1.

Introduction to LRFD
Loads and Load Distribution
and Other New Concepts

Overview of Presentation

1.2

1. Design methodology
2. Load & load distribution
3. Major changes to concrete design
Unified provisions for flexure & axial load
Crack control provisions

Temperature and shrinkage reinf.

Girders made continuous for live load
Shear: MCFT & STM
Prestress losses
Empirical design of decks

1.3

AASHTO LRFD
(Load and Resistance Factor Design)
z
z
z
z
z

1993 1994 1998 2004 2007 -

Adopted by AASHTO
1st Edition
2nd Edition
3rd Edition
4th Edition

AASHTO LRFD
z

1.4

Comprehensive specifications:
Eliminate gaps & inconsistencies in the
AASHTO Standard Specs
Incorporate the latest bridge research
Achieve more uniform margins of safety or
reliability across a wide variety of
structures
Take variability of the behavior of structural
elements into account, but present the
results in a format readily usable by bridge
designers

Major Changes
z
z
z

z
z
z
z
z
z

1.5

A new philosophy of safety

Identification of limit states
Load and resistance factors based on
calibration
Refined load distribution
New load models
Chapter on structural analysis
Unified approach for concrete design
Isotropic reinforced concrete deck design
Parallel commentary

Evolution of Design Methodologies

1. Service Load Design
(Allowable/Working Stress)
Assumes linear elastic concrete stressstrain with fc 0.40 fc
Assumes linear elastic steel stressstrain with fs 24 ksi (Grade 60)
Either concrete or steel limit governs
design
All loads (D, L, W, E, etc.) assumed of
equal importance

1.6

Evolution of Design Methodologies

1.7

2. Load Factor Design

Non-linear concrete stress-strain
(equivalent rectangular stress block)
Bi-linear steel stress-strain
Recognize larger variability of live load
compared to dead load
Arbitrary load factors
Primary gravity load combination
U = 1.3[D + (5/3)(L+I)]

Evolution of Design Methodologies

1.8

3. Load and Resistance Factor Design

Non-linear concrete stress-strain
(equivalent rectangular stress block)
Bi-linear steel stress-strain
Recognize variability of loads and of
resistances
Calibrated load and resistance factors
Consistent reliability index for SLS
Primary gravity load combination
U = 1.25D + 1.75(L+I)

1.9

LRFD Calibration
Rmean
f(R,Q)
Qmean

Rn

Qn
Qn Rn

R,Q

1.10

Statistical Data
z

Variability in loads
Traffic: cars, trucks (different number of
axles), etc.
Variability in resistances
Concrete compressive strength
Reinforcing steel yield strength
Cross-section geometry
Location of reinforcement

1.11

LRFD Calibration
Rmean
f(R,Q)
Qmean
Qn

Rn
Qn
Rn

R,Q

1.12

LRFD Calibration
Rmean
f(R,Q)
Qmean
Qn

Rn

Qn
Rn

R,Q

1.13

LRFD Calibration

(R-Q)mean
Graphical
definition
of
reliability
index

R-Q

1.14

LRFD Calibration
Reliability Indices
5

LRFD

4
3
2

LFD

1
0

30

60

90
120
Span Length, ft

200

LRFD Limit States

z

The LRFD Specifications require examination of

several load combinations corresponding to the
following limit states:
STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
strength and stability
SERVICE LIMIT STATE
stress, deformation, and cracking
FATIGUE & FRACTURE LIMIT STATE
stress range
EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATE
earthquakes, ice load, and vehicle and vessel
collision

1.15

1.16

3.4.1 Load and Load Designation

STRENGTH I :

normal vehicular use without wind

STRENGTH II : owner design / permit vehicles without wind

STRENGTH III : bridge exposed to wind exceeding 55 mph
STRENGTH IV : very high dead-to-live load ratios
STRENGTH V : normal vehicular use with 55 mph wind
SERVICE I :

normal operational use of the bridge with a 55 mph

wind and nominal loads. Also control cracking of
reinforced concrete structures.

