Lecture 5

ECE2072/TRC2300 Digital Systems:
Combinational logic
based on textbook
Contemporary Logic Design, 2nd Edition
by R. H. Katz and G. Borriello
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Copyright Regulations 1969
WARNING
This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of
Monash University pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any
further reproduction or communication of this material by you may be the subject of
copyright protection under the Act.
Do not remove this notice.
II - Combinational Logic
Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz
Combinational logic
Basic logic
Logic realization
two-level logic and canonical forms

incompletely specified functions
Simplification
Boolean algebra, proofs by re-writing, proofs by perfect induction

logic functions, truth tables, and switches
NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, . . ., minimal set
uniting theorem
grouping of terms in Boolean functions
Alternate representations of Boolean functions
cubes
Karnaugh maps
Combinational digital circuits (Sec 2.1 Katz 2e)
A simple model of a digital system is a unit with inputs and

outputs:
inputs
system
outputs
Combinational means "memory-less"
a digital circuit is combinational if its output values

only depend on its input values
Possible logic functions of two variables
There are 16 possible functions of 2 input variables:
in general, there are 2**(2**n) functions of n inputs

X
Y
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
X and Y
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
X
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
Y
F
16
0
1
0
1
possible functions (F0F15)

0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
X xor Y
X or Y
X=Y
X nor Y
not (X or Y)
not Y
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
X nand Y
not (X and Y)
not X
Combinational logic symbols
Common combinational logic systems have standard symbols called

logic gates
Buffer, NOT
A
AND, NAND
A
B
easy to implement
with CMOS transistors
(the switches we have
available and use most)
OR, NOR
A
B
Minimal set of functions
We can implement any logic function using only AND, OR

and NOT operations
Similarly, we implement all logic functions from NAND,
NOR, and NOT operations
For example, implementing

X and Y
is the same as implementing not (X nand Y)
In fact, we can do it with only NOR or only NAND gates
NOT is just a NAND or a NOR with both inputs tied together

X
0
1
Y
0
1
X nor Y
1
0
X
0
1
Y
0
1
X nand Y
1
0
NAND and NOR are dual operations

eg. X nand Y not ((not X) nor (not Y))
NOT, NOR, and NAND are the cheapest gates to physically

implement (fewest transistors), and are therefore the functions
we use the most in practice
Laws & Theorems of Boolean Logic (2.2 Katz 2e)
Boolean algebra consists of
a set of elements: B = {0, 1}

binary operations: {+ , }
and a unary operation { }:
+ is logical OR ie. A OR B A+B

is logical AND ie. A AND B AB
is logical NOT eg. NOT A A A
such that the following axioms hold:
1. the set B contains at least two elements: a, b

2. closure:
3. commutativity:
4. associativity:
5. identity:
6. distributivity:
7. complementarity:
a + b is in B
a+b=b+a
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a+0=a
a + (b c) = (a + b) (a + c)
a + a = 1
a b is in B
ab=ba
a (b c) = (a b) c
a1=a
a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c)
a a = 0
Logic functions and Boolean algebra
Any logic function that can be expressed as a truth table can

be written as an expression in Boolean algebra using the
operators: , +, and
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
XY
0
0
0
1
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
X
1
1
0
0
X
0
0
1
1
Y
1
0
1
0
XY
0
0
0
1
X Y
1
0
0
0
X, Y are Boolean algebra variables

Y
0
1
0
1
X
1
1
0
0
X Y
0
1
0
0
( X Y ) + ( X Y )
1
0
( X Y ) + ( X Y )
0
1
X=Y
Boolean expression that is

true when the variables X
and Y have the same value
and false, otherwise
Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra:

Duality
A dual of a Boolean expression is derived by replacing

by +, + by , 0 by 1, and 1 by 0, and leaving variables
unchanged.
Any theorem that can be proven is thus also proven for its dual
(the dual theory of duality is itself)!
duality:
X + Y + ... + 0 X Y ... 1
generalized duality:
f (X1,X2,...,Xn,0,1,+,) f(X1,X2,...,Xn,1,0,,+)
An expression and its dual are not equal:
Duality is a statement about theorems (a meta-theorem)

