Do TV & Video Games affect young peoples behaviour?

The role of the brain and aggression (Nature)

Amygdala
The
Limbic System
Recognises
emotion
Emotional
area
of the
brain
Creates emotional
Responsible
responses for
emotions
Produces
aggression
such
as fear
and aggression

King 1961
A woman whose amygdala was electrically stimulated during an operation
became threatening and verbally aggressive until the electrical current was
turned of
Charles Whitman 1966
Killed 13 people in Texas. He left behind a note asking doctors to examine his
brain as he was convinced something was making him aggressive. He was found
to have a brain tumour pressing against his amygdala
Evaluation
Strengths
Animal studies that have involved damage to
or removal of the amygdala ofer evidence
that this part of the brain in responsible for
aggression
Charles Whitman was found to have a tumour
on his amygdala

Weaknesses
Animals and humans are diferent in many
ways so animal research cannot be applicable
to humans
Case studies are unreliable and are unique to
one individual only
It is too risky studying the human brain so no
conclusive evidence can be found

The role of hormones and aggression (Nature)

Males are more aggressive than females, this could be linked to

testosterone
Testosterone is secreted in the adrenal glands and is needed to produce
sperm, develop the male reproductive organs , produce facial hair and a
deep voice
Women have testosterone but men produce 10 times more than women
(10mg a day)

Aggression in animals

Castrating a male animal lowers its testosterone levels. This

makes the animal less aggressive. However, if the same animal is
then injected with testosterone then its aggression levels are
restored
Psychologists have to use animals to study aggression because it
would be unethical to castrate a human male or inject them with
testosterone

Animals cannot sort their diferences out by talking so have to resort to

aggression to resolves issues

Aggression in humans

Psychologists can take blood from humans and measure

levels of testosterone. They then give them a
questionnaire to rate how aggressive they feel or act.
This is a correlation study ( a link between 2 variables)
It is not conclusive evidence as you cannot know for
certain whether testosterone causes increased
aggression or whether aggression causes increased testosterone.
Evaluation
Strengths
In animals there is a clear cause and efect
relationship between testosterone and
aggression
Human studies show a relationship between
aggression and testosterone in correlation
studies

Weaknesses
Not all humans with high testosterone levels
are aggressive. Some have sporting careers
and use their aggression for a productive
reason
Animal studies cannot be applied to humans
Correlation studies only show a relationship
and are not direct evidence
If testosterone is responsible for aggression
then why are some women more aggressive
than men? And why are not all men
aggressive?

Social Learning Theory of Aggression (Nurture)

Children learn by watching others. This is called observational learning
4 steps of Observational Learning
1. Attention: paying attention to the person being observed
2. Memory: being able to remember what we have seen until it is needed
3. Reproduction: being able to act out what we see (modelling)
4. Motivation: the incentive to copy what has been seen
Role

Models
The person we observe and learn from
Sporting hero
Celebrity
Parent
Teacher
Same sex sibling
Someone of the same age

Identification
We identify with role models who are similar to us or who we look up to
We adopt the behaviours and attitudes of the role models
We believe we can do what they do

Vicarious Learning
Indirect learning
We learn from the fortunes or misfortunes of others
The reward we see others receive motivates us to copy them and also
receive a reward (vicarious reinforcement)
Similarly, if we see someone being punished then we are less likely to
copy their behaviour (vicarious punishment)
Albert Bandura 1961

Children watched an adult beat up a Bobo Doll. When

they were allowed to play with the doll themselves,
many of the children also attacked the clown
Boys were more aggressive than girls
Children in the control group who saw the adult playing
nicely, also played nicely and showed no aggression
The children knew the aggressive acts were wrong as
some were heard saying ladies shouldnt do things like
that
Children who did not copy the aggressive behaviour
could still describe the aggression. This shows they
learnt the behaviour even if they did not imitate it

Evaluation of the Social Learning Theory

Strengths
Banduras study supports this theory
Many tragedies such as high school
shootings have shown that the murderers
have been influenced by violence on TV

Weaknesses
It could be said that aggressive children
chose to watch aggressive TV shows as they
already identify with them
Many children have seen violence on TV but
most do not copy it
Watching violence can actually lower
aggression as it is a natural release

Content Analysis as a research method

A research method used to measure the number of times a behaviour

occurs in a certain type of media
Psychologists decide what aggressive behaviour is, then develop a list of
sub-categories, then decide on the sample, then tally the aggressive acts,
then asses the reliability of their results
They need to make sure the list of categories are appropriate to what they
are measuring (e.g., kissing would not be an appropriate category when
measuring aggression)
They need to make sure they have a good sample (eg, diferent times of
day, diferent channels, diferent types of media)

A poor study would be unrepresentative and you would not be able to

generalise from the results (eg, if you only looked at programmes after
9pm then there would be more aggression as this is the watershed)
It is important that more than one psychologist conducts the content
analysis so they can work out an average number of aggressive acts
(everyone views aggression diferently so what one might record as
aggressive, another may say was playing)

Anderson & Dill (2000) Video Games and Aggression

Aim

To investigate whether people who play violent video games become

aggressive

Procedure

Laboratory experiment
210 psychology students split into 2 groups
One group played a violent video game for 30mins
(Wolfenstein 3D)
The other played a non-violent video game for 30 mins (Myst)
They were told the study was about the development of
motor skills
They were told they were playing against another participant in
another cubicle (the other cubicle was actually empty)
They were then asked to play a game where the person who presses
a button first could give their opponent a punishment (blast of loud
noise)

Results

Loudest and longest blasts of noise were given by the participants who
had played Wolfenstein
Women gave greater punishment than men