SERVICE II :

control yielding of steel structures and slip of

connections

SERVICE III :

control cracking of prestressed concrete

superstructures

SERVICE IV :

control cracking of prestressed concrete

substructures

FATIGUE :

repetitive vehicular live load and dynamic responses

under a single truck

1.17

Basic LRFD Design Equation

iiQi Rn = Rr Eq. (1.3.2.1-1)
where:
i = Load Modifier = D R I

i 0.95 for maximum s

1
i =
< 1.00 for minimum s
DRI

i =
=
Qi =
Rn =
Rr =

Load factor
Resistance factor
Nominal force effect
Nominal resistance
Factored resistance = Rn

1.18

Table 3.4.1-1 Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load Combination

TG SE Use One of These at a

Time

DC
DD
DW
EH
EV
ES

LL
IM
CE
BR
PL
LS

WA

STRENGTH-I

1.75

1.00

1.00 0.50/1.20

TG

STRENGTH-II

1.35

1.00

1.00 0.50/1.20

TG

STRENGTH-III

1.00

1.40

1.00 0.50/1.20

STRENGTH-IV
EH, EV, ES, DW
DC ONLY

p
1.5

1.00

1.00 0.50/1.20

STRENGTH-V

1.35

1.00

0.40

0.40

1.00 0.50/1.20

EXTREME-I

EQ

1.00

Limit State

WS

WL

FR

TU
CR
SH

1.00

1.00

EQ

IC

CT

CV

SE

SE

TG

SE

TG

SE

1.00

0.50

1.00

SERVICE-I

1.00 1.00

1.00

0.30

0.30

1.00 1.00/1.20

TG

SE

SERVICE-II

1.00 1.30

1.00

1.00 1.00/1.20

SERVICE-III

1.00 0.80

1.00

1.00 1.00/1.20

TG

SE

EXTREME-II

FATIGUE-LL, IM & CE
ONLY

0.75

1.00 1.00 1.00

1.19

3.3.2 Load and Load Designation

DD =
DC =

downdrag
dead load of structural
components and
nonstructural
attachments
DW = dead load of wearing
surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure
EL = accumulated locked-in
force effects resulting
from the construction
process, including the
secondary forces from
post-tensioning
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = earth fill vertical pressure
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal
force
CR = creep

CT =
CV =
EQ =
FR =
IC =
IM =
LL =
LS =
PL =
SE =
SH =
TG =
TU =
WA=
WL=
WS=

vehicular collision force

vessel collision force
earthquake
friction
ice load
vehicular dynamic load
allowance
vehicular live load
live load surcharge
pedestrian live load
settlement
shrinkage
temperature gradient
uniform temperature
water load and stream
pressure
wind on live load
wind load on structure

3.6.2.1 Dynamic Load Allowance

(Impact - IM)
z

1.20

The LRFD Specifications simply require a

constant magnification of IM = 33% be applied to
the design truck or design tandem only. The
magnification is not applied to the design lane
load.
This simple approach is based on a study, which
revealed that the most influential factor affecting
dynamic impact is roadway surface roughness.
Exceptions are as follows:
Deck joints:
IM = 75%
Fatigue limit state: IM = 15%

3.6.1.2.1 Design Vehicular Live Loads1.21

Design Truck

Design Tandem
Two 25.0 KIP axles spaced 4.0 FT apart
Design Lane Load
Uniformly distributed load of 0.64 KLF

1.22

5.5.4.2 Resistance Factors

Std Specs

LRFD
5.5.4.2

Flex RC

0.90

0.90

Flex PS

1.00

1.00

Shear RC

0.85

0.90

Shear PS

0.90

0.90

Compression

0.70 / 0.75

0.75

Bearing

0.70

0.70

Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 Common Superstructures

1.23

Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 Distribution of Live Loads

Per Lane for Moment in Interior Beams

1.24

Type of Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled
Grid, Partially Filled
Grid, or Unfilled Grid
Deck Composite with
Reinforced Concrete Slab
on Steel or Concrete
Beams; Concrete TBeams, T- and Double TSections

Notes:

Applicable
Cross-Section
from Table
4.6.2.2.1-1
a, e, k and also
i, j
if sufficiently
connected to
act as a unit

Distribution Factors
One Design Lane Loaded:
0.1

S S Kg
0.06 +
3
14 L 12.0Lts
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
0.4

0.3

0.1

S S Kg
0.075 +
3
9.5 L 12.0 Lts
use lesser of the values obtained from the
equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule
0.6

0.2

Range of
Applicability
3.5 S 16.0
20 L 240

4.5 ts 12.0
Nb 4
10,000 Kg
7,000,000
Nb = 3

1) Units are in LANES and not WHEELS!

2) Refer to specified limits of applicability.
3) No multiple presence factor applied (tabulated equations)
4) May be Different for Positive and Negative Flexure Locations!

