Michael Bukshtab

Applied Photometry,
Radiometry,
and Measurements
of Optical Losses

Sprin ger

Contents

Part I

Applied Photometry and Radiometry

Radiometric and Photometric Quantities and Notions

1.1
Physical Sense of Radiometric Conception
1.1.1
Statistical Field of Optical Radiation
1.1.2
Propagation of Light Waves
1.1.3
Intensity of Radiation and Light Rays
1.2
Parameters of Optical Radiation
1.2.1
Radiometric Quantities and Units
1.2.2
Parameters of Optical Radiation
1.2.3
Invariable Parameters of a Light Tube
1.2.4
Flux and Radiance of Optical Radiation
1.2.5
Intensity and Emittance of a Light Beam
1.2.6
Irradiance and the Inverse-Square and Cosine Law
1.3
Interactions of Radiation with Material Objects
1.3.1
Factors and Coefficients of Attenuation
1.3.2
Localized Optical Properties
1.3.3
Multiple Optical Elements
1.3.4
Diffuse Irradiation

3
3
3
4
6
9
9
12
15
18
20
24
27
27
33
36
40

Methods of Photometric and Radiometric Measurements

2.1
Evaluation of Power and Energy Extents of Optical Radiation
2.1.1
Methods of Optical Flux and Energy Measurements
2.1.2
Measurement of Surface Density of Light
2.1.3
Absolute Flux Measurement Via an
Integrating Sphere
2.1.4
Spherical Density of Radiation
2.1.5
Measurement of Angular Density of Radiation
2.1.6
Radiance and Luminance Measurements
2.2
Analysis of Attenuation Factors
2.2.1
Measurements in Transmitted Light

49
49
49
53
55
56
59
60
62
63
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Contents

2.3
2.4

2.2.2
Measurements of Reflectance
2.2.3
Directional Scattering Measurements
Measurements of Color Coordinates and Indices
Photometry of Integrating Spheres
2.4.1
Uniformly Scattering Spheres
2.4.2
Relative Measurements
2.4.3
Samples Performing as Nonuniform Diffusers
2.4.4
Absolute Measurements in an Integrating Sphere
2.4.5
Baffling Method
2.4.6
Efficiency Approach
2.4.7
Viewing Method
2.4.8
Reduction of Systematic Errors of Absolute
Measurements
2.4.9
Spheres of Nonisotropic Diffusers
2.4.10 Fully Isotropic Irradiation of Integrating Sphere
2.4.11 Essentials of Diffuse Transmittance Measurements
2.4.12 Separation of Direct and Diffuse Transmittance
2.4.13 Coupling of Integrating Spheres
2.4.14 Integrating Spheres for Isotropic Irradiation

Radiometry of Partially Coherent Radiation

3.1
Coherence and Radiative Transfer
3.1.1
Observability and Statistical Properties of Radiation
3.1.2
Planar Sources of Incoherent and Coherent Light
3.1.3
Quasi-Homogeneous Partially Coherent
Planar Sources
3.1.4
Propagation of Coherence and Observation
of Polychromatic Radiation
3.1.5
Summary
3.2
Laser and Pulsed Light
3.2.1
Propagation Extents of Laser Radiation
3.2.2
Applicability of Lasers for Various Optical
Measurements
3.2.3
Optical Radiation as a Pulse Train
3.2.4
Measurements in Pulsed Radiation
3.3
Interference Phenomena and Optical Measurements
3.3.1
Fringe Visibility of Interference Patterns in
Transmitted and Reflected Light
3.3.2
Reductions of Interference Noise
3.3.3
Interference Effects Induced by Birefringence
3.3.4
Stabilization of Radiation Emission
3.3.5
Polarization Measurements
3.4
Diffraction Corrections and Gratings in Radiometry
and Photometry

66
73
76
92
92
95
99
99
101
102
103
104
108
112
114
116
118
121
129
129
129
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137
141
144
144
144
147
151
154
159
159
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3.4.1
3.4.2
4

Maxima-Shifting Anomaly for Step-Function

Diffraction Grating in Reflected Light
Diffraction Gratings as Spectral and Color Filters

Photometers and Radiometers

4.1
Optical Design and Absolute Calibration of Radiometers
4.1.1
Spectrally Unselective Systems
4.1.2
Diffuse Attenuators
4.1.3
Radiometric and Photometric Energy and
Power Scales
4.1.4
Absolute Calibration of Photoelectric Radiometers
4.1.5
Detector-Based Spectroradiometric and
Photometric Scales
4.1.6
Optical Elements of Radiometric and
Photometric Standards
4.1.7
Radiometric and Photometric Scales for
Spectral Irradiance and Luminous Intensity
4.2
Attenuation and Color Photometers and Spectrophotometers
4.2.1
Measurements of Direct Transmittance and
Specular Reflectance
4.2.2
Polychromatic and Spectrophotometric Systems
4.2.3
Reference Transmission Spectrophotometers
4.2.4
Specialty Spectrophotometers
4.2.5
Systems of Multiple-Beam Interactions
4.2.6
Measurements at Intensive Irradiation
4.2.7
Studies of Integrated Scattering
4.2.8
Specialty Applications of Integrating Spheres
for Optical Calibrations and Measurements
4.2.9
Color-Coordinate Measurements
4.3
Photometric Accuracy and Verification of Linearity
4.3.1
Measurements with Fixed Attenuation
4.3.2
Dual-Aperture and Superposition Methods
4.3.3
Pulsed Measurements
4.3.4
Arrangements for Light Addition Studies