this is not a way to manipulate (re-write) expressions
Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra
identity
1. X + 0 = X
null
2. X + 1 = 1
idempotency:
3. X + X = X
involution:
4. (X) = X
complementarity:
5. X + X = 1
commutativity:
6. X + Y = Y + X
associativity:
7. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z)
1D. X 1 = X
2D. X 0 = 0
3D. X X = X
5D. X X = 0
6D. X Y = Y X
7D. (X Y) Z = X (Y Z)
10
Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra (contd)
distributivity:
8. X (Y + Z) = (X Y) + (X Z)
uniting:
9. X Y + X Y = X
absorption:
10. X + X Y = X
11. (X + Y) Y = X Y
factoring:
12. (X + Y) (X + Z) =
X Z + X Y
consensus:
13. (X Y) + (Y Z) + (X Z) =
X Y + X Z
8D. X + (Y Z) = (X + Y) (X + Z)
9D. (X + Y) (X + Y) = X
10D. X (X + Y) = X
11D. (X Y) + Y = X + Y
12D. X Y + X Z =
(X + Z) (X + Y)
13D. (X + Y) (Y + Z) (X + Z) =
(X + Y) (X + Z)
11
Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra:

De Morgans Law
De Morgans law establishes relationship between and +

X+Y = XY
The above expression also has a dual
XY = X+Y
generalized de Morgans:
f(X1,X2,...,Xn,0,1,+,) = f(X1,X2,...,Xn,1,0,,+)
De Morgans law can be used to find the compliment of a
function:
eg. find the compliment of: Z = A B + C D
Z = AB + CD
= (AB)(CD)
= (A+B)(C+D)
12
Proving theorems (perfect induction)
Using perfect induction (complete truth table):
e.g., prove de Morgans law:
(X + Y) = X Y
NOR is equivalent to AND
with inputs complemented (see slide 6)
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
X
1
1
0
0
Y
1
0
1
0
(X + Y)
1
0
0
0
X Y
1
0
0
0
(X Y) = X + Y
NAND is equivalent to OR
with inputs complemented (see slide 6)
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
X
1
1
0
0
Y
1
0
1
0
(X Y)
1
1
1
0
X + Y
1
1
1
0
13
Proving theorems (rewriting)
Using the axioms of Boolean algebra:
e.g., prove uniting:

distributivity (8)
complementarity (5)
identity (1D)
X Y + X Y = X
X Y + X Y
X (Y + Y)
X (1)
e.g., prove absorption:

identity (1D)
distributivity (8)
identity (2)
identity (1D)
X
X
X
X
= X (Y + Y)
= X (1)
= X9
X+XY
= X
+ XY
1 + XY
(1 + Y)
(1)
=
=
=
=
X
X
X
X
1 + XY
(1 + Y)
(1)
9
14
Activity
Prove the following using the laws of Boolean algebra:
(X Y) + (Y Z) + (X Z) = X Y + X Z
(X Y) + (Y Z) + (X Z)
identity
(X Y) + (1) (Y Z) + (X Z)
complementarity
(X Y) + (X + X) (Y Z) + (X Z)
distributivity
(X Y) + (X Y Z) + (X Y Z) + (X Z)
commutativity
(X Y) + (X Y Z) + (X Y Z) + (X Z)
factoring
(X Y) (1 + Z) + (X Z) (1 + Y)
null
(X Y) (1) + (X Z) (1)
identity
(X Y) + (X Z) 9
15
Realising Boolean Formulas: From Boolean

expressions to logic gates (Sec 2.3 Katz Ed2))
NOT X
~X
X
0
1
Y
Z
AND X Y
OR
X+Y
XY
XY
XY
Y
1
0
X
Y
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
Z
0
0
0
1
X
Y
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
Z
0
1
1
1
16
From Boolean expressions to logic gates (contd)
NAND
NOR
X
Y
X
Y
XOR
XY
XNOR
X=Y
X
Y
X
Y
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
Z
1
1
1
0
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
Z
1
0
0
0
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
Z
0
1
1
0
X xor Y = X Y + X Y
X or Y but not both
("inequality", "difference")
X
0
0
1
1
Y
0
1
0
1
Z
1
0
0
1
X xnor Y = X Y + X Y
X and Y are the same
("equality", "coincidence")
17
From Boolean expressions to logic gates (contd)

Z = A B (C + D) = (A (B (C + D)))
T2
T1
use of 3-input gate
A
B
C
D
T1
T2
A
B
C
D
Note: there is usually more than one way to map expressions

to gates!
18
Waveform view of logic functions
Just a sideways truth table
but note how edges dont line up exactly

it takes time for a gate to switch its output!
time
change in Y takes time to "propagate" through gates

19
Implementing Boolean functions (Sec 2.4 Katz

Ed2)
Technology independent
canonical forms
two-level forms
multi-level forms
Technology choices
packages of a few gates

regular logic
two-level programmable logic
multi-level programmable logic
20
Canonical forms
Truth table is the unique signature of a Boolean function

