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DEFINITE ARTICLE
DIMINUTIVES
- Diminutives indicate smallness
- they arent so often in English as in other languages
- in some cases we get diminutives by adding a suffix to
a noun:
a small book booklet
a small pig piglet
a small duck duckling
a small statue statuette
a small kitchen- kitchenette
a small bird birdie
- sometimes, there is a different word for diminutive:
a small cat kitten
a small dog puppy
- but, in most cases, we add SMALL or LITTLE in front of a
noun
CONDITIONALS: ZERO AND FIRST
- zero conditional describes situations which are always
true:
RELATIVE CLAUSES
TYPES OF SENTENCES
-there are simple, compound and complex sentences
SIMPLE sentences consist of subject + verb
- they can be;
statements- give us onformation, can be affirmative or
negative
interrogative- we ask for information
commands- instruct sb to do sth
exclamations- express feelings
COMPOUND consist of two or more clauses joined by a
conjunction ( and, or, but)
eg. A man stole the money and hid it in the house.
COMPLEX consist of main + subordinate clause
REPORTED SPEECH
1)Past Perfect never changes in the reported speech:
I had met you before.
He told me he had met me before.
2) if sth is going to happen soon:
He told me the bar will open tonight.
3)we dont change the tense when the reporting verb is in
the present (when reading a letter or newspapers):
The paper SAYS it will be rainy today.
4)when the reporting verb is in the past but we want to show
that the statement is still true:
Tom said Bill IS his cousin.
5)we dont change should, would, might, ought to:
They said they COULD come the next day.
6)we dont change the tense when expressing wishes with
unreal past:
I wish I was older.
He said he wished he WAS older. (NOT had been older.)
ADVERBS-FORMATION AND TYPE
-adverbs go with verbs and tell us how sth happens or how
sth is done
-most adverbs are formed by adding the LY suffix to
adjectives:
nicely, quickly, usually
-some adverbs have the same form as adjectives, for
example FAST and HARD:
He is fast. / He runs fast.
-adverbs are also: yesterday, always, well, abroad
TYPES
a)adverbs of manner-how sth is done
badly, in a hurry, well
b)adverbs of place-where sth is done
somewhere, here, abroad
c)adverbs of time-when sth is done
He came late.
-if they are all in one sentence, the order is manner-placetime
He waited patiently here for 30 minutes.
-sometimes they can be placed at the beginning, when we
want to create an atmosphere:
Slowly, he walked out of the room.
2)adverbs of frequency go before the verb in simple tenses:
I always chew gum.
-after the auxiliary:
She has always been there for him.
-after the verb BE:
Im never late.
-sometimes at the beginning of the sentence, for emphasis:
Usually, he was late.
3)adverbs of degree go before the word they modify:
She almost died.
4)adverbs of viewpoint go at the beginning:
Surprisingly, she wasnt at home.
FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES
(SUFFIXES AND PREXIFES)
-adjectives go with nouns and describe it
-they give us information about:
age- an old man
shape-a round table
origin-a Swiss knife
1)they can be formed by adding suffixes to verbs:
-able : enjoyable, washable
-ful : careful, helpful
-less : useless
-ed : amazed
-ing : exciting
2)we can also add suffixes to nouns:
-al : professional
-ic : metallic
-ful : successful
-less : hopeless
-ous : dangerous
3)we can also add prefixes to adjectives to give them the
opposite meaning:
dishonest
uninterested
immoral
illegal
irresponsible
inadequate
TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
-adjectives are used with nouns to describe them in more
details (a new idea, a bright light, an old man)
1)a group of adjectives which identify qualities someone or
sth has are called QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES
a sad girl, a small child, a healthy baby
2)a group of adjectives which identify someone or sth as a
member of a class CLASSIFYING ADJECTIVES
a daily shower, financial help
3)a group of adjectives which are used to emphasize your
feelings about the person or the thing you are talking about
EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVES
Complete, absolute, utter (He is a complete idiot.)
