, you have two independent
clauses joined by a semicolon or by words like and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and
so. For instance:
Shane and Dennis run and hide, but Judy jumps rope.
Or, lets kick it up a notch.
Shane and Dennis ran around and tossed a football in the yard; Judy
jumped rope in the driveway.
Notice how just adding one or two prepositional phrases adds more detail to
the sentence, making it more interesting to read. Lets tweak it a bit more.
Shane and Dennis, who are best friends, run around the yard and
toss a football, but Judy jumps rope with her sister at the top of the
driveway.
An adjective clause was added (who are best friends) to give more information about the boys, and several phrases were added to give more information about what Judy was doing. Notice that the subjects (Shane, Dennis, and
Judy) stay the same, as do the verbs (run, toss, and jump) in some form.
Also, there are the complex sentences, which really arent so complex.
They are made up of at least one independent clause and one subordinate
(dependent) clause. Here is an example of a complex sentence.
Sentence Structure
Jumping rope with her sister at the top of the driveway [subordinate clause], Judy watched Shane run and tackle his friend Dennis
after Shane tossed the football [independent clause].
Last, here is an example of a compound-complex sentence, which has
at least two independent clauses and one subordinate clause.
Jumping rope in her driveway [subordinate clause], Judy pretended
not to be interested in Shane tossing the football with Dennis
[independent clause], but she couldnt help but laugh out loud
when he almost ran into a tree [independent clause].
Starting a sentence off with a participle (an -ing verb being used as an adjective) is a great way to bring action into the sentence right away and draw your
reader into your writing. Notice that the subjects (Shane, Dennis, and Judy)
are the same, as are the verbs (run, toss, and jump) in some form or other. One
more verb was added for detail; do you know what it is?
PRACTICE LAP
Can you identify the simple, compound, and complex sentences? For extra
practice, underline the subject once and underline the predicate twice.
11.
Yesterday, Brittany arrived at school late.

(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
12.
Somehow, her alarm clock time was mysteriously reset to one hour
behind.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
149

13.
Brittany suspects her brother Luke.

(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
14.
His trick wasnt very nice of him, but she felt that she kind of deserved it.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
15.
Yesterday afternoon, she and her friends were being loud and rather
obnoxious.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
16.
Luke was studying for his midterm exams for two of his hardest classes,
chemistry and geometry, and he was writing a term paper for his
French class.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
17.
After he asked Brittany to quiet down three times, he finally gave up and
went to the library to study.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
18.
Brittany just ignored Luke, acting as though he wasnt even there.

(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
Sentence Structure
19.
Brittany should have suggested they go somewhere else to hang out, but
unfortunately, she didnt do that.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
20.
Now she must stay after school to get the classwork and notes she
missed.
(a) simple
(b) compound
(c) complex
FRAGMENTS
Fragments are incomplete sentences.
She runs faster than anyone on the team. Even faster than you.
Better:
She runs faster than anyone on the team, even faster than you.
Or they can be phrases and clause that are punctuated like a sentence.
Tad walked to the store. To pick up a gallon of milk for his mother.
Better:
Tad walked to the store to pick up a gallon of milk for his mother.
As a student, you are forever told to write in complete sentences; fragments are forbidden.
So, is it ever okay to use fragments in your writing? Well, yes and no. (Did
you notice the fragment here?) Formal writing should rarely, if ever, contain
fragments, and in general, if theyre used in informal writing, they should
be used sparingly. Sometimes, they can be used intentionally in your writing for special effect. For instance:
151

Thomas looked at the clock. Three hours. Not so long. Only three
hours before he was able to walk through the doors to freedom from
bells, homework, and studying. Summer vacation was almost here,
and Thomas was reeling with anticipation.
You also find fragments when you write bulleted lists, like this one.
My Summer To-Do List
Sleep in
Hang out with friends
Play video games, tennis, and bike
Read a book . . . maybe
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

BECAUSE OF HEAVY space restrictions and costly advertising, the
newspaper is the perfect place to find fragmentsjust look at headlines, captions, titles, and ads! Because the fragments have to be
concise, they tend to be catchy and easy to rememberthe perfect
combination for that kind of medium.
RUN-ON SENTENCES
When I write quickly I sometimes forget to put punctuation where I should
I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense at all Im sure this
drives my teachers crazy!
This fused sentence is one kind of run-on. In a run-on sentence, two or
more complete sentences are merged together without the necessary
punctuation marks. The preceding example can be written in a number of
ways. Lets see how.
Sentence Structure
With periods inserted:

When I write quickly, I sometimes forget to put punctuation where
I should. I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all. Im sure this drives my teachers crazy!
With a semicolon inserted:
I should; I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all. Im sure this drives my teachers crazy!
With a comma and a conjunction (aand, or, but, for, nor, yet, so)
inserted:
I should, so I end up having one long sentence that makes little
sense at all. Im sure this drives my teachers crazy!
Another type of run-on sentence is called a comma splice. Here, a comma
is used in place of end punctuation or a conjunction. For instance:
I should, I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all.
If the comma is simply removed, you would still wind up with a run-on
sentence. In order to fix the error altogether, you would need to exchange
the comma with an appropriate conjunction.
I should, so I end up having one long sentence that makes little
sense at all.
Or with another punctuation mark:
I should; I end up having one long sentence that makes little sense
at all.
153

One final way to fix a fused sentence, or comma splice, is to reword the
sentences in order to make a complex sentence (one independent clause
with at least one subordinate clause). For instance:
When I write quickly [subordinate clause], I sometimes forget to put
punctuation where I should [independent clause], leaving me with
one long sentence that makes little sense at all [subordinate clause].
PRACTICE LAP
Rewrite each sentence to make corrections. Then, check your answers at the
end of the chapter.
21.
This is an interesting movie I think Ill watch it again.
22.
Whats your name where do you live?
23.
The gray squirrel hopped along the top of the fence, down the post.
24.
My brother would not open the door when I knocked it made me angry
so I left.
25.
Halfway to our destination two of our tires went flat we had to get
towed.
Sentence Structure
ANSWERS
Reminder: (1) Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, called a predicate. The subject of a sentence is who or what the sentence is about; (2) the
predicate, or verb, moves the sentence along and tells you what the subject
is doing or what condition the subject is in.
1. Rosemary was glad to see her best friend, Joanne.
2. Here is your new pencil case that I bought this afternoon.
3. Molly, (you) please bring this note to the office.
4. Is there any ice cream in the freezer?
5. His favorite place to relax was in the hammock.
6. My bicycle is in the garage.
7. Potato chips taste great with or without dip.
8. Jerry, my uncle, is taller than Jerome.
9. Does Elisabeth get her drivers permit next month?
10. I should have bought that video game when I had the chance.
Reminder: (1) A simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word) and
a simple predicate (one word); (2) a compound sentence is two complete
sentences joined together with a conjunction; (3) a complex sentence is
made up of at least one independent clause and one subordinate (dependent) clause.
11. Yesterday, Brittany arrived at school late.
(a) simple
12. Somehow, her alarm clock time was mysteriously reset to one hour
behind.
(a) simple
13. Brittany suspects her brother Luke.
(a) simple
14. His trick wasnt very nice of him, but she felt that she kind of deserved
it.
(d) compound
15. Yesterday afternoon, she and her friends were being loud and rather
obnoxious.
(c) simple
155

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Luke was studying for his midterm exams for two of his hardest classes,
chemistry and geometry, and he was writing a term paper for his French
class.
(a) compound
After he asked Brittany to quiet down three times, he finally gave up and
went to the library to study.
(c) complex
Brittany just ignored Luke, and she acted as though he wasnt even there.
(c) compound
Brittany should have suggested they go somewhere else to hang out, but
unfortunately, she didnt do that.
(b) compound
Now she must stay after school and get the classwork and notes she
missed.
(a) simple
Reminder: (1) One kind of run-on sentence has two or more complete
sentences merged together without any punctuation mark; (2) another
type of run-on sentence has a comma used in place of end punctuation
or a conjunction.
21. This is an interesting movie; I think Ill watch it again.
This is an interesting movie. I think Ill watch it again.
22. Whats your name? Where do you live?
23. The gray squirrel hopped along the top of the fence and down the post.
24. My brother would not open the door when I knocked; it made me
angry, so I left.
25. Halfway to our destination, two of our tires went flat; we had to get
towed.
9
Paragraphs
As Easy as Announce-Build-Close
aragraphs are groups of sentences centered on a

focused topic. The writer of a good paragraph makes sure to include
a topic sentence, descriptive detail sentences, proper organization, and a central focus. When you have to write only one paragraph, you should also
include a summary sentence at the end that restates or reviews the main idea,
using different words. Lets look at these components more closely.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE

Every paragraph must identify its topic or purpose for the reader. This is one
of its most important components. Although the topic or purpose doesnt
have to be found in the paragraphs first sentence, it usually is. However, you
could find it in the middle or even the end of a paragraph.
Spelunking, or cave exploring, is a sport with many avid followers. Spelunkers, as the cave explorers are called, have formed
clubs worldwide to promote and support the unusual, and sometimes extreme, sport.
PRACTICE LAP
For each of the following topics, write a topic sentence you could put in a paragraph. Then, check out some sample sentences at the end of the chapter.
1.
What you may be doing ten years from now
2.
Making a root beer float
3.
A review of the last movie you saw with a friend
4.
A trip to the Grand Canyon
5.
Your favorite music
DETAIL SENTENCES
Detail sentences provide support and elaborate on the ideas in your paragraph. With these sentences, you can flesh out your topic with vivid details
and explain or clarify your paragraphs main idea by including facts or proof.
Detail sentences that dont fulfill this purpose should be eliminated because
they distract the reader from your main point.
Once done out of necessity for shelter or under the guise of scientific study, cave exploring has now been taken to an entirely new
level of safety and expertise. For the sports athletes, from
novice to expert alike, stamina and strength are a necessity.
Spelunking requires the cave explorer to be a good crawler and
climber, be able to negotiate well in small openings and
crevices, and traverse safely in vertical spaces with the use of
ropes. In recent decades, spelunking equipment and protective
gear have been introduced and improved in light of its growing popularity.
Paragraphs
PRACTICE LAP
Write two possible detail sentences for the following topics. Then, check out
some sample sentences at the end of the chapter.
6.
Pizza is more nutritious than you think.
7.
Is there really a bigfoot?
8.
Making your bed is easy.
9.
Riding in the space shuttle
10.
Limiting phone use among teens
PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION
The order of your sentences in your paragraph is important. Your readers expect
your ideas to be presented a logical, linear (A-B-C) order. If your ideas dont flow
properly, your reader will get lost in the confusion. Think of it this way: If you were
going to write a paragraph explaining how to make a peanut-butter-and-banana
sandwich, you would not begin by writing Throw away the banana peel.
PRACTICE LAP: UNITY OF THE PARAGRAPH

Identify any sentences that interfere with the unity of the following paragraph and eliminate them. You may reorder the sentences where necessary.
Then, compare your paragraph to the one at the end of the chapter.
I woke up in my cozy wooden cabin at sunrise, hearing the birds
chirping outside in the trees. The water glimmered with a deep blue
color. I did not have to hunt, gather firewood, or pick up in the
cabin. Because nobody lived within ten miles of me, the lake was
completely clear and unpolluted. I trotted down the 50 yards to the
shoreline, grabbing my raft on the way there. I have assigned things
to do for every day of the week so I can keep up with my daily neces-
159

sities, and today was a work-free day for me. I arose excitedly
because I knew today was my kick-back day of the week.
PARAGRAPH FOCUS
Besides order, your paragraph must have focus and symmetry. Like a balance
scale you use in school, your topic sentence is the calibrator, and the trays on
either side of it hold your supporting details. If your paragraph is about the leafand-shoot diet of the three-toed sloth, and your sentences remain on topic,
the scale will remain balanced because you are focused. If, however, you begin
elaborating on the sloths innate ability to suspend itself motionless on a single branch for 20 hours, then youve strayed off topic, and your balance scale
begins to tip.
PRACTICE LAP: FOCUS OF THE PARAGRAPH

Revise the following paragraph to amend mistakes that interfere with its
focus. If necessary, you may reorder the sentences. Then, compare your paragraph to the one at the end of the chapter.
I started off my morning by removing the bones of a fresh sea bass
I had caught the day before with my homemade wooden knife.
When I finished, I used a large, flat stone from the stockpile I kept
indoors, set it over my fireplace, and began frying my fish. By the
time I had finished, my mind was made up. When I had first started
living in the cabin, it took me nearly 20 minutes to start a fire on
my own with two sticks. I always loved working with wood in
shop class in school when I was younger, and I had gotten better
at it with years of practice. Now that I have been doing it for nearly
five years, starting a fire takes less than ten seconds. As I sat at the
wooden table, thoroughly enjoying my fresh fish, I began thinking
about what I wanted to do with my free day.
Paragraphs
THE FIVE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY

What if you need to write more than one paragraph? Then what? In school, you
are usually expected to write essays upward of five paragraphs in length. You
write book reports, research reports, and reaction papers for classes and are
expected to write persuasive and narrative essays on standardized tests. The format for the five-paragraph essay is, for the most part, fixed: an opening paragraph (to Announce your topic), three body paragraphs (to Build your topic),
and a concluding paragraph (to Close your topic). This is the common A-B-BB-C pattern. For the most part, your paragraph components remain the
same, with a few exceptions. Lets examine this more closely.
The Opening Paragraph
Like a topic sentence, the opening paragraph of an essay is going to inform

your reader of the essays main idea. It should also include, however, an interesting opening sentence to hook your readers attention, and a brief (nondetailed) sketch of your essays three subtopics, and end with a value
statement (a sentence that conveys yourthe writersstance on the topic)
or a transition into the next paragraph.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

THERE ARE MANY interesting ways to begin your essay so your
readers bite and continue to read your work. Throw away the ineffective In this essay, I am going to tell you about . . . This is not only
boring, but also poor writing. Here are just a few ways you can kick
things up a notch.
A question: What has three toes, hangs out on a limb all day, and
grows algae on its fur?
Three adjectives: Slow, sleepy, stationary. The three-toed sloth lives
an almost motionless life high in the canopy of the rainforest.
161
Three gerunds: Hanging, sleeping, eating. Suspended for up to 20

hours a day on one branch, the male three-toed sloth is known to
inhabit only one tree for its entire life.
Onomotopoeia: Ay-eee! The shrill whistle of the three-toed sloth
sounds from high above in the rainforest canopy.
PRACTICE LAP
For each of the following topics, write a hook that will make your readers want
to read more. Then, check out some sample sentences at the end of the chapter.
11.
Ive invented a robot!
12.
I rubbed the lamp and have been granted three wishes.
13.
Did you vote in the last election?
14.
Babysitting tips for newbies
15.
Do you dread giving presentations as much as I do?
Build Paragraphs
Your three build paragraphs are meant to elaborate on your essays main idea,
each touching upon one of the three subtopics that support your main
topic. Why three? Because three subtopics should provide enough support
to give the reader a full picture of your topic or to persuade the reader to your
point of view. Besides, after your opening and closing paragraphs, the fiveparagraph essay leaves room for only three more paragraphs. Each of those
paragraphs will explain the three subtopics you introduced in your opening
paragraph, one paragraph at a time. And just like a single-paragraph essay,
each of your build paragraphs will have a topic sentence to inform your
reader about the specific subtopic that paragraph will elaborate on.
Paragraphs
To guide your reader along and provide fluidity to your writing, you need
to include transitional words and phrases in your paragraph. These cue
words help your reader follow movement and time, and create connections
between your thoughts, sentences, and paragraphs.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