Conclusion

Playing violent video games makes people think in an aggressive way and
that long-term use could result in permanent aggressive though patterns

Evaluation
Strengths
The researchers had a lot of control over the
experiment. They made sure all participants
had the same instructions and procedure.
This makes the results reliable as they study
can be repeated exactly the same again
The findings have useful implications in the
real world. It tells us that we need age
restrictions for video games

Weaknesses
Even though the participants were told the
study was to test motor skills, they could
have guessed the aim of the study
The study was not true to everyday life (we
usually play video games at home)
The study broke ethics- they deceived the
participants and they could have caused
them harm with the loud noise

Charlton et al (2000): St Helena Study

St Helena is a small isolated island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is 2000km from
mainland Africa and only accessible by boat. It has a
population of about 5000 people, with just over 1000
school children. It is a very close-knit community where
everyone knows each other.
Aim

To investigate the efects of TV on childrens

behaviour

Procedure

A natural experiment as the researchers did not set

up anything. TV was already planned to be
introduced (Independent Variable= before TV and after TV. Dependent
Variable= childrens behaviour)
They started observing 2 years before TV was introduced to the island
They gave questionnaires to the childrens parents and teachers about
their behaviour
They observed children in the playground
They content analysed what and how much the children watched TV

Video cameras were placed in classrooms

Results

Very little diference in behaviour before and after introduction of TV

Conclusion

Due to the close-knit nature of the community, TV did not make the
children more aggressive

Evaluation
Strengths
It was a natural experiment which means it
has greater realism than a laboratory
experiment
The cameras were discreet so the children
would act naturally as they did not know they
were being observed

Weaknesses
It could be said that because the community
was close-knit, the parents and teachers did
not report aggression because they did not
want the researchers making bad judgements
about them
Other psychologists have criticised the study
as there were not the same programmes
being shown in St Helena as in other
countries (eg, Power Rangers and Teenage
Mutant Ninja Turtles were not shown in St
Helena)

Williams et al (1981) TV and aggression

Aim

To see if aggression in children increased after the introduction of TV

Procedure

They researched 3 towns before and after the introduction of TV

Notel had no TV
Unitel had one TV channel
Multitel had several TV channels
They measured aggression in the playground and classroom
They looked at the leisure activities the community were involved in

They measured the IQ of the children

They measured the creativity and reading ability of the
children

Results

The children in Notel were twice as aggressive after the

introduction of TV
Children and adults in Notel spent less than half the time they
had previously spent on leisure activities as they were
watching more TV
Children became less creative
IQ scores dropped slightly after TV was introduced
Although aggression increased in all towns over the 2 years, aggression
levels in Notel increased the most

Conclusion

TV increased aggression, lowered creativity and intelligence

Evaluation
Strengths
The study was a natural experiment so has
far greater realism than laboratory
experiments
Children were observed for 2 years, before
and after TV so their behaviour could be
directly compared
The children were observed in natural
surroundings, and the researchers did not
start recording their behaviour until the
children were used to their presence so they
acted naturally

Weaknesses
The researchers could not control what or
how much TV the children watched (many
may have not watched violent shows)
The researchers spent a lot of time
observing so their results could be bias to fit
their aim
How can you measure behaviour? MAYBE
USING A GRAPH

Similarities and difference between Charlton & Williams

Similarities
Both natural experiments
Both real communities
Neither community had access to TV before
the study began
Both studies used observations and
questionnaires

Differences
St Helena was a remote island but Notel was
on the mainland
Diferent sense of community- St Helena was
a small close-knit community where
everyone knew each other
Diferent guidance and parental
monitoring(St Helena was proud of its
community spirit and good behaviour record)
Cultural diferences between the 2 locations

Cultural Theory of Aggression (Nurture)

If some cultures are more aggressive than others, it would suggest that our
levels of aggression are not determined by natural occurrences. Instead we are
afected by the environment we are brought up in.

Ramirez et al (2001)
Aim

to investigate whether aggression varied between cultures

to investigate aggression levels between males and females

Procedure

400 psychology students who volunteered

Half were Spanish, half were Japanese
All had to complete a questionnaire measuring verbal aggression, physical
aggression, anger and hostility
The questionnaires included Likert-style questions (1=strongly agree, 5=
strongly disagree)

Results

Japanese students showed more physical aggression than the

Spanish
Spanish students showed more verbal aggression than the
Japanese
Males from both cultures showed more aggression and hostility
than females
Males and females in both cultures showed the same level of anger

Conclusion

The cultural stereotype of Japanese being shy is inaccurate

The finding that the Spanish are more verbally aggressive fits the
stereotype
The study supports the widely held view that males are more
aggressive than females

Evaluation
Strengths
The questionnaires provided quantitative
data (numbers) so cannot be interpreted
diferently by other researchers
It was an ethical study as the students knew
the results would be published

Weaknesses
The participants were psychology students
and so may have tried to guess the aim of
the study (response bias). Or may have
answered the questions in a social desirable
way
They could only answer how they think they
would act. In reality they may act very
diferently

The job of an Educational Psychologist

Skills required

Good listening skills

Communication skills such as empathic listening (responding in a way that
shows you have listened)
The ability to talk to a range of diferent people (old, young, shy, parents,
teachers etc)

Qualifications required

Degree in Psychology recognised by the BPS (Brtish Psychological Society)

Experience in education (you no longer have to have trained as a teacher)
3 year doctorate in educational psychology

Chartered status

You have satisfied the requirements of the BPS and are registered on their
Directory of Chartered Psychologists list