The same truth table can have many gate realizations
Canonical forms
are unique for any function (deterministic)

standard forms for a Boolean expression
Two canonical forms:
Sum-of-Products
Product-of-Sums
21
Sum-of-products canonical forms
Also known as disjunctive normal form

Also known as minterm expansion
F = 001
011
101
110
111
F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
F
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
F
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
F = ABC + ABC + ABC
22
Sum-of-products canonical form (contd)
Product term (or minterm)
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
ANDed product of literals input combination for which output is true

each variable appears exactly once, true or inverted (but not both)
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
minterms
ABC m0
ABC m1
ABC m2
ABC m3
ABC m4
ABC m5
ABC m6
ABC
m7
short-hand notation for

minterms of 3 variables
F in canonical form:
F(A, B, C) = m(1,3,5,6,7)
= m1 + m3 + m5 + m6 + m7
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
canonical form minimal form
F(A, B, C) = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
= (AB + AB + AB + AB)C + ABC
= ((A + A)(B + B))C + ABC
= C + ABC
= ABC + C
= AB + C
23
Product-of-sums canonical form
Also known as conjunctive normal form

Also known as maxterm expansion
F=
000
010
100
F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
F
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
F
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
24
Product-of-sums canonical form (contd)
Sum term (or maxterm)
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
ORed sum of literals input combination for which output is false

each variable appears exactly once, true or inverted (but not both)
C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
maxterms
A+B+C
A+B+C
A+B+C
A+B+C
A+B+C
A+B+C
A+B+C
A+B+C
M0
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
F in canonical form:
F(A, B, C) = M(0,2,4)
= M0 M2 M4
= (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
canonical form minimal form
F(A, B, C) = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
= (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
(A + B + C) (A + B + C)
= (A + C) (B + C)
short-hand notation for

maxterms of 3 variables
25
Mapping between canonical forms:

S-o-P, P-o-S, and de Morgans theorem
Sum-of-products
Apply de Morgans
(F) = (ABC + ABC + ABC)

F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
Product-of-sums
F = ABC + ABC + ABC
F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
Apply de Morgans
(F) = ( (A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C) )

F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
26
Four alternative two-level implementations

of F = AB + C
A
canonical sum-of-products
B
F1
C
minimized sum-of-products
F2
canonical product-of-sums
F3
minimized product-of-sums
F4
27
Waveforms for the four alternatives
Waveforms are essentially identical
except for timing hazards (glitches)

delays almost identical (modeled as a delay per level, not type of
gate or number of inputs to gate)
28
Incompletely specified functions
Example: binary coded decimal increment by 1
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
BCD digits encode the decimal digits 0 9

in the bit patterns 0000 1001
B
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
C
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
D
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
W
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
Y
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
Z
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
off-set of W
on-set of W
dont care (DC) set of W
these inputs patterns should

never be encountered in practice
"dont care" about associated
output values, can be exploited
in minimization
29
Notation for incompletely specified functions
Dont cares and canonical forms
so far, only represented on-set

also represent dont-care-set
need two of the three sets (on-set, off-set, dc-set)
Canonical representations of the BCD increment by 1 function:
Z = m0 + m2 + m4 + m6 + m8 + d10 + d11 + d12 + d13 + d14 + d15

Z = [ m(0,2,4,6,8) + d(10,11,12,13,14,15) ]
Z = M1 M3 M5 M7 M9 D10 D11 D12 D13 D14 D15
Z = [ M(1,3,5,7,9) D(10,11,12,13,14,15) ]
30
The uniting theorem
Key tool to simplification: A B + A B = A (B + B) = A1 = A

Essence of simplification of two-level logic
find two element subsets of the ON-set where only one variable
changes its value this single varying variable can be eliminated
and a single product term used to represent both elements
F = AB+AB = (A+A)B = B
A
B has the same value in both on-set rows

B remains
A has a different value in the two rows

A is eliminated
31
Karnaugh maps
Alternative to truth-tables to help visualize adjacencies
guide to applying the uniting theorem

on-set elements with only one variable changing value are
adjacent unlike the situation in a linear truth-table
A
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
2
3
B
32
Karnaugh maps (contd)
Numbering scheme based on Graycode
e.g., 00, 01, 11, 10

only a single bit changes in code for adjacent map cells
AB
0
C 1
00
11
01
10
B
A
0
2
3
6
7
12
13
15
11
14
10
13 = 1101= ABCD
33
Adjacencies in Karnaugh maps
Wrap from first to last column