4)a group of adjectives which make the reference more
precise POSTDETERMINERS
LAST few years, FOLLOWING brief discussion
5)a group of adjectives which identify the colour of sth
COLOUR ADJECTIVES
so-called VALUE ADJECTIVES indicate personal opinion
-if more than one goes with the noun, they go in this order:
size-age-shape-colour-origin-material
their huge circular swimming pool
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
-an adjective describes a person, thingwhich a noun refers
to
-adjectives give us an information about:
quality a nice day
size a big car
age a young girl
temperature a cool evening
shape a round table
colour blue eyes
origin a Swiss knife
1)adjectives with one syllable are compared by adding ER/EST
long longer the longest
2)if they end in E we add only R/-ST
nice nicer the nicest
3)if they end with a combination of a short vowel and a
consonant, we double the consonant before adding suffixes
Thin thinner the thinnest (sad, wet, fat, big)
4)if they end in Y we change Y into I
heavy heavier the heaviest
5)adjectives with two or more syllables are compared by
adding MORE/THE MOST
beautiful more beautiful the most beautiful
6)some long adjectives can be compared in two ways
simple simpler the simplest
4)offers
5)with verbs of perception (hear, smell, see)
6)for expressing wishes:
If only he could come. (present)
I wish she could have been there. (past)
7)in the past we use could + have + past participle
MODAL VERBS: SHOULD
1)it expresses mild obligation, advice, recommendation:
You should see a doctor.
2)it is used for predictions, when sth is logical:
He should be here by 9.
3)used in conditionals:
If all goes well, he should manage to get away.
-it is used to make conditionals more formal:
Should you happen to see him, please tell him to be careful.
4)past should + have + past participle:
I should have gone to the party. (regret)
You should have taken that job. (criticism)
FOREIGN PLURALS
-words which are borrowed from other languages, especially
from Latin, still form their plurals according to the rules of
those languages
-many of them are technical or formal
1)nouns ending in US have plural endings I
radius-radii, stimulus-stimuli
2)nouns ending in UM have a plural ending A
memorandum-memoranda
3)those ending in IS have plural ending ES
analysis-analyses, diagnosis-diagnoses
4)those ending in A end in AE /e/ in the plural
larva-larvae
5)some of these borrowed nouns can have S in the plural
antennas, formulas
6)some have two plural forms, and the form with S is more
common in less formal English
appendix-appendices / appendixes
tempo-tempi / tempos
PLURAL OF NOUNS
1)we usually add S to the singular
days, dogs, houses
-S can be pronounced as
/s/ books
/z/ dogs
/iz/ houses
2)if nouns end in -CH, -SH, -SS or X, we add ES
kisses, brushes, churches
3)to the nouns that end in O we usually add ES
tomatoes, potatoes
-in some cases we can add either S or ES:
tornados / tornadoes
-we add only S:
a)when the noun ends in -OO (bamboos)
b)to abbreviations (kilos)
c)to Italian music terms (pianos, solos)
d)to proper nouns (Eskimos)
4)initials can also be made plural by adding -S
concrete (book)
countable
common
abstract (idea)
concrete (clothes)
uncountable
abstract (love)
I cut MY hand.
- we can use own after poss. adjectives to show that sth
belongs to a certain person and nobody else:
I have MY own flat.
- ITS without an apostrophe expresses possession:
This is my dog, ITS name is Jack.
poss. adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
poss. pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
- they refer back to the subject:
I cut MYSELF.
- in the plural F turns into V and we add ES
ourselves, yourselves, themselves
- some verbs are always followed by a reflexive pronoun, for
eg.
He prides HIMSELF on his collection.
- some verbs can but dont have to be followed by a reflexive
pronoun:
I cut MYSELF.
OR
I cut my hand.
- we can use a reflexive pronoun for emphasis:
He HIMSELF cleaned the whole house.
- there are many idioms with reflexive pronouns, like:
Help YOURSELF. (take as many/much as you want)
Go by YOURSELF. (alone)
- in a sentence, a reflexive pronoun can be:
a) a direct object- My brother has hurt HIMSELF.
b) an indirect object- He soon found HIMSELF a new house.
c) used after prepositions- She lives by HERSELF.
SOME / ANY , MUCH / MANY
- these are called QUANTIFIERS, they express quantity