Who you might work for

The Local Education Authority responsible for all state

schools in the area
An independent school (fee-paying school)
Self-employed

What an Educational Psychologist does

Statutory (legal) duty- they carry out assessments of children with

special needs. The Education Act of 1996 has set out a Code of Practice.
This code requires that children with special needs achieve their full
potential. The Ed Psych carries out the assessment to make sure they
achieve their potential by involving other agencies.
Consultation- they talk to teachers and other staf and parents to give
advice on how to fulfil a childs needs
Individual assessments- they carry out IQ test and other standardised
tests (literacy , numeracy, physical abilities and language). They carry out
tests for dyslexia. They have to use open questions when talking to
children so they dont influence their responses
Planning intervention-after gathering information the Ed Psych plans
and intervention. This means planning a way to solve the problem. They
advise the teacher/parent/pupil but do not put the plan into action
themselves. They will however, check up on progress and review.
Training- they train teachers, parents and children
Research- they may choose to carry out a research project (eg, how to
help children in year 7 with social skills)
Multi-agency working- working with health workers, social services and
education personel to support a child or family
System-Level working- they may advise on systems in schools, eg
bullying policies in schools
Keeping up-to-date- they must keep up to date with new theories and
ways of working (CPD-continuing professional development)

Multi-Professional diagnosis- a psychiatrist will formally diagnose

disorders such as ADHD but an Ed Psych may be involved in
early diagnosis and refer the child to the Psychiatrist

Educational Psychology and Anger Management

An Ed Psych will be approached if a child shows anger in the classroom as the
child wont learn when they are angry. They also afect other children in the
classroom. It is important for a child to learn to control their anger.
Observing the child and the situation

The Ed Psych may go into the classroom to see what triggers the
behaviour and to look for patterns
The teacher is also asked to keep records and is given a form so they know
what to look out for
The aim is to identify an incident before it occurs

Gathering Evidence

Parents are always invited to the school to discuss issues

Sometimes the Ed Psych visits the childs house
The Ed Psych tries to determine whether the behaviour is shown at home
as well or just at school
The Ed Psych then asks the teachers whether they notice a pattern to their
behaviour at school (eg, certain lessons, children, members of staf, time
of day etc)
The Ed Psych also talks to the child

Helping to solve the problem

They help the teacher to identify signs before an outburst

They help the child to identify when an incident will happen and teach
them techniques to calm them down
They will refer the child to other specialists if they think this will help

The Watershed
Censorship- information is censored if it is considered to be harmful. Eg,
military information is censored to stop it getting into the wrong hands.
Moral censorship is when information is censored for moral and ethical
reasons. The material is thought to be too obscene for some viewers (eg,
pornography, violence swearing).

British Board of Film Classification (BBFC)- set up in 1912. Categorises films

to indicate what age group the film is suitable for. Eg, a U film is suitable for
children from the age of 4. It has no bad language. There is some kissing and

some nudity (as long as it is not sexual), mild violence is OK and mild horror is
allowed if there is a reassuring ending.

The Watershed- in the UK there is a 9pm watershed, which means

that certain programmes are only allowed to be shown after 9pm.
It is designed to protect children from viewing unsuitable material
such as acts of sex and violence.

Authoritarian Governments- a style of government where people have to

accept the governments decision. There will be strict censorship of most types
of media in these countries to allow the government to keep control
Paternalistic Government- a style of government where the government
takes a father role and decisions are made for the good of everyone. Again,
most media is censored in this type of country.

Arguments for and against censorship and the watershed

For
Research from 18 workshops carried out by
programme makers (ITV and BBC) found that
95% of adults and 72% of children thought
the watershed should stay to protect children
It is useful because it helps show parents
what programmes are suitable for young
children
Research has shown that children learn by
watching others (Social Learning Theory) so it
is a good idea to prevent children watching
violence on TV
Censorship protects children from viewing
acts they are not ready for.

Against
Cumberbatch (1999) found that 89% of
people said they (not regulators) should
decide what they watch and 62% thought
that parents should be responsible for what
their children watch
Censorship restricts peoples freedom to
choose what they want to watch. In a free
country people should be free to watch what
they like
It can restrict freedom of speech

Paternalistic and Authoritarian governments

may use censorship to control their society
and restrict the freedom of their citizens

Are Criminals Made or Born?

Biological explanations of criminality
There are several ways to study whether criminality has a biological basis. We
can look
at genetics to link it to criminality.
Family Studies

This includes comparing the family trees of criminals and non criminals.
If more relatives are criminals there could be a biological basis for
criminality and vice versa.

Adoption Studies

They look at adopted relatives, siblings and twins that are adopted at
young age.
By taking the environment out of the picture we can be sure that genetics
are the cause of criminality.
Mednick- studied adopted children. He found that adopted children with
criminal records also had biological fathers with criminal convictions
even though was not raised by them. This was true even when
siblings had been raised in diferent adoptive homes.

Twin Studies
Two types of twins- Identical and non identical
Identical twins look the same because all their genes are in common. Nonidentical have half their genes in common.

Christianson studied 3586 pairs of twins in Denmark.

Found if an identical twin was a criminal 52% of the time the other twin
was also a criminal.
This was only true in 22% of cases with non identical twins
Found link with property crime not violent crime.