HERE ARE SOME common transitional words and phrases:
Sequence
first, next, last, additionally, afterward, further, furthermore, in addition, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, overall
Concession
admittedly, although, certainly, naturally, no doubt, surely, undoubtedly
Example
for instance, for example, for one thing, clearly, by all means, in other
words, of course, such as, thus, this can be seen, to illustrate
Cause/Effect
accordingly, consequently, as a result, due to, because, because of,
for that reason, hence, therefore, since, so, then, thus, to this end,
with this in mind
Similarity
also, and, as well as, besides, likewise, moreover, similarly, too
Summary
all in all, in conclusion, to conclude, in other words, in summary, to
summarize, on the whole, therefore
Time
after, while, when, before, after, afterward, later, at last, at the same
time, initially, immediately, once upon a time, in the future, tomorrow,
thereafter, from now on, whenever, until, until now, until then
163
PRACTICE LAP
Read the following sentences and insert transitional words or phrases where
appropriate. Then, check your answers at the end of the chapter.
16.
I started off my morning by removing the bones of a

fresh sea bass with my homemade wooden knife.
I
used a large, flat stone from the stockpile I kept indoors, set it over my
fire, and waited for it to get hot.
I began frying my fish.
17.
when I started living in the cabin, it took me nearly 20

minutes to start a fire on my own with flint and sticks.
I have been doing it for nearly five years, and starting a fire takes less
than ten seconds.
18.
I sat at the wooden table thoroughly enjoying my

fresh fish, I began thinking about what I wanted to do with my free day.
I had finished my fish, I had decided what I wanted to.
The Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph should never introduce new information (which

will leave your reader confused), but should summarize in a few sentences,
what you have written abouta recap. Begin your concluding paragraph
with one of the summary words from the Fuel for Thought, and review your
subtopics, using different words. Finally, end with a value statement that is
along the same lines as the one in your opening paragraph (again, worded
differently). If you do your job well, you will have provided your reader with
a sense of satisfaction at the conclusion.
Paragraphs
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

IF A WELL-WRITTEN essay could be likened to a painting, it would
be like Michelangelos fresco paintings: every word a stroke of paint
elaborating the scene it is depicting, the colors and shading working
together to form a balanced, beautiful picture. On the other hand, an
unbalanced, choppy essay could be likened to Picassos Cubist
paintings, with blocks of colors and distorted faces that have noses
and ears placed where chins and foreheads should be.
PRACTICE LAP: A SUCCESSFUL CONCLUSION

Read the following paragraph and try to identify what would keep this conclusion from being successful. Then, check your answers at the end of the
chapter.
I really did love living in the wilderness with nature and animals
around me. I was at peace with no one to bother me. That day, I had
continued working on a large bear sculpture that I had started the
week before. I am, however, glad to be back home now after many
years. A lot has changed, and it will take some getting used to. Its
nice, though, to have people to talk to, instead of just keeping
everything to myself. When I was younger, I always loved working
with wood in shop class in school, and I had gotten good at it with
years of practice. I could make all kinds of sculptures, including the
ones I had already done over the years such as a dog, a swan, and
a squirrel. All in all, I am sure I will have moments where Ill miss
living in the wilderness, but it was definitely time for a change.
165
ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What you may be doing ten years from now

(1) Life at 25 is looking better every day now that my career as a
graphic advertiser has taken off.
(2) Im a millionaire at age 20, and its a lot harder than I thought
it would be.
Making a root beer float
(1) This old-fashioned treat has not lost its popularity and is as
easy to make today as it was 50 years ago.
(2) With a tall glass, a few scoops of vanilla ice cream, and a can of
your favorite root beer, you can make a delicious treat.
A review of the last movie you saw with a friend
(1) Movies these days just arent worth the ten dollars you pay.
(2) I can always pick an Academy Award winner, and this one has
it in the bag.
A trip to the Grand Canyon
(1) Its no wonder that the Grand Canyon is sometimes called the
Eighth Wonder of the World.
(2) Camping at the bottom of the Grand Canyon is truly an experience
of a lifetime.
Your favorite music
(1) If Beethoven could hear this music, hed turn over in his grave
for sure.
(2) Classical music transcends centuries and will forever.
Pizza is more nutritious than you think.
(1) Not only can you put fresh vegetables on it, but also, its baked,
not fried.
(2) It contains all your food groups: grains, dairy, fruits and vegetables,
and sometimes meat.
Is there really a bigfoot?
(1) Sightings of Sasquatch date back to the 1920s.
(2) Most scientists consider bigfoot to be a legend that remains
unproven.
Paragraphs
Making your bed is easy.

(1) Put the tagged side of your pillow into the pocket of the pillowcase.
(2) Tucking the ends of your sheet in tightly will prevent them
from being pulled out.
9. Riding in the space shuttle
(1) You are one of up to seven astronauts aboard.
(2) The shuttle launches vertically but lands horizontally.
10. Limiting phone use among teens
(1) Cellular phone bills are costly.
(2) Overuse of cellular phones can lead to constant distraction
from homework and studies.
8.
PRACTICE LAP: UNITY OF THE PARAGRAPH

I woke up in my cozy wooden cabin at sunrise, hearing the birds chirping outside in the trees. I arose excitedly because I knew today was
my kick-back day of the week. I did not have to hunt, gather firewood,
or pick up in the cabin. I trotted down the 50 yards to the shoreline,
grabbing my raft on the way there. I have assigned things to do for every
day of the week so I can keep up with my daily necessities, and today
was a work-free day for me.
Eliminate: The water glimmered with a deep blue color. Because
nobody lived within ten miles of me, the lake was completely clear and
unpolluted.
PRACTICE LAP: FOCUS OF THE PARAGRAPH

I started off my morning by removing the bones of a fresh sea bass with
my homemade wooden knife. When I finished, I used a large, flat
stone from the stockpile I kept indoors, set it over my fireplace, and
began frying my fish. When I had first started living in the cabin, it took
me nearly 20 minutes to start a fire on my own with two sticks. I always
loved working with wood in shop class in school when I was younger,
and I had gotten better at it with years of practice. Now that I have been
doing it for nearly five years, starting a fire takes less than ten seconds.
As I sat at the wooden table, thoroughly enjoying my fresh fish, I began
167
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
thinking about what I wanted to do with my free day. By the time I had
finished, my mind was made up.
Eliminate: I had caught the day before
Ive invented a robot!
Tired of cleaning your room, doing wash, taking the dog for a walk,
and taking out the trash?
I rubbed the lamp and have been granted three wishes.
It was the genie that made me do it.
Did you vote in the last election?
I know what youre thinking: My vote doesnt count. Well, youre
wrong; it does!
Babysitting tips for newbies
I can change a diaper in 23 seconds flat.
Do you dread giving presentations as much as I do?
Ive tried everything from imagining the audience in their birthday
suits to telling ridiculously hideous jokes to my audiencebut its
just not working.
First, I started off my morning by removing the bones of a fresh sea bass
with my homemade wooden knife. Then, I used a large, flat stone from
the stockpile I kept indoors, set it over my fire, and waited for it to get
hot. Finally, I began frying my fish.
Initially, when I started living in the cabin, it took me nearly 20 minutes
to start a fire on my own with flint and sticks. Now I have been doing it
for nearly five years, and starting a fire takes less than ten seconds.
As I sat at the wooden table thoroughly enjoying my fresh fish, I began
thinking about what I wanted to do with my free day. By the time I had
finished my fish, I had decided what I wanted to.
Paragraphs
PRACTICE LAP: A SUCCESSFUL CONCLUSION

I really did love living in the wilderness with nature and animals around
me. I was at peace with no one to bother me. That day, I had continued working on a large bear sculpture that I had started the week
before. I am, however, glad to be back home now after many years. A
lot has changed, and it will take some getting used to. Its nice, though,
to have people to talk to, instead of just keeping everything to myself.
When I was younger, I always loved working with wood in shop
class in school, and I had gotten good at it with years of practice. I
could make all kinds of sculptures, including the ones I had already
done over the years such as a dog, a swan, and a squirrel. All in all,
I am sure I will have moments where Ill miss living in the wilderness,
but it was definitely time for a change.
169
10
Tricky Words
Bee a Wear of Why Lee Words
HOMONYMS
Now that you understand basic spelling rules, lets take the correct usage of
words one step further. It is not unusual to come across words that are spelled
differently and have dissimilar meanings, but are pronounced exactly the
same. Such words are called homonyms. The Greek words homo, meaning
the same, and onyma, meaning name, make up the word homonym. The
following sample paragraph is full of homonyms. Can you tell what this paragraph is trying to say?
Ewe mite knot awl weighs sea yore riding miss takes write a weigh,
sew ewe halve two Czech care fully. Men knee mite yews tulles, like
ay computer, two tri two fined and altar thee mist aches, butt sum
thymes it seas write thru them.
Likewise, you will frequently encounter words that are spelled exactly the
same way, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called
homographs, from the Greek words homo and graph, which means same
writing. So, not only being able to spell a word to write it correctlybut
knowing which correctly spelled word to use and how to pronounce itis
essential, as well!
Following are some familiar English homonyms and homographs.