Lever Rule

1.25

1.26

Unified Design Provisions

1.27

Bridge Specifications
z

AASHTO Standard
Section 8 Reinforced Concrete
Section 9 Prestressed Concrete

AASHTO LRFD
Section 5 Concrete Structures
Reinforced concrete
Prestressed concrete
Partially prestressed concrete (New in LRFD)
Parallel commentary & References

1.28

AASHTO Standard
z

Maximum reinforcement
Reinf. Conc.
Prest. Conc.

max = 0.75 bal

(p*f*su) 0.36 1

(8.16.3.1.)
(9.18.1)

1.29

Unified Design Provisions for Reinforced and

Prestressed Concrete Flexural and Compression
Members
Beams Ductile behavior
Columns Non-ductile behavior
z

Factors selected based on behavior

1.30

Unified Provisions - Background

AASHTO LRFD (06)
z Mast, Robert F., Unified Design Provisions for
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Flexural &
Compression Members, ACI Structural Jrnl., MarApril 1992, pp. 185-199.

1.31

Unified Provisions Applicability

z
z
z
z
z
z

Flexural & compression members

R/C, P/S, and combinations
Steel at various depths
Sections of any shape
Composite sections
Tension-controlled columns

Walt Disney World Monorail - 1971

Unified Design Provisions

Key Concept
Strength reduction factor, ,
depends on
maximum net tensile strain, t ,
at nominal resistance, Mn

1.32

1.33

1.34

5.2 - Definitions
Net Tensile Strain - The tensile strain at
nominal resistance exclusive of strains
due to effective prestress, creep,
shrinkage, and temperature.

1.35

5.2 - Definitions
Extreme Tension Steel The
reinforcement (prestressed or
nonprestressed) that is farthest from
the extreme compression fiber.

1.36

5.2 - Definitions
0.003

dt

t
Beam

Strain

Column

t = Net tensile strain

dt = Depth to extreme tension steel

1.37

5.2 - Definitions
t Extreme tension steel strain
at nominal resistance, due to applied loads
0.003
c

a = 1c

Mn
Pn

1.38

5.2 - Definitions
Compression-Controlled Strain Limit
The net tensile strain (t ) at balanced
strain conditions. See Article 5.7.2.1.

1.39

5.7.2.1 Balanced Strain Condition

0.003

fy /Es (or 0.002)

1.40

5.2 - Definitions
Compression-Controlled Section A
cross section in which the net tensile
strain (t ) in the extreme tension steel
at nominal resistance is less than or
equal to the compression-controlled
strain limit.
[Usually 0.002]

1.41

5.2 - Definitions
Tension-Controlled Section A cross
section in which the net tensile strain
(t ) in the extreme tension steel at
nominal resistance is greater than or
equal to 0.005.

5.5.4.2 Resistance Factors

= 0.583 + 0.25

1.00

dt

1
c

P/S

0.90

0.75

R.C.
= 0.65 + 0.15

dt

1
c

Compression- Transition
Tension Controlled
Controlled
t = 0.002 t = 0.005
Net Tensile Strain

1.42

1.43

Effect of Variation in
z

Design flexural members as tension-controlled

sections. Adding reinforcement beyond this
limit reduces , because of reduced ductility,
resulting in no gain in design strength
It is better to add sufficient compression
reinforcement to raise the neutral axis and
make the section tension-controlled

1.44

Effect of Variation in

Mn
bd2

= As/bd

1.45

10.3.3-4 Strain Conditions

c = 0.003
c

0.003

0.003
c

dt

t 0.002
CompressionControlled
c 0.6 dt

0.002 < t < 0.005 t 0.005

Transition
0.375 dt < c < 0.6 dt

TensionControlled
c 0.375 dt

1.46

Ductility Comparison
Standard vs. LRFD Specs.

Example R.C. Beam

c

dt = 13.5

16

1.47

0.003

12

3#8

a = 1c

t
Given: fc = 4 ksi; fy = 60 ksi
Assume steel yields
T = Asfy = 3(0.79)60 = 142.2 kips
c = a/1 = 4.1 in.
a = T/(0.85 fcb) = 3.49 in.
Mn = T [dt-(a/2)] = 1672 in.-k = 139.3 ft-k
c/dt = 4.1/13.5 = 0.304 < 0.375 or
t = 0.003 [(dt-c)/c] = 0.0069 in./in. Tension-controlled
Mr = Mn = 0.90 (139.3) = 125.4 ft-k

1.48

Other Recently Adopted Provisions

Crack control provisions (05)