Chromosone abnormalities

Blood samples can be taken from criminals to see if they have any
chromosome abnormalities that cause criminal behaviour.
Normal men have an XY chromosome
Researchers found men with extra Y chromosome (XYY) are more likely to
be violent and criminal.
This is not inherited
However it is not true of all violent criminals

XYY bad guys

These murderers were found to have a chromosome abnormality- Richard Speck,
John Wayne Gacy, Arthur Shawcross

Social Explanations
Family patterns are the experiences children have
during their family life.
Divorce

Children who
come from
broken homes
are twice as
likely to become
a criminal
Boys can be
afected as have
no father figure
role model
Girls become
depressed
rather than
aggressive
Higher likelihood
that children will
sufer negatively

Maternal
Deprivation
Main caregiver
forms a special
bond with a child
Can become
distressed when
separated from
them
If happens during
first 2 years can
have long lasting
efects
John Bowlby
found 12 of the
14 boys who felt
no guilt after their
crime had been
separated from

Family Size

Parental
Occupation

Farrington found
families with 6
or 7 children
were more likely
to be linked to
criminality

Jobs parents have is

only slight link to
criminality

Due to lack of
attention and
supervision each
child was given
Families with
low income ofer
fewer
educational
opportunitiesbeen linked to
persistent youth
ofending and

Western showed
fathers occupation
not an indicator of
crime. But mothers
occupation did have
an efect.

Women who worked

in jobs such as
factory workers were
more likely to have
children turn to
crime- due to the
long hours.

if were serious
arguments
before the
divorce

their primary
caregiver before 2
years old

drug use

Understanding family patterns

It is very difficult to pinpoint the exact reasons for criminal behaviour.

Farrington concluded that it is usually a number of factors that lead to
criminality

Farrington

Studied 411 boys from London over 40 years

Factors linked to crime:
- Low supervision of parents
- Poor housing
- Parental neglect
- Harsh or inconsistent parenting
- Separation of parents
- Low achievement at school
None of these factors alone determines criminal behaviour.
Strongest research suggests that prolonged separation from caregiver and
argument sin family home may influence an individual to turn to crime.

Childbearing

The ways in which parents bring up their children is known as childbearing

strategies. Hofman identified 3 types:

Induction: explaining to a child what they have done wrong and consequences
of their actions. Encourages empathy
Love withdrawal: withdraws afection to make them feel guilty for bad
behaviour.
Power assertion: parent smacks the child or tells them of. This strategy is
one most associated with delinquency and can develop into aggression.

Although his theory seems to suggest that parents are responsible

it is clear that may factors contribute to delinquency, it is likely this
is just one factor amongst many.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, when people are treated in

accordance with a stereotype then they are more likely to act in this way.
If people expect us to behave badly or in a criminal way then we will
conform to that expectation.
Low expectations :
Good example is how were treated at school. If a teacher thinks
were not doing well they expect less from us. Leads to poor
performance.

Rosenthal & Jacobsen:

- Tested whether achievement could be self-fulfilling.
- Gave children an IQ test and told teachers who were bloomers and
average. This was a lie.
- Found that teachers gave all their attention to the bloomers.
- Re tested children and found that the IQ of pretend bloomers had
actually risen and average children fallen.
- Teachers expectations had afected their ability.

All in a name:
- Jahoda studied Ashanti people in Africa
- Believe the name of boys can be linked to temperament and the
day of the week they were born.
- From studying arrest records found boys born on Wednesday were
more aggressive
- People around them may have treated them diferently as expected
them to behave aggressively
- .
Understanding self-fulfilling prophecy
- Problem with this theory is that it would be very unethical to treat
someone diferently to see if it afected their behaviour
- Sometimes we choose not to let other peoples expectations to
influence us-we prove them wrong.

Nature vs. Nurture

This is the debate where some believe that criminals or born or made.

Nature- argues criminal behaviour is inherited through our genes.

Therefore if a family member is a criminal we are more likely to be
criminals ourselves. Another theory is that abnormal chromosomes can
afect aggression.

Nurture- It is our upbringing that causes criminality. Refers to family

patterns such as divorce, and family size. Links to how we are raised, what
childbearing strategies our parents use. Also idea of self fulfilling prophecy.

Theilgaard (1984) The Criminal Gene

Aim:
-

He wanted to see if criminals had a particular gene that could be

responsible for criminal behaviour.
Procedure

Theilgaard and colleagues took blood samples from 30,000 men born in
1940s
16 had the XXY abnormality
12 had XYY abnormality
Criminal history and background was taken and given intelligence and
personality tests

Interviewing and researcher bias

-

Theilgaard used a social worker who didnt know the aim of the study
to interview the men.
- Avoided problem of researcher bias.
Results
- Found that XYY males had slightly lower levels of intelligence than
average and tended to be more aggressive towards other people
- However there were far more similarities between the XXY males and
XYY males than there were diferences. No solid evidence of a criminal
gene was found.
Evaluation

Strengths
all tests and interviews were conducted b
an independent social worker, therefore
would not have been biased and led the
males to answer in a particular way
Theilgaard used a vast range of tests to
measure diferent aspects of mens lives,
backgrounds and personality.

Weaknesses
There was only a small sample of menhardly surprising only 1 in 1000 males are
born with XYY chromosome
Cannot be sure that all XYY males are more
aggressive or lower intelligence as only 12
tested
The link between aggression and
aggression is only a correlation; there could
many other reasons for the aggression in
these males-such as frustration at school
due to lower intelligence.