Part II

192
214
217
217
217
222
227
229
231
235
238
240
240
243
245
248
250
252
253
261
264
268
269
274
276
279

Measurements of Optical Losses

Conventional Loss-Measurement Techniques

5.1
Internal Transmittance and Attenuation Coefficient
5.2
Specular Reflectance
5.3
Scattering Factor

289
289
299
309

Systems of Multiple Reflections

6.1
Flat-Mirror and Prism Reflector Cells
6.2
Multipass Cavities
6.2.1
Long-Path Matrix Cells

321
321
328
332

Contents
6.3
6.4
6.5

Mirror Waveguides
Multiplication of Raman Scattering
Interference-Fringe Reduction in Multipass
and Derivative Spectroscopy

342
348
359

Laser Spectroscopy
7.1
Active Intracavity Measurements
7.2
Comparison of Intracavity Methods
7.3
Intracavity and Ringdown Spectroscopy
7.3.1
Sensitivity Limitations of Intracavity Laser Spectroscopy
7.3.2
Cavity Ringdown Spectroscopy
7.3.3
Multimode Versus Single-Mode Studies
7.3.4
Continuous-Wave Ringdown Spectrometers
7.3.5
Cavity-Enhanced Broadband Spectroscopy

367
367
373
378
382
384
392
396
398

Measurements in Passive Resonators

8.1
Pulse-Separation Techniques
8.2
Interferometric Analysis
8.2.1
Elimination of Interference
8.3
Resonant Phase-Shift and Decay-Time Studies
8.3.1
Interference Safeguards
8.3.2
Decay-Time Measurements
8.4
Quality-Factor Transfer Method and AsymmetricCavity Measurements
8.4.1
Measurements in Tuning Resonators
8.4.2
Quality-Factor Transition Between Two
Resonator Eigenstates
8.4.3
Nonresonant, Off-Axis Techniques
8.4.4
Resonant Asymmetric-Cavity Techniques
8.5
Evaluation of Loss Dichroism and Phase Dispersion
8.5.1
Recognition of Phase Dispersion
8.5.2
In Situ Laser-Based Measurements
8.5.3
Spectrophotometric Study of Phase Dispersion
8.5.4
Colorimetric Approach to Phase Recognition
8.5.5
Spatial-Spectral Interferometry

401
401
409
414
417
420
423
431
436
438
441
443
447
450
453
455
461
463

Determination of Absorption Losses

469
9.1
Laser Calorimetry
469
9.1.1
Local Absorptance
479
9.2
Thermal-Lensing, Photothermal, and Photoacoustic Techniques .. 482
9.2.1
Thermal Lensing
483
9.2.2
Photothermal Deflection
489
9.2.3
Photothermal Interferometry
495
9.2.4
Photoacoustic Spectroscopy
504
9.2.5
In Situ and Remote Photoacoustic Spectroscopies
508
9.2.6
Trace-Gas Photoacoustic Analysis
511

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9.3
9.4

xix

Emissive Spectroscopy
Integrating Spheres as Multiple-Reflection Cavities
9.4.1
Integrating-Cavity Absorption Measurements
9.4.2
Integrating Spheres as Absorption Cells for
Gaseous Substances

10 Direct Attenuation Measurements

10.1 Differential, Ratio, and Single-Channel Systems
10.2 Derivative Spectroscopy
10.3 Wavelength Tuning and Balanced Detection
10.3.1 Tunable Diode Systems
10.3.2 Balanced Detection
10.4 Separation of Bulk and Surface Losses
10.4.1 Distinction of Surface Losses
10.4.2 Resolving Internal Properties
10.5 Reflection Spectrophotometry
10.5.1 Reflected-Light Measurements
10.5.2 Sensitivity Comparison

517
521
521
531
537
537
546
555
556
563
567
568
571
576
584
586

11 Propagation Losses in Fibers and Waveguides

589
11.1 Measurements of Internal Optical Attenuation
for Guided Light
589
11.1.1 Integrated Waveguides
594
11.1.2 Absorption and Scattering Losses
597
11.1.3 Analysis of Scattering Losses
601
11.1.4 Polarization Dependent Losses
605
11.2 Analysis of Return Losses via Backscattered Radiation
610
11.3 Partition of Distributed Losses and Attenuation Factors
in Reflected Light
617
11.4 Interference Noise and Crosstalk in Fiber Transmission Systems . 629
11.4.1 Crosstalk and Systems with Multiple Interferers
641
References

653

Index

691