Homonyms
ad/add
The ad in the newspaper for the jacket was colorful.

Can you add the tip into the total please?
allowed/aloud
He is allowed to cross the street alone now.

You should read your spelling words aloud daily.
aunt/ant
Aunt Jean collected coins.

The ant carried the crumb up the tree.
ate/eight
He ate six hot dogs for lunch.

The basketball player was almost eight feet tall.
bear/bare
The brown bear hibernated all winter.

Charlotte can ride her horse bareback.
blue/blew
The house with blue shutters is mine.

He blew the horn to warn the swimmers.
break/brake
If you break the dish, Mom will be angry.

Apply the brake gently when stopping.
by/buy
I live by the ocean.

She must buy milk and bread at the store.
cent/sent/scent
I received only one cent change after my purchase.

He sent roses to his sweetheart for Valentines Day.
The heavy scent of her perfume was overwhelming.
chews/choose
Be careful, his dog chews on shoes.

He will choose to attend either Rutgers or Drew University.
colonel/kernel
My uncle is a colonel in the army.

I found a kernel of popcorn on the floor by the chair.
deer/dear
There are many deer in the woods behind the school.

My dear friend Alice came to visit me.
do/dew/due
I do not like licorice.

The morning dew lightly covered the grass.
My library book was due yesterday.
ewe/you/yew
The ewe stayed close to her lamb all the time.

Have you seen the Liberty Bell?
The yew, a small evergreen, is found on almost all continents.
eye/I
Im not crying; I think I have something in my eye.

I am going out tonight.
Tricky Words
PRACTICE LAP
Can you find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences? Check
1.
Dad woke up in such a sour mood this morning that Mom called him a bare.
2.
With so many different cents to chews from, Chloe will be in the perfume store for hours!
3.
Henry, ate, is too years older than Sue.
4.
Due yew see the dear over buy Ant Jeans new blew car?
5.
If ewe brake the toy, you wont be aloud to play anymore.
flew/flu/flue
They flew to the Caribbean Islands for spring break.

Unfortunately, Jesse caught the flu and is in bed.
The chimney sweeper cleaned the flue well.
flour/flower
Use flour to make the gravy thick.

The flower I chose for her corsage was a yellow rose.
for/fore/four
Let me hold the door for you.

She saw the golf ball headed toward the crowd and shouted
Fore!
We stayed up until four in the morning.
grate/great
Mom asked me to grate the cheese for the salad.

You did such a great job on that solo.
hell/heal/heel
Hell make it if he tries hard enough.

Your scratched elbow should heal quickly with the medicine.
My heel is bruised from jumping off the stair.
here/hear
Here is your homework.

Can you hear me?
him/hymn
Help him finish his chores.

The choir sang a traditional hymn.
hole/whole
The hole in his sock got bigger.

Two halves make a whole.
hour/our
Within the next hour, we will leave.

Our backyards are connected.
173

Ill/aisle/isle
Ill write you soon.

The bride walked down the aisle with her father at her side.
The small isle in the gulf was a popular vacation spot.
knew/new
I knew we shouldnt have gone this far north.

The new student made friends quickly.
knot/not
The girl tied a knot in her shoestring.

You should not stay too late.
know/no
Do you know how to spell his name?

No, I do not.
PRACTICE LAP
6.
After recovering from the flew, Romie new she would knot be able to
run for a while.
7.
Xavier was sew hungry that he eight the hole pair quickly.
8.
Hour family drove for over an our two get too the flour show at City Hall.
9.
Aisle be walking down the isle with my father at hour knew church.
10.
Im knot sure heal hell fast enough to be able two travel to the aisle.
meet/meat
My swim meet was delayed.

Vegetarians dont eat meat.
need/kneed/knead
I need a softer pillow.

Michael got kneed in the leg by his opponent.
After you knead the bread dough, let it rise in a bowl.
one/won
Harry spent one hour picking out a CD.

Merlandia won the school raffle.
pair/pear
This pair of pants is too small.

She likes to eat a pear with her lunch.
peace/piece
It was no surprise that she said all she wanted was world peace.
Can I have a piece of pie?
Tricky Words
principal/principle
Mr. Kostula is the school principal.

He is a man of principle.
rain/rein/reign
The weather forecast is calling for rain.

The cowboy held on to the rein as his horse galloped.
Queen Elizabeths reign over England lasted 45 years.
real/reel
Youre being a real pain!

Reel that fish in so we can go eat!
right/write/rite
Turn right at the intersection of Eyland and Hillside Avenues.

James has to write a research report on King Tut.
The tribe celebrated the boys rite of passage to manhood.
sail/sale
Columbus set sail for the Americas in 1492.

The sale of game systems increases 40% each year.
scene/seen
The scene from the top of the Grand Canyon is breathtaking.

Have you seen a tornado before?
so/sew
That paper cut hurt so much.

Will you teach me how to sew my dress?
stationary/stationery
Guards at Buckingham Palace stand stationary for hours at a time.

Monogrammed stationery is an old-fashioned tradition.
PRACTICE LAP
11.
Unfortunately, we cannot sale do two to much rein.
12.
The seen too the write was of a patient principle standing stationery
wading to meat his grate ant.
13.
Class, please right your spelling words for times each four homework
over spring brake.
14.
The women stood rite hear in the reign waiting four the annual meet
sail to begin.
15.
It seams as though the king rained with much principal and rite threw
out his rein.
175

there/their/theyre
There is a spider on the wall.

Their favorite restaurant is Merandinos.
Theyre going to play touch football at the park.
threw/through/thru
Morgan accidentally threw the Frisbee over the fence.

Sarah went through the entire school year without an absence.
You can pick up your order at the drive-thru window ahead.
thyme/time
The recipe calls for thyme and sage.

What time is it?
to/too/two
To try something and fail is better than not trying at all.

I ate too much ice cream and got a stomachache.
The two kitties romped and played happily.
wading/waiting
Wading through the crowd made her nervous.

Ive been waiting for that movie sequel!
wood/would
Chopping and stacking wood is a tough chore.

Would you mind helping me?
which/witch
I cant decide which I like better, grape or orange.

Dorothy must outsmart the bad witch in The Wizard of Oz.
weather/whether
Sometimes inclement weather causes schools to close.

Whether or not you like it, youre going to have to decide.
whose/whos
Whose CD is this?
Whos going bowling Saturday night?
PRACTICE LAP
16.
Whose going two take the thyme too go threw all these complicated
steps?
17.
Eye cant tell weather or knot the would is reel.
18.
Witch stationary do ewe think is better, the read one or the blew won?
19.
His parents are trying to help hymn chews a knew car.
20.
Their wood halve been more peaces, but Geoff was aloud two bring
only these.
Tricky Words
Homographs
address
Be careful to address the envelope to the proper address.
bass
Before becoming a bass fisherman, he played bass in a band.
bow
Bow to the king, and hell reward you with a bow and some arrows.
close
I live close by, so I can close up the store if you like.
conflict
The reports about the conflict seem to conflict.
desert
The soldier would not desert his unit in the desert.
does
The hunter does not want to get fined for shooting any does.
dove
The dove flew high and dove toward the pile of crumbs below.
house
The house next door has cages to house up to six dogs at once.
lead
The contestant lost his lead when the lead broke on his pencil.
live
Live bait doesnt live long when the fish are hungry.
minute
The discussion about the minute changes lasted a minute.
moped
She moped all day after her moped got stolen.
number
The number of ice skaters with number toes than mine is nil.
present
I was asked to present this special present to you by an admirer.
produce
Few farms produce any produce during the cold winter months.
read
Yesterday, I read the paper; today, I will read a magazine.
record
When did the Beatles record their first record?
resume
I suggest that you resume writing your resume before its too late.
separate
Separate the eggs, and place the whites and yolks in separate bowls.
tear
My eyes began to tear when I saw him tear the check in two.
use
If you can find any use for this, feel free to use it!
well
Well out here, we get our water only from a well.
wind
Wind the kite string, then let it out slowly as the wind blows.
wound
His small wound festered, and it wound up infected.
WORD CHOICE
Sometimes when writing, you may find it difficult to choose between words
or phrases that are so similar that the only difference between them is a simple space or an extra letter. For instance, which of the following sentences
would receive high marks from your English teacher?
a. James thought he was already until he looked down and saw that he was
wearing one black sock and one blue sock.
b. James thought he was all ready until he looked down and saw that he
was wearing one black sock and one blue sock.
177