Sigall and Ostrove(1975) : Attractiveness and jury

decision- making
Aim
- Whether attractiveness afected jury decision making
- Whether there was a relationship between attractiveness and type of
crime committed
- Used two crimes of burglary and fraud
Procedure
- 120 participants given piece of card with a crime written on it and a
photo of a woman known as Barbara Helms
- Split into 6 groups of 20 participants. Each group saw either an
unattractive picture of Barbara or attractive picture and read about the
fraud or burglary she had committed.
- All participants asked to rate how attractive she was. Then asked the
jurors to give Barbara a sentence from 1-15 years.
Results

Attractive photo
Burglary
Fraud

2.80
5.45

Unattractive
photo
5.30
4.35

No photo
5.10
4.35

Shows similar length of sentence awarded for both crime with

unattractive photo and no photo.
- However the attractive photo had a big efect- they though she should
spend longer in prison for fraud and less for burglary
- Attractive people associated with fraud because they use their
good looks to swindle money out of others.
- However we do not believe a good looking person could break
into somewhere and steal
Conclusion
- Highlights the importance good looks can have on juries. Good looking
people get away with crimes but if they have used their looks to
commit the crime they are less likely to get away with it.
Evaluation
Strengths
Used good controls; participants all given
same instructions, Findings are reliable
A control group was useful to show whether
photos afected the decisions or not.
Participants didnt know what other groups
were doing so less likely to guess

Weaknesses
Not realistic as it is not what a jury
would not normally experience-juror
would see them in person
Juries only normally decide if
defendant is guilty or not, not give out
sentences.

Study could be used in real life to inform

jurors not to base decision on looks
Asked to rate the attractiveness of Barbara.
This made sure they agreed that the person
was attractive as peoples opinions of
attractiveness can vary

Madon(2004) Self fulfilling prophecy and drinking

behaviour
Aim
- See if parents expectation of their childs drinking habits would
become a reality.
Procedure
- Questioned 115 children aged between 12 and 13 and their parents
- Parents were asked to guess how much alcohol their children drank or
would drink over the coming year
- Year later children asked to say how much alcohol they actually
consumed
Results
- Found children who drank most alcohol were the ones whose
parents had predicted they would

It only took one parent to have a negative opinion of their childs

drinking to show a relationship with high levels of drinking
- However the child seemed at greater risk of higher alcohol use of
both parents held negatives beliefs
Conclusion
Evaluation
Strengths

Weaknesses

Large sample of participants, results likely

to be true

Parents may not have influenced their

children at all, just accurate

Gives a strong warning to parents about

the impact of negative beliefs on children

Many other people influence children not

just parents
Study only shows a correlation
A questionnaire may have social
desirability bias-children may say they
drink more to look tough
Socially sensitive because it can viewed as
parent-blaming

Is criminal research practical and ethical?

Problems with
biological research

Chromosome

abnormalities are very

difficult to detect
There are may
diferent types of
criminals-a criminal
gene as a general;
concept is unlikely to
be found
Many criminals are
successful and not
caught so cant be
used in the study

Problems with social

research

It is only link and there

may be another
causes for criminal
behaviour
Criminals and their
families are
questioned- may not
have a great memory,
asking criminals
themselves can be
unreliable and it could
be away of them not
taking responsibility
for their actions

Ethical problems

To tell a criminal their behaviour

is due to chromosomes or family
genes would leas them to not
take responsibility for their
actions
Investigating self fulfilling
prophecy can reinforce existing
labels
The studies conducted always
maintain participants
anonymity
If a genetic link was found to
criminality could be very
dangerous as could be used to
control individuals

Gathering information from Convicted offenders

Convicted criminals are sometimes used in criminal research, such as
murderers and rapists. We can ask direct questions on their crimes and about
their families who may also have been convicted of crimes. It is a valid way of
investigating crimes but it has problems.
Practical Problems

Convicted killers may use the research as a way of gaining early release
by saying sorry. This might lead to results that reflect dishonesty not truth
They may try to glorify their crimes
They might feel guilty about their crimes and feel uncomfortable talking
about it
May belie the information they give could be used to convict another
criminal. They fear that the other criminals might get back at them. This
could lead to distress
Might withhold certain information to protect themselves.

Ethical Problems

The process can be therapeutic for some criminals as they can get it of
their chest
But others may feel intimidated and threatened by being asked personal
questions
Criminals should not be treated any diferent from other participants
They have the same human rights as any other member of society
They should have the right to consent, to withdraw, have privacy
respected and be debriefed. No harm or distress should be caused
They might feel guilt about their crimes and feel uncomfortable

Offender Profiling
Ofender profiling is the name of a process the police use to
catch criminals. It helps to narrow down the suspects
Features such as the type of crime, victim, and the time of day
the location all can tell us more about the type of person who committed
the crime.
There are often similarities between crimes committed by the same
person that can be picked out
The way in which an ofender commits a crime is a reflection of their self
Sometimes they will not change their normal behaviour when they commit
a crime. This is known as criminal consistency
The aims of offender profiling

The profile can give clues about evidence that might be found on the
criminal such as souvenirs
The profile can help police to predict the types of future victims and
ofences
It can also suggest very useful interview techniques for the police to use

Creating a profile
1. Analysis of the crime-police make detailed records of victims, place etc
2. Build a list of probable feature of a criminal e.g. Race, sex, occupation,
marital status, criminal history
Does it work?

 A handful of profiles have been successful

There are some which have led to victimisation and entrapment of
innocent people
Many people argue it is just guesswork
The problem with measuring the success of a profile is that it is just
one link in a chain of many when police try to catch a criminal-there
are many factors which afect the successful arrest of a criminal
But a profile does guide the police, if the profile is wrong the criminal
could slip through the net
Most police officers believe it is useful

The case of John Duffy

The case

26 sex attacks between 1982 and 1986 as well as 3 murders

All committed against young women
All in and around London, near railway stations

Witness report

Women victims approached near railways

Man attempted to talk to women before attacking them
Forced into side street
Used a knife and hands restrained with a rope
Attempted to forma relationship with the women
Cleaned the victim to remove any physical evidence

The profile

David Canter developed a profile based on the evidence

He reasoned that Dufy tied up his victims just because he was not a
strong man so was too small to restrain them himself
As he was small he could approach his victims without them seeing him a
s a threat
Looking at the man John Dufy you can tell the profile was accurate.
Canter used the criminal consistencies hypothesis to good efect
John Dufy found and arrested 7 November 1986 and convicted of 3
murders and 7 counts of rape.