Wrap top row to bottom row
A
000 010 110 100
C 001 011 111 101

B
34
A simple example: 1-bit binary adder

Cout Cin
Inputs: A, B, Carry-in
Outputs: Sum, Carry-out
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
Cin Cout S
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
Cin
S
Cout
S = A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin

Cout = A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
35
Apply the theorems to simplify expressions
The theorems of Boolean algebra can simplify Boolean

expressions
e.g., full adders carry-out function (same rules apply to any function)
Cout
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin

A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
(A + A) B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
(1) B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
B Cin + A (B + B) Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
B Cin + A (1) Cin + A B Cin + A B Cin
B Cin + A Cin + A B (Cin + Cin)
B Cin + A Cin + A B (1)
B Cin + A Cin + A B
There must be an easier way!
36
Karnaugh map examples
F=
1
Cout =
f(A,B,C) = m(0,4,5,7)
A
0
Cin 0
AB + ACin + BCin
AC + BC + AB
obtain the
complement
of the function
by covering 0s
with subcubes
37
More Karnaugh map examples

A
G(A,B,C) = A
B
A
F(A,B,C) = m(0,4,5,7) = AC + BC
B
A
F' simply replace 1's with 0's and vice versa

F'(A,B,C) = m(1,2,3,6)= BC + AC
38
Karnaugh map: 4-variable example
F(A,B,C,D) = m(0,2,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,14,15)
F = C + ABD + BD
A
39
Karnaugh maps: dont cares
f(A,B,C,D) = m(1,3,5,7,9) + d(6,12,13)
without don't cares
f = AD + BCD
40
Karnaugh maps: dont cares (contd)
f(A,B,C,D) = m(1,3,5,7,9) + d(6,12,13)
f = A'D + B'C'D
f = A'D + C'D
without don't cares

with don't cares
A
0
C
0
by using don't care as a "1"

a 2-cube can be formed
rather than a 1-cube to cover
this node
don't cares can be treated as
1s or 0s
depending on which is more
advantageous
41
Activity
Minimize the function F = m(0, 2, 7, 8, 14, 15) + d(3, 6, 9, 12, 13)

A
A
F = AC +
AC +
BC +
AB +
ABD +
BCD
F = BC + ABD + BCD
F = AC + AB + BCD
B
42
Combinational logic summary
Logic functions, truth tables, and switches
Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra
two-level and incompletely specified functions
Simplification
networks of Boolean functions and their time behavior
Canonical forms
proofs by re-writing and perfect induction
Gate logic
NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, . . ., minimal set
a start at understanding two-level simplification
Later
automation of simplification
multi-level logic
time behavior
hardware description languages
design case studies
43

Lecture 5

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Lecture 5

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

ECE2072/TRC2300 Digital Systems:

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

two-level logic and canonical forms

Boolean algebra, proofs by re-writing, proofs by perfect induction

Alternate representations of Boolean functions

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Combinational digital circuits (Sec 2.1 Katz 2e)

A simple model of a digital system is a unit with inputs and

Combinational means "memory-less"

a digital circuit is combinational if its output values

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Possible logic functions of two variables

There are 16 possible functions of 2 input variables:

in general, there are 2**(2**n) functions of n inputs

possible functions (F0F15)

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Combinational logic symbols

Common combinational logic systems have standard symbols called

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Minimal set of functions

We can implement any logic function using only AND, OR

For example, implementing

In fact, we can do it with only NOR or only NAND gates

NOT is just a NAND or a NOR with both inputs tied together

NAND and NOR are dual operations

NOT, NOR, and NAND are the cheapest gates to physically

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Laws & Theorems of Boolean Logic (2.2 Katz 2e)

Boolean algebra consists of

a set of elements: B = {0, 1}

and a unary operation { }:

+ is logical OR ie. A OR B A+B

such that the following axioms hold:

1. the set B contains at least two elements: a, b

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Logic functions and Boolean algebra

Any logic function that can be expressed as a truth table can

X, Y are Boolean algebra variables

Boolean expression that is

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra:

A dual of a Boolean expression is derived by replacing

Duality is a statement about theorems (a meta-theorem)

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra (contd)

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra:

De Morgans law establishes relationship between and +

eg. find the compliment of: Z = A B + C D

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Proving theorems (perfect induction)

Using perfect induction (complete truth table):

e.g., prove de Morgans law:

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Proving theorems (rewriting)

Using the axioms of Boolean algebra:

e.g., prove uniting:

e.g., prove absorption:

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Prove the following using the laws of Boolean algebra:

Copyright 2004, Gaetano Borriello and Randy H. Katz

Realising Boolean Formulas: From Boolean

in general, there are 2(2n) functions of n inputs