Answer: b. Why not a? Because already means previously or before now.
The sentence implies that James was all [completely] ready [prepared] to do
something until he noticed his mismatched socks.
a. Every day Charlotte helps her sister with her homework.
b. Everyday Charlotte helps her sister with her homework.
Answer: a. Why not b? Because everyday means ordinary or typical.
Choice b implies that ordinary Charlotte helps her sister, whereas choice
a implies that Charlotte helps her sister every (each) day with her homework.
Lets try one more.
a. Bill Gates maybe the richest man in the world.
b. Bill Gates may be the richest man in the world.
Answer: b. Why not a? Because maybe is an adverb meaning possibly, and
in choice a, maybe appears where a verb should be. It really says Bill Gates
possibly the richest man . . . There is no verb in the sentence. On the other
hand, may be in choice b is a verb phrase meaning could be. It really says
Bill Gates could be the richest man . . . This sentence is grammatically correct.
Following are other words that are commonly mixed up.
altogether/all together alright/all right
anyone/any one
anyway/any way
apart/a part
every one/everyone
anymore/any more
awhile/a while
sometime/some time
PRACTICE LAP
21.
My dog chases his tail everyday.
22.
May be Stuart wants to be apart of the school play this year.
Tricky Words
23.
Let me see if any one is all ready finished.
24.
Altogether, there are more than 300 million people in the United States.
25.
Some time in the near future, astronauts may fly to Jupiter.
OTHER TRICKY WORDS AND PHRASES TO CONSIDER

A or An?
Both words are adjectives called articles. When you have to use one or the other,
base your decision on the sound of the first letter of the word it will precede, not
whether the word is spelled with a vowel as the first letter. For instance:
One-way begins with the consonant sound /w/, so a is the correct article
to use; however, open door begins with the long vowel sound o , so an would
be the correct choice.
Unicorn begins with the consonant sound /y/, so a is the correct article,
whereas an would be the correct article to use before umbrella because it
begins with the short vowel sound u.
Affect or Effect?
These two words really throw people for a loop. Affect, pronounced a-FECT,
is a verb meaning to influence.
The scary accident scene affected us the rest of the way home.
When pronounced AFF-ect, it is a rarely used noun meaning emotion.
The students flat affect during the exciting train ride was baffling.
Effect, as a noun, means result or outcome.
The effect of brushing your teeth twice a day is a cavity-free mouth.
As a verb, it means to cause or to create.
As class president, she will effect a change in school policy that
allows students to attend home games for free.
179
INSIDE TRACK
YOU CAN THINK of it this way: When you affect something, you
have an effect on it.
When you successfully influence your parents position on increasing your allowance (affecting their point of view), the outcome
(effect) is more cash in your piggy bank.
Alot or A lot?
Would you write alittle or a little if you wanted to mean not much? Why,
a little, of course! Let that help you remember that you shouldnt write alot,
but a lot. In fact, alot isnt even a word in the dictionary!
Among or Between?
When you are referring to three or more people or things in your sentence,
use the word among.
There were several red tulips among all the daffodils and irises.
When you are referring to only two people or things in your sentence, use
between.
You may pick any chair between Marie and Harry.
FUEL FOR THOUGHT

YOU MAY SAY between when you are looking at similarities and differences between any number or people and things.
We were asked to research the similarities and differences
between trumpets, cornets, and bugles.
Tricky Words
Can or May?
How many times has your teacher replied, Im sure youre capable of going,
or I dont know, can you? after you ask if you can go to your locker, get a
drink, or go to the bathroom? Too many, right? Why do they always say that?
Heres why.
Can means having the ability. When you say, Can I . . .? youre really
asking if you have the ability of going or doing what you asked.
May means having permission to do something. Permission is what
you really want from your teacher, not his or her assurance of your being able
to walk, drink, or whatever.
Except or Accept?
By virtue of the fact that these two words sound so alike, their misuse is common. Except means excluding or unless, and accept means to approve,
agree, or willingly receive.
Except for anchovies, I will accept almost anything on my pizza.
INSIDE TRACK
CONFUSED ABOUT WHETHER to use except or accept? Remember, when youre agreeing to something, youre cc-eeing eye to eye with
someone. When making exceptions, youre x-cluding something.
Good or Well?
The adjective good is used to describe a person, place, or thing (a noun).

Strawberry ice cream tastes good.
Well, on the other hand, is an adverb that describes something being done
(a verb).
The choir sang well in the practice today.
181

Have or Of?
Of all the mistakes students make in writing, confusing these two words is
one of the most common. Perhaps you have written this once or twice: I
should of gone, I could of had that, I would of done it if . . .
What you really meant is I should have gone, I could have had that, I would
have done it if . . .
Sit or Set?
When you tell your dog to sit, you want him to sit down. When you set the
table, you are placing plates, forks, glasses, on the table.
When you put something on your desk, youre not sitting it on the desk,
youre setting it. When your mom put you in time-out, she may have made
you sit in the corner, not set in it.
Than or Then?
When comparing two pairs of jeans at the store, youre looking for some features you like more than others. When making a sandwich, first you spread
the peanut butter, then you put on the jelly.
Who or Whom?
Although whom is slowly making its way out of usage, it is still important to
know when to use it and when not to. One quick way to know is to replace
the words who and whom with he and him. When he is the correct choice, use
who. When him is the correct choice, use whom. For instance:
Who/whom owns that soccer ball?
When you place he and him in a reply, you get:
a. He owns the soccer ball.
and
b. Him owns the soccer ball.
Tricky Words
Which reply sounds correct? He owns the soccer ball does, so you would use
the word who.
Lets try another.
My uncle, who/whom I havent seen in years, is coming for a visit.
If you replace he and him in the clause, you get:
a. I havent seen he in years.
and
b. I havent seen him in years.
Which reply sounds correct? I havent seen him in years does, so you would
use the word whom.
My uncle, whom I havent seen in years, is coming for a visit.
PRACTICE LAP
26.
Every one should know about the negative affects of smoking.
27.
I should of handed my paper in earlier.
28.
We split the pepperoni pizza between the three of us.
29.
I except your apology. Thank you.
30.
Maddie draws good, but sings better.
183
ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Dad woke up in such a sour mood this morning that Mom called him
a bear.
With so many different scents to choose from, Chloe will be in the perfume store for hours!
Henry, eight, is two years older than Sue.
Do you see the deer over by Aunt Jeans new blue car?
If you break the toy, you wont be allowed to play anymore.
After recovering from the flu, Romie knew she would not be able to run
for a while.
Xavier was so hungry that he ate the whole pear quickly.
Our family drove for over an hour to get to the flower show at City Hall.
Ill be walking down the aisle with my father at our new church.
Im not sure hell heal fast enough to be able to travel to the isle.
Unfortunately, we cannot sail due to too much rain.
The scene to the right was of a patient principal standing stationary
waiting to meet his great aunt.
Class, please write your spelling words four times each for homework
over spring break.
The women stood right here in the rain waiting for the annual meat
sale to begin.
It seems as though the king reigned with much principle and right
throughout his reign.
Whos going to take the time to go through all these complicated
steps?
I cant tell whether or not the wood is real.
Which stationery do you think is better, the red one or the blue one?
His parents are trying to help him choose a new car.
There would have been more pieces, but Geoff was allowed to bring
only these.
My dog chases his tail every day.
Maybe Stuart wants to be a part of the school play this year.
Let me see if anyone is already finished.
Tricky Words
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
All together, there are more than 300 million people in the United
States.
Sometime in the near future, astronauts may fly to Jupiter.
Everyone should know about the negative effects of smoking.
I should have handed my paper in earlier.
We split the pepperoni pizza among the three of us.
I accept your apology. Thank you.
Maddie draws well, but sings better.
185
11
Posttest
ust like the pretest, the posttest contains 70 questions. It contains the same types of questions that you answered in the pretest, and
again, it should take you no longer than one hour to complete. After taking
the posttest and checking your answers against the answer key that follows,
you will see how much you have learned from the lessons in this book. For
each question you answer incorrectly, go over the answer explanation and
refer back to the chapter that discusses that particular topic. Good luck!
CAPITALIZATION
Correct the words that require proper capitalization.
1.
the cat yawned lazily.
2.
i have been awake for hours.
3.
his books usually get good reviews.
4.
delaware was the first state in the union.
5.
my grandmother sent me money for my birthday.