The job of the Forensic

Psychologist
What they do

Works in courts to uncover psychological issues

Looks at psychological aspects of criminal activity
Looks at psychological issues to do with treating criminals
Sets up treatment programmes and evaluates them.

Work on ofender behaviour to look at the needs of the prisoner as well as

staf
Also a research role-might gather data
May give advice in court and advise parole boards
Work with other agencies, assessing problems and coming up with
interventions

Who do they work with?

Work with ofenders and prison staf to reduce and manage stress
Might work with victims and witnesses to support them and help them
overcome problems.
Might work width judges and juries in court

The problems with psychopathic disorders

This is defined as having no guilt or conscience and showing behaviour

that is very aggressive or violent. The person does not function normally
with regards to social norms and rules
Treatability of psychopathic disorders is in debate
They can be detained in hospitals to protect the public but are not always
on a treatment programme, should they be in hospital or a prison?
To be treatable they must show progress

Becoming a Forensic Psychologist

Who might they work for?

Mainly for HM prison service. Can also
be employed by NHS because they
work in secure hospitals
Can work in young ofender units or
probation
could be self employed or work in
universities teaching and doing
research

Skills required
Communication is main skill
Listen carefully and speak comfortably
with people
Be able to write well and produce
concise reports
Observes a lot to gather information
so need to know body language
Need problem solving skills

Qualifications required

Chartered status

Degree in psychology
Work experience is preferred before
applying for a masters in forensic
psychology
It is one of the fastest growing areas of

Need to have satisfied requirements of

the British Psychological Society
Being on the list gives you credibility
which is important if you are self

psychology
They work with criminals themselves
as well as people working with
criminals such as the police

employed

How a forensic psychologist might help treat offenders

Treatment of offenders

It is the forensic psychologist who is likely to develop rehabilitation

programmes
Might develop one to one programmes or group therapies.
Aim is to address both behaviour and psychological needs

Personal Construct therapy

It is an example of the sort of therapy that can be used by forensic
psychologists. might involve the following:
1. Thinking of the people you know
2. Writing down one way in which the two of them are the same and one
way they are diferent
3. Repeating steps 1 and 2 a number of times so that you come up with
more people
Personal construct therapy is based on the idea that an individual sets
their own constructs of how they see other people.
In this therapy the psychologist helps the person to understand their
constructs and then does it again later to see how theyve changed
Treating Drug abuse

Drug abuse is linked to crimes such as stealing., nay crimes committed to

fund their habit
If treated properly should not reofend
Treatment would involve prescribing substitute drugs and providing
support and counselling
Probation service can help give them adequate housing and funding
UK drug Policy Commission says not enough evidence of efective
treatments for drug abuse. Maybe because they return to community
where they mix with other abusers
Life pressures can lead to drug abuse in the first place as well as pressures
of being an ex prisoner

Treating sexual offenders

It is mandatory that sex ofenders attend a treatment programme

One issue is what causes sex ofending. If it is biological then biological
treatments are likely to be appropriate

However medication is not considered efective partly because the

underlying causes many be non sexual
One difficulty in planning treatment for sex ofenders is that the ofenders
themselves vary in temperament, reasons why they ofend and the types
of sex crimes committed

Sex offender problems that may need treating

Intimacy problems
Poor childhood relationships with parents can lead to loneliness and lack of
skills in intimacy. Could also have distorted views of what is acceptable
behaviour
Social skills problems
Child molesters tend to lack confidence and have difficulty mixing socially.
Sex ofenders are thought to misinterpret signals from women. Some may
also see aggression as socially acceptable
Problems with empathy
Empathy means being able to take the view of someone else to have
compassion. These skills are missing in sex ofenders especially rapists
and child abusers.
Cognitive distortions
If the sex ofender has distorted thinking they can justify their behaviour
to themselves
Cognitive behavioural therapy and behaviour modification

Treatment for sex ofending involves group therapy using cognitive

behavioural principles
CBT involves helping someone to change how they think about something
and therefore behave diferently
Behaviour modification is also used. It is focused on helping someone
change their behaviour not their thinking

How defendant characteristics affect jury decision

making

What happens in a court room?

Serious criminal ofenses are dealt with in a court of law with a judge and
jury.
Jury is a group of 12 people who have been randomly selected from the
local area
Jury listens to all the evidence and testimony

The jurors talk to each other in private before making a decision. If the jury
comes to a guilty verdict the judge decides on a sentence
However sometimes innocent people can be sent to prison by mistake and
guilty people go free
Psychologists try to find out why this happens

Can juries make a mistake?