Temperature and shrinkage reinf. (06)
Girders made continuous for live load (07)

1.49

5.4.2.6 Modulus of Rupture

Application
5.7.3.4 Crack control
5.7.3.6.2 Deflections
5.7.3.3.2 Minimum flexural
reinforcement (05)
5.8.3.4.3 To compute Vci
(4th AASHTO LRFD Edition,
2007)

fr
0.24 fc' KSI
7.5 fc' psi
0.37 fc' KSI
11.7 fc' psi

0.20 fc' KSI

6.3 fc' psi

5.7.3.4 Control of Cracking by Distribution

of Reinforcement (05)
s

where

s =1 +

700 e
2dc
s fs

1.50

( 5 .7 .3 . 4 1 )

dc
0.7 ( h d c )

e = exposure factor
= 1.00 for Class 1 exposure (cracks can be tolerated,
reduced concern about appearance and/or corrosion)
= 0.75 for Class 2 exposure (concern about appearance
and/or corrosion)

5.7.3.4 Control of Cracking by Distribution

of Reinforcement (Contd)
where
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme
tension fiber to center of flexural reinforcement located
closest thereto (in.)
fs = tensile stress in reinforcement at service limit state
h = overall thickness or depth of component (in.)

1.51

Concrete Drying

1.52

Data represents:
6 x 12 in. cylinders
moist-cured 7 days, then drying at 73 deg. F and 50% RH

1.53

Shrinkage Stresses

5.10.8 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinf.

As

1.30 bh
2 ( b + h )fy

( 5.10.8 1 )

0.11 As 0.60
where
As = area of reinforcement in each direction and each
face (in.2/ft)
b = least width of component section
h = least thickness of component section (in.2)
fy = specified yield strength of bars 75 ksi

1.54

5.10.8 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinf.

1.55

Provide near surfaces of concrete exposed to daily

temperatures changes
Provide in structural mass concrete
May consist of bars or welded wire reinforcement
If h 6 in., use one layer
Maximum bar or wire spacing = 3h or 18 in.
If h > 36 in., maximum spacing 12 in.

z
z
z
z
z

5.14.1.4 Bridges Composed of Simple

Span Precast Girders Made Continuous
z

1.56

Article revised and expanded based on NCHRP

Project 12-53. Revisions to appear in 4th AASHTO
LRFD Edition (2007)

Reference
Miller, R.A., Castrodale, R., Mirmiran, A and
Hastak, M., Connection of Simple-Span Precast
Concrete Girders for Continuity, National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Report
519, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2004.

Analysis of Precast Prestressed

Concrete Girders Made Continuous
Non-composite structure - simple span
Prestress
Girder self-weight
Deck and other non-composite loads
Composite structure - continuous span
Superimposed dead loads
Future wearing surface
Live load
Time-dependent effects
- Shrinkage
- Creep
- Temperature

1.57

Typical Continuity Connection

Components of Differential Shrinkage

1.58

1.59

1.60

Shrinkage Effect

1.61

Creep Effect

5.14.1.4.2 Restraint Moments

z

1.62

The bridge shall be designed for

restraint moments that may develop
because of time-dependent or other
deformations, except as allowed in
Article 5.14.1.4.4.
Restraint moments shall not be
included in any combination when the
effect of the restraint moment is to
reduce the total moment.

5.14.1.4.4 Age of Girder when

Continuity is Established
z

Minimum age of precast girder when

continuity is established to be specified in
contract documents
Restraint moments to be computed based
on age of precast girder when continuity is
established
Alternative simplified procedure:
minimum girder age at least 90 days
when continuity is established

1.63

5.14.1.4.4 Simplified Procedure for

Precast Girders Made Continuous
z
z

1.64

Positive restraint moments = 0

Provide positive moment connection with
a factored resistance Mn 1.2Mcr
Mild reinforcement embedded in the precast
girders and developed into the continuity
diaphragm
Pretensioning strands extended beyond the
end of the girder and anchored into the
continuity diaphragm

1.65

Concluding Remarks
What LRFD is NOT?
z

z
z
z

New unified provisions for flexure and

axial load
New unified provisions for shear design
using modified compression-field theory
Strut-and-tie model for concrete
New limit states
New, more complex live-load distribution
factors
Many other state-of-the-art additions

1.66

Concluding Remarks
z
z
z

Improvement over ASD and LFD

Uniform reliability index
Provides a framework for future
improvements
Incorporates state-of-the-art design
procedures