6.
sams neighbors dog barks at night.
7.
i read the chronicles of narnia this past summer.
8.
italian food seems to be the most popular.
9.
my, what big eyes you have, said little red riding hood.
10.
all the better to see you with, replied the big bad wolf.
PUNCTUATION
Insert proper punctuation into the following sentences.
11.
It was cold today
12.
How many people were at the dance
13.
She leisurely walked through the store
14.
Ouch that really hurt
15.
I didnt hear you clearly
16.
None of this game equipment belongs to me
17.
How was I supposed to know
18.
When the bell rang Kelly ran to the door
19.
Today is March 6 2007
20.
Drew a real estate broker is always taking phone calls
21.
Today you must wash the clothes dust vacuum make the beds and iron
Posttest
22.
After studying her flash cards Julie tried to remember the answers
23.
It was late very late so I went to bed
24.
Her ankle was swollen it was more than she could bear
25.
I missed my dentist appointment at 400 yesterday
26.
After driving all that time about six hours she still hadnt reached her
destination
27.
Please buy the following colors red white yellow blue orange pink and
green
28.
The Force played hard they deserved to win
29.
I have forgotten the combination sighed Tina
30.
Austin replied Dont worry I wrote it down in my binder
MODIFIERS
Adjectives
In each sentence, circle the adjective(s).

31.
Jennifer, your recital was outstanding.
32.
The Florida sunshine is warm and inviting.
33.
Christian was elated to finally have a work-free weekend.
34.
Fourteen girls lined up in front of the green door.
189

Adverbs
In each sentence, circle the adverb(s).

35.
Harrys best friend moved away this summer.
36.
Nathan ran hard to train for the tournament.
37.
Anthony is sometimes careless with his belongings.
38.
There are too many names on the list now.
39.
The gondola gradually climbed the steep hillside.
40.
Stacy is sometimes late for class.
In each sentence, circle the prepositional phrase(s).

41.
Place the dirty dishes in the sink, please.
42.
After the movie, do you want to get ice cream at the diner?
43.
Go down the street about six blocks and turn right at the stoplight.
Tricky Words
In each sentence, circle the tricky word(s).

44.
It seams like ewe due knot want two bee hear write now.
45.
What blew and read shirt are ewe talking about?
46.
The mane point is that hour concerns are herd.
47.
The principle will sea ewe now.
48.
We have had two much reign this thyme.
Posttest
49.
Actually, the boat sets sale early inn the mourning.
50.
The dogs tale wagged excitedly when I through the bawl to hymn.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Identify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex. Underline the
subject once and underline the predicate twice.
51.
The librarian stamped the books and placed them on the cart.
52.
Pattys research paper had a table of contents, an index, and a glossary.
53.
The group of tourists walked eagerly through the museum and admired
the paintings on the wall.
54.
Betsy Ross, the maker of the first American flag, was a hero.
55.
Paula enjoyed working with animals, a job she had dreamed about
since she was a child.
56.
Cowboys of the Wild West rode horses in rodeos, and many worked on
ranches.
57.
Jupiter has dark ringsa fact that scientists only recently discovered
that cannot be seen well.
58.
Victoria plays the trombone in the school band, and Lucas plays the
French horn.
59.
As we flew over the Atlantic Ocean, our plane encountered heavy

turbulence.
60.
Making snowmen is fun, but snowball fights are better.
191
COMBINING SENTENCES
Choppy sentences in a paragraph are unappealing. Combine the following
sentences, rewriting them when necessary, to create more informative,
interesting sentences. Although there are many possible combinations, a
sample of each question is provided for you at the end of the posttest.
61.
Julia Cooper was going to Fargo Junior High School, a new school.
It was going to be a dreadful year for her.
She had to leave all of the friends shed ever had in Phoenix, Arizona.
She had to leave behind the only home shed ever known.
62.
Her dad was George Cooper.

He worked for an international car company called Global Autos.
He had a job that was sending him and his family to North Dakota.
Julia thought that shed never be able to have good friends again.
63.
It was the morning of her first day of school at FJHS.

Julia prepared for the day ahead of her.
She was filled with trepidation and hoped for the best.
She walked into her classroom and sat in the back corner of the room.
Posttest
64.
Another girl in her class walked up to Julia and started talking to her.
She seemed very nice.
Her name was Charlotte.
65.
They sat and talked to each other until the bell rang.
Julia and Charlotte compared schedules and realized that they had
classes together almost all day.
At lunch, Charlotte introduced Julia to some of her friends.
66.
Julia thought about her old house and her old friends in Arizona.
She started to wonder if shed ever fit in or even get used to North
Dakota.
67.
When school ended, Julia took the bus home.

She went to her room, ate a snack, and did her homework until she was
called for dinner.
She smelled the delicious meal her mother had cooked.
She saw her favorite, spaghetti with meatballs.
193

68.
Another few weeks had gone by, and Julia was starting to like Fargo.
She couldnt believe the number of friends she already made.
She couldnt have been happier with the new place that they had
moved to.
69.
The next night, when her father came home, he started to loosen his
necktie.
He had an uneasy look on his face.
Julia knew that something was wrong.
She went upstairs to her room and started her homework.
But she couldnt concentrate on her work because she was worried about
her dad. Had he been laid off?
She could think of nothing else that could have gone wrong.
70.
When she sat down at the dinner table, everyone started eating.
It was quiet.
She was about to start a conversation, but her dad started to speak.
Im afraid theres been a change of plans, he said. Ben Casey, president
of the plant in Sweden, has left, and Central is putting me in his place.
Posttest
ANSWERS
Capitalization
Reminder: We capitalize (1) the first word of every sentence, (2) the first
word of a direct quotation, (3) the pronoun I and all contractions made using
the word I, (4) proper nouns, (5) proper adjectives, and (6) the first word
and all key words in titles. (To better understand capitalization, please see
Chapter 2.)
1. The cat yawned lazily.
2. I have been awake for hours.
3. His books usually get good reviews.
4. Delaware was the first state in the Union.
5. My grandmother sent me money for my birthday.
6. Sams neighbors dog barks at night.
7. I read The Chronicles of Narnia this past summer.
8. Italian food seems to be the most popular.
9. My, what big eyes you have, said Little Red Riding Hood.
10. All the better to see you with, replied the Big Bad Wolf.
Punctuation
Reminder: (1) Periods signify the end of declarative and imperative sentences; (2) question marks are used after a question; (3) exclamations signify strong feelings or emotion. (To better understand punctuation, please
see Chapter 2.)
11. It was cold today.
12. How many people were at the dance?
13. She leisurely walked through the store.
14. Ouch, that really hurt!
15. I didnt hear you clearly.
16. None of this game equipment belongs to me.
17. How was I supposed to know?
195