They should base their decision only on what they see and hear in the
courtroom
This ought to be a fair process
However they might be afected by other factors
We often judge people in everyday life based on the way they look and
sound and this means jurors can use it to decide someones guilt without
even realising they are doing it

Defendant characteristics
Race
Higher proportion of ethnic minorities in prison (15%) than in the UK general
population (8%). If we have a stereotypical view of black men ads more likely to
commit a crime then we are more likely to find them guilty.
Some studies found white jurors more likely to find clack defendants guilty
Skilnick and Shaw found that both black and white jurors were less likely to
find black defendants guilty and that black jurors we more likely to find white
defendant guilty
Attractiveness
We often view attractive people as more intelligent. This means we are less likely
to judge an attractive person as guilty. Taylor and Butcher conducted mock
study and found that more attractive people were judged as less guilty and got
shorter sentences than unattractive people
Accent
If a defendant is well spoken we might find them not guilty of robbery. If they
have a strong regional scent the reverse is true because we might see them as
needing the money more than the posh person.
Mahoney and Dixon found that brummies were more likely to be found guilty
of armed robbery than cheque fraud compared to someone with a posh accent

Why do we have
phobias?
Classical conditioning and Phobias
Pavlov and his dogs

Ivan Pavlov explained classical conditioning- a way that animals sand people can
learn to link two things together
He was studying eating in dogs by measuring their saliva; sometimes they
produced it (response) before the food arrived. He thought this was
because they could hear the footsteps (stimulus) of the person carrying
the food.
He tested this idea using a dog with a tube in its cheek to measure its
saliva. Eventually the dog learned to associate the bell with the food

The conditioning process

The bell had no efect at the start= neutral stimulus (NS)

The food naturally produces salivation= unconditional stimulus = UCS
The natural salivation to food=unconditional; response
After the association process, the bell =conditioned stimulus (CS)
The efect the bell has is salivation= conditioned response (CR)
Before conditioning:
Neutral stimulus=no efect, unconditional stimulus= unconditioned response
During conditioning:
Neutral stimulus + unconditional stimulus= unconditioned response
After conditioning:
Conditioned stimulus= continued response

Classical conditioning and phobias

If a real fear is triggered by something when a harmless stimulus is present, an

association made be made between the two
This can cause a phobia to be learned
Watson and Rayner produced a phobia in a little boy called Albert. Each time a
white rat was shown to him a loud noise was made. The noise frightened him and
he associated this fear with the rat. Alberts fear was generalised to all things
white.

Can phobias be changed?

Even in people conditioned responses takes many trials to be learn. If a

conditioned stimulus is repeated many times without the unconditioned stimulus,
the conditioned response is lost. This is called extinction.
Extinction doesnt happen very easily. Once a phobia has been learned it is hard
to lose

Learning fears in one trial

Classical conditioning usually takes many trials but phobias can be learned from a
single event. This is called one-trial learning
Example: A person be afraid of driving if they have one bad car accident

Social learning theory and phobias

Role models and learning

Some research has shown that animals can learn to eat or avoid foods by
observing the behaviours of other birds.
In an experiment Coombes let two rats drink from a spout
One rat had been given an injection to make it sick
Later both rats avoided the drinking spout
The rat which hadnt been sick learned not to drink because it had seen the other
rat being sick
Learning to avoid something unpleasant is similar to learning a fear

Social learning and phobias in animals

Social learning applies to emotions as well as behaviours, for example people can
copy the anger or sadness of a role model. Can fear be learned by observing
others?
Mineka et al found that their lab monkeys which had grown up in the wild were
afraid of snakes. The ones born in captivity were not.
He thought the ones born in the wild were scared because they had learned it
from observing adults in the wild.
To test this they watched the monkeys reactions to:
- Snakes (real, toys, models)
- Other things ( black and yellow cord, triangles etc)
The wild born monkeys were only afraid of the snakes. The lab were not afraid of
any of the objects
The lab monkeys watched the wild born monkeys and learned to fear snakes
Social learning can produce fear in animals even when the object of fear is not
dangerous

Social learning and phobias in humans

Why do phobias sometimes run in families?

Children could be observing and imitating their parents fears.
Evidence suggests that one factor afecting childrens dental phobia is whether
their parents are anxious about the dentist (Townend).
Lieb looked at why children have social phobias like being scared of new people.
They found that children were more likely to have a social phobia of their
parents did, so the children may have imitated their behaviour.

Phobias and Preparedness

Evolution and phobias

Some behaviours are adaptive and can help an animal stay alive. It shows that
sometimes fear can be useful.
Animals that respond with fear to dangerous situations are less likely to be injured
However we often have irrational fears about objects or situations which arent
dangerous

Preparedness

Seligman suggested we learn links between some things more easily than others.
For example we are more likely to fear deep water than long grass.
Evolution seems to have prepared us to learn about things that are threatening.
This is called preparedness
Seligman thought that less input was needed to learn an association to a prepared
stimulus than to a non prepared one.
He believed that prepared stimulus would have been threatening to humans early
in their evolution. Such as fire, lightening, deep water
People who avoided getting hurt would have had more children
If playing it safe was partly controlled by genes, the children would also be more
likely to survive
This is an example of survival of the fittest

Learning to fear some things and not others

Seligman is saying that we have evolved to be conditioned to feat some things
more easily than others.
Preparedness is useful as it can explain more than simple classical conditioning
However phobias are not random
The ideas of preparedness can explain why some phobias are more common than
others
It also explains why we dont fear more modern things that are potentially
dangerous such as knives and electricity

The Nature-Nurture debate

What is nature?

It is the biological factors that afect our development.

We know that genes can influence our personality and whether we develop some
mental illnesses
So parents with phobia could pass them on to their children through their genes

What is nurture?