Reminder: Use commas (1) to separate series of three or more items or
phrases in a sentence, (2) with an introductory word or phrase, (3) before
and after a word or phrase that is meant to rename or describe a noun that
precedes it (an appositive), and (4) in dates and addresses.
18. When the bell rang, Kelly ran to the door.
19. Today is March 6, 2007.
20. Drew, a real estate broker, is always taking phone calls.
21. Today, you must wash the clothes, dust, vacuum, make the beds, and iron.
22. After studying her flash cards, Julie tried to remember the answers.
23. It was late, very late, so I went to bed.
Reminder: Use colons to (1) introduce a list, (2) introduce the subtitle of a
movie or book, or (3) separate hours from minutes when writing the time.
Use a semicolon (4) to separate two related sentences and (5) between two
complete sentences that are separated by transitional words or phrases.
24. Her ankle was swollen; it was more than she could bear.
25. I missed my dentist appointment at 4:00 yesterday.
26. After driving all that time, about six hours, she still hadnt reached her
destination.
27. Please buy the following colors: red, white, yellow, blue, orange, pink,
and green.
28. The Force played hard; they deserved to win.
Reminder: Direct quotations require the use of opening and ending quotation marks.
29. I have forgotten the combination, sighed Tina.
30. Austin replied, Dont worry, I wrote it down in my binder.
Modifiers
Adjectives
Reminder: Adjectives (1) modify only nouns; (2) answer What kind? Which
one? and How many? about the nouns they are modifying; (3) imply something belongs to someone; and (4) are sometimes proper nouns that behave
like adjectives. (To better understand adjectives, please see Chapter 5.)
31. Jennifer, your recital was outstanding.
32. The Florida sunshine is warm and inviting.
Posttest
Christian was elated to finally have a work-free weekend.

34. Fourteen girls lined up in front of the green door.
33.
Adverbs
Reminder: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and answer
Where? When? How? How much? How often? and How long? (To better understand adverbs, please see Chapter 5.)
35. Harrys best friend moved away this summer.
36. Nathan ran hard to train for the tournament.
37. Anthony is sometimes careless with his belongings.
38. There are too many names on the list now.
39. The gondola gradually climbed the steep hillside.
40. Stacy is sometimes late for class.
Reminder: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a

preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. (To better understand prepositional phrases, please see Chapters 6 and 7.)
41. Place the dirty dishes in the sink, please.
42. After the movie, do you want to get ice cream at the diner?
43. Go down the street about six blocks and turn right at the stoplight.
Tricky Words
Reminder: Words that are spelled differently and have dissimilar meanings,
but are pronounced exactly the same, are called homonyms. (To better understand tricky words, please see Chapter 10.)
44. It seems like you do not want to be here right now.
45. What blue and red shirt are you talking about?
46. The main point is that our concerns are heard.
47. The principal will see you now.
48. We have had too much rain this time.
49. Actually, the boat sets sail early in the morning.
50. The dogs tail wagged excitedly when I threw the ball to him.
197

Sentence Structure
Reminder: (1) A simple sentence must have a simple subject (one word) and
a simple predicate (one word); (2) a compound sentence is two complete
sentences together with a conjunction; (3) a complex sentence is made up
of at least one independent clause and one subordinate (dependent) clause.
(For more help with sentence structure, please see Chapter 8.)
51. The librarian stamped the books and placed them on the cart.
simple
52. Pattys research paper had a table of contents, an index, and a glossary.
simple
53. The group of tourists walked eagerly through the museum and admired
the paintings on the wall.
simple
54. Betsy Ross, the maker of the first American flag, was a hero.
simple
55. Paula enjoyed working with animals, a job she had dreamed about
since she was a child.
complex
56. Cowboys of the Wild West rode horses in rodeos, and many worked on
ranches.
compound
57. Jupiter has dark ringsa fact that scientists only recently discovered
that cannot be seen well.
complex
58. Victoria plays the trombone in the school band, and Lucas plays the
French horn.
compound
59. As we flew over the Atlantic Ocean, our plane encountered heavy
turbulence.
complex
60. Making snowmen is fun, but snowball fights are better.
compound
Posttest
Combining Sentences
(For more help with combining sentences, please see Chapters 8 and 9.)
61. Julia Cooper was going to a new schoolFargo Junior High School
and it was going to be a dreadful year. She had to leave all of the friends
shed ever had in Phoenix, Arizona, and was going to leave behind the
only home shed ever known.
Avoid choppiness by combining sentences and ideas that complement each other. Many times, sentences share the same subjects,
which means they can be fused easily.
62. Her dad, George Cooper, worked for Global Autos, an international car
company. His job was sending him and his family to North Dakota, and
Julia, crushed, thought that shed never be able to have good friends again.
We made four sentences into two by finding similarities and combining ideas. Three sentences involved Julias dad.
63. It was the morning of her first day of school at FJHS, and Julia prepared
for the day ahead of her. She was filled with trepidation but hoped for
the best as she walked into her classroom. Feeling out of place, she took
a seat in the back corner of the room.
The other sentences lacked fluidity and were dry. Notice that three
of the four sentences have Julia as the subject. Take advantage of
that and combine.
64. A girl in her class, Charlotte, walked up to Julia and started talking to her.
She seemed very nice.
The last two sentences are very choppy. All three can easily be
combined to make one interesting thought.
65. They sat and talked to each other until the bell rang. At Julias locker,
they compared schedules and realized that they had classes together
almost all day. Charlotte couldnt wait to introduce Julia to some of her
friends at lunch.
Adding a little detail for the reader (at Julias locker and Charlottes
anticipation) makes this sentence more interesting.
66. Julia thought about her old house and friends in Arizona and started
to wonder if shed ever fit in or even get used to this new place called
North Dakota.
Combining and shortening a few details (old house and friends)
does the trick.
199

When school ended, Julia took the bus home, went to her room, and did
her homework until she was called for dinner. She smelled the delicious
meal her mother had cooked; it was her favorite dinner: spaghetti with
meatballs.
She, she, she . . . yikes. Fuse ideas and subjects together.
68. Another few weeks had gone by, and Fargo was finally beginning to sink
in. Julia couldnt believe the number of friends she already made; she
hadnt felt this happy in a long time.
69. The next night, when her father came home from work, he loosened his
necktie and had an uneasy look on his face. Julia knew that something
was wrong. She went upstairs to her room and started her homework,
but she couldnt concentrate because she was worried about her dad.
Had he been laid off? She could think of nothing else that could have
gone wrong.
You can combine her dads actions easily. Leaving the next sentence
by itself adds emphasis and some apprehension for the reader.
70. It was quiet at the dinner table. To break the silence, Julia was about to
speak when her dad started. Im afraid theres been a change of plans,
he said. Ben Casey, president of the plant in Sweden, has left, and Central is putting me in his place.
You can just as easily say in one sentence what was originally said
in two. Rearranging and replacing some words improves the overall feel of the sentences.
67.
Glossary
Action verb: A verb that expresses thought or activity.
A part of speech that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives

answer What kind? Which one? How much? How many? about a noun.
Adjective:
Adverb: A part of speech that modifies a verb, an adjective, or other adverb.
Adverbs answer Where? When? How much? How many? about the verb,
adjective, or other adverb.
Antecedent: The word or words to which a specific pronoun refers.
Appositive: A word or words that describe the noun or pronoun that comes
before the appositive in the sentence.

Audience: The reader(s) of your writing. When writing, you should always
consider your audiences age, experience, and position on the topic, and
then adapt your word choice, style, and tone for your essay.
Body paragraph: Sentences that develop or explain one of the ideas stated
in the introduction.
Clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb.
Colon (:): The punctuation mark that comes before a series, a lengthy quo-
tation, or an example, or after the salutation in a business letter.

Comma (,): The punctuation mark that separates words, phrases, and items
in a series.
Comma splice: A sentence in which two sentences have been improperly
joined together by a comma.

Comparative: A form of an adjective or adverb that implies the greater degree
when compared to something else. Comparatives end with the suffix -er.
Complex sentence: A sentence that is made up of an independent clause and
subordinate (dependent) clause.

Compound-complex sentence: A sentence that is made up of more than one
independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.

A sentence that contains at least two independent
clauses with no subordinate (dependent) clauses.
Compound sentence:
Compound subjects: Two
or more subjects that share the same verb in a
sentence.
Compound word: Two or more separate words put together to create a new
word. Compound words may be joined, separate, or hyphenated.

Conclusions: The final paragraph in an essay, in which the writer restates
the main idea, summarizes the main points, and closes with a value statement to bring effective closure to the essay.
Conjunction:
A word or phrase that connects words or groups of words
together.
Dangling modifier: A word or phrase that is meant to modify a specific part
of the sentence, but has not been written next to that part, thus altering
the meaning of the sentence.
Dash (): A punctuation mark that indicates a strong pause, to emphasize
a point or set off a comment or short list within a sentence.

A word such as this, that, these, and those that is
used to replace a specific noun in a sentence.
Demonstrative pronoun:
Direct object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb.
Glossary
Direct quotation: The exact spoken or written words of a person written by
another person and enclosed in quotation marks.

Ellipsis ( . . . ): The punctuation mark that indicates that words have been
omitted, or that indicates a pause between thoughts or words.

Exclamation point (!): The punctuation mark that indicates strong emotion.
Future tense: A verb tense that implies that something hasnt happened yet,
but will.
Gerund: A verb ending with -ing that functions as a noun in a sentence. A
gerund can act as a subject, a direct object, or an object of a preposition

(OOP).
Two distinct words with their own meanings but identical
pronunciations.
Homonyms:
Hyphen (-): The punctuation mark that joins or separates numbers, letters,
syllables, and words for specific purposes.

Imperative sentence: A sentence that expresses a request or command. The
subject of any imperative sentence is always you.

Indefinite pronoun: A part of speech such as no one, anyone, anybody, or some-
body that refers to a noun, but not a specific one.

Independent clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a predi-
cate (verb) and can stand by itself as a sentence.

Infinitive: A verb written in the form of to plus the verb (e.g., to walk) that
acts as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence.

Interjection: A word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or feelings.
Introduction: The opening paragraph of an essay that hooks the reader and
introduces the main idea and subtopics that will be explored.

Irregular verb: A verb that does not use an -ed ending when written in past
tense. The past tense endings for irregular verbs do not follow any specific
pattern and need to be memorized.
Linking verb: A verb that conveys a state of being or condition and that links
a noun with either another noun or an adjective.
203

Misplaced modifier: A word or phrase that is placed too far from the noun or
verb it is modifying, thus altering or confusing the meaning of the sentence.

Modifier: A word that describes or clarifies another word. Adjectives mod-
ify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

A part of speech that names a person, place, or thing (including
ideas and feelings).
Noun:
Object of a preposition (OOP): The noun or pronoun that follows a prepo-
sitional phrase.
A group of sentences that share a common topic and focus
upon a single idea.
Paragraph:
Parentheses [( )]: The punctuation marks that set off information that is not
necessarily pertinent to the surrounding sentence or words.

Participle: A verb form that can be used as an adjective.
Past tense: A verb tense that implies something that already happened.
Period (.): The punctuation mark found at the end of a declarative sentence,
an imperative sentence, or an indirect question, or in abbreviations.

Personal pronoun: A part of speech such as I, you, me, he, him, she, her, it, they,
them, and we that refers to the speaker, the person, or thing being spoken
about, or the person or thing being spoken to.
Phrase: A
group of words that does not have a subject and verb. Phrases
can act like various parts of speech (a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or
preposition).
Predicate: The action that the subject performs in a sentence; a verb.

Preposition: A part of speech that shows the relationship of a noun or pro-
noun to another word in the sentence in terms of time and/or space.

A phrase beginning with a preposition and ending
with a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition).
Prepositional phrase:
Present tense: A verb tense that implies action happening in the present or
an action that happens constantly.
Glossary
Pronoun: A part of speech that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.
Proper noun: A specific noun that is capitalized.
Punctuation: A set of special symbols that helps convey the tone and pace
of a writers voice to the reader.

Question mark (?): The punctuation mark that appears at the end of an inter-
rogatory sentence (a question).

Quotation marks ( ): The punctuation marks that indicate the exact words
of a speaker or that convey hesitation or irony in a writers words.

A sentence in which two or more complete sentences
have been improperly punctuated and joined together.
Run-on sentence:
Semicolon (;): The punctuation mark that joins two independent clauses that
share a similar idea and are not already joined by a conjunction.

Sentence: A group of words that has a subject and predicate and expresses
a complete thought.
Sentence fragment: An incomplete thought that has been punctuated as a
complete sentence.
Simple sentence: An independent clause.
Subject-verb agreement: The rule that the subject and verb of a sentence
must agree in number and in person.

Subordinate clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb but can-
not stand alone as a complete thought; also known as a dependent clause.

Superlative: A comparative form of an adjective or adverb that implies the
greatest degree when compared to something else. Superlatives end with

the suffix -est.
Topic: The subject or main idea of an essay.
Thesis: A statement in an essay that conveys the main idea or point.
Verb: A part of speech that expresses action or the condition of the corre-
sponding noun or pronoun. Verb tense can indicate the time of the action
or condition.
205
Notes
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Grammar

Copyright 2007 LearningExpress, LLC.

ur earliest ancestors invented language out of

viii Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 2: CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATIONFIRST

CHAPTER 3: SPELLINGSPELL WELL . . . WITH A FEW EXCEPTIONS

CHAPTER 4: VERBSTHE MOVERS AND SHAKERS OF LANGUAGE

CHAPTER 5: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBSTHE 5 Ws AND 4 Hs OF

CHAPTER 6: AGREEMENTA MATTER OF COMPATIBILITY

CHAPTER 7: MODIFIERSDOES IT DANGLE OR SQUINT OR SPLIT?

x Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 8: SENTENCE STRUCTUREFROM THE SIMPLE TO THE

CHAPTER 9: PARAGRAPHSAS EASY AS ANNOUNCE-BUILD-CLOSE

CHAPTER 10: TRICKY WORDSBEE A WEAR OF WHY LEE WORDS!

CHAPTER 11: POSTTEST

his pretest contains 70 questions and is designed to

dean asked, may i borrow your markers when youre finished?

my teacher asked me to write an essay titled if i could live forever.

brielle said, theres a lost cat sitting outside the door.

2 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

my dentist, dr. benjamin feldman, always gives me a free toothbrush.

tammy enjoys taking walks in the park.

have you read the biography of queen elizabeth i?

the warm carribbean breeze blew gently across the island.

i traveled to burma, a country northwest of thailand.

I see mrs. alessi on thursdays only.

The playful puppy pushed the little girl

Wow How did you do that

its time to go home

Rebeccas long blond hair blew in the breeze

You must know how to catch throw hit and slide

Amanda placed Martins Encyclopedia Book H in her book bag

Elliott wants to study genetics in college he hopes to become a doctor

That was a good one remarked Tony Do it again

Im hungry Do we have anything to eat whined Brandon

In each sentence, circle the adjective(s).

The car got a flat tire.

Toms cotton shirt was wrinkled.

The loud music hurts my ears.

4 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

Southern peaches are exceptionally delicious and juicy.

In each sentence, circle the adverb(s).

The orange ball glowed and sank slowly on the horizon.

Linda completely misunderstood the directions the teacher gave.

Nikki quickly decided to turn right at the corner.

Westerns can be very exciting.

Her fourth-quarter grades had improved slightly.

In each sentence, circle the prepositional phrase(s).

The grandfather clock in the hallway chimed each hour.

The shed in the backyard was covered with English ivy.

Steven cut the grass in the front yard yesterday.

In each sentence, circle the tricky word(s).

Will ewe please take three dollars and by sum milk?

Joe tries to due his assignments early.

Nell kneads two go two bed.

Hour daughter, Meghan, had the flew.

Theyre is only ate scents in my pocket.

The plain arrived with the pear of twins a bored.

Weight here! Aisle get sum stationary for you.

Karens sandwich store serves subs, soups, and salads.

Presidential conventions occur every four years during the summer.

Although he was a good student, sometimes Matthew forgot to do his

6 Express Review Guides: GRAMMAR

My worst trip was not, in fact, the actual vacation.