It is how out environment influences our development

Social learning says that our behaviour changes because we observe models.
In classical condition we learn by associating two stimuli such as bell and food for
Pavlovs
dogs

Nature-nurture debate and phobias

A tendency to learn phobias can be genetic. They can pass on their genes which may
make their
children more likely to learnt o be afraid
Alternatively social learning theory says that if a parent had a phobia, the child would
see the way the
parent behaves and would imitate it

Evidence for the nature argument

The idea of preparedness supports the nature debate

Suggests genetic influence on the kinds of things we feat
Bennett and Levy showed that more people were afraid of animals with certain
characteristics
So people seem more often to fear stimuli that have been prepared by evolution
Slater and Shield found that identical twins were more similar in their phobias
than non identical twins.

Evidence for the nurture debate

Minkea found that monkeys learn fear through social learning
Watson and Rayner used classical conditioning to make Albert
frightened of a white rat. This shows environment can produce phobias
What does the evidence tell us?
Both nature and nurture seem to be important. They may even act together.

Questionnaires
What is a questionnaire?

A set of questions that are written down and given to participants to answer. They
can answer them by ticking boxes or writing in answers.
They can also be done on computers.
They are usually in fixed order and everyone answers all the questions. This is
called a structured questionnaire.
So that the participant knows what to do they are given standardised
instructions. These help to make sure that all participants are treated the same.

Closed questions

They are very simple. They have a fixed number of possible answers and
participants often tick. Example: yes/no.
They produce numerical data and can be tallied to give totals for each answer.

Open ended questions

They produce more in depth answers.

People can describe their feelings, opinions etc.
These can be looked at for patterns, similarities etc

Rank style questions

Ask participants to say how much more or less things are. This can be done in
several ways. Participants can be asked to put a list in order or can choose one
option in a list which is in order: e.g. I like them, I dont really like them, I dont
mind them, I really hate them

Likert type scales

Asked to judge how much they agree with a statement. Can be used to measure
peoples attitudes. E.g. Strongly agree, strongly disagree

Evaluating Questionnaires
Strengths
Standardised instructions
These tell participants what to do and
are the same for everyone. They make
sure that people in diferent conditions
are not treated diferently
Informed consent
They need to know what its about so
they can give their consent. the start of
the questionnaire should give you
enough information to decide whether
you want to continue
Right to withdraw
They should know they can withdraw
and they dont have to answer all the
questions.
Representing real life
This can be more realistic than some
experiments in a lab. It is more relaxed
and is more life like

Weaknesses
Response bias
Participants sometimes fall into a
pattern of answering. You might keep
giving very similar views. Also might
keep saying yes to every question or
choosing middle answer. Sometimes
they give the answers they think the
researcher wants.
Social desirability bias
They know someone will read it so want
to look good. This can make them give
socially acceptable answers rather than
what they really believe
Hiding the aims
Sometimes researchers need to avoid
participants knowing the aims as this
might bias their responses
This is a problem ethically as they
canto give full informed consent

Experiments using animals: Ethical Issues

Causing pain and fear

Some experiments can cause pain or fear. This is only done when it is essential to
the experiment.
The experimenter has to make sure that the lowest level of pain is used.
Coombes: one rat was given an injection to make it sick- they would not have
been made more sick than was needed

Social Isolation

In some experiments its important to keep animals on their own. Social animals
such as dogs, rats and monkeys normally like to live in a group.
For animals like this being on their own can distress them so it should be kept to a
minimum
In all the experiments the animals would have been kept on their own for part of
the time.
In Curios experiment it was important that the birds could hear but not see each
other, so they had to be kept apart.

Numbers of animals

It is often important to use several animals to be sure the result is typical rather
than a one of.
However researchers still need to use as few as they can
Mineka only tested six lab raised monkeys. This is a small amount for an
experiment.

Choice of species
Diferent species find diferent things distressing. For example, a social animal
would find isolation more unpleasant than a species that normally lives alone.
Researchers should choose a species which will be the least distressed.
Jones chose to use a rabbit to help Peter overcome his phobia. This was a good
choice ethically as they are domesticated animals so are less frightened by
contact with people.

Practical issues
Strengths
Humans and animals are similar
We are more similar to some species than others. Moneys are
more humans than dogs or cats, but they are more like humans
than birds are
Animals that are like us have brains like us. This important
because our brains control the way we learn. For example
humans and animals both learn through classical conditioning
and social learning
Using controls
In a lab want to control the variables, such as where the
participant is, how much they can move, the food they eat.
People arent likely to volunteer for this so do it on animals
instead
Controlling these factors improves the experiment
Deprivation
People are unwilling to volunteer for experiments that involve
deprivation. Instead animals are used. Depriving animals of food

Weaknesses

Humans and animals

are different
Although humans and animals
are similar on some ways there
are also important diferences
Humans have bigger brains and
are more complex
We can do things animals cant
and learn in more complex ways
We can learn through insight
where we can work out the
answer. This is unusual in
animals
This means the findings from

or companions is often important. It is possible to do on animals

but very unethical to perform on humans as very harmful

these experiments on animals

may not always apply to humans

Animals are interesting and can benefit

It is interesting to their behaviour regardless of whether it is
useful for understanding humans

Jones (1924): curing a boys phobia

Aim:
To investigate
whether a phobia in
a little boys could
be deconditioned
and whether this
would generalise to
other objects

Procedure
Peter was 2 years, 10 months
when Jones first observed him
She watched him play with
beads in his cot and then
showed him the rat. He
screamed and was moved
away leaving the beads
When the rat touched the
beads he protested but didnt
when somebody else did
Peters reactions to other
objects were observed such as
white ball, doll, fur coat
He was shown a rabbit and was
more afraid of it than the rat so
this was used for
deconditioning
Peter had daily play sessions
with 3 other children and the
rabbit which was not feared by
the others

Results
Peters behaviour improved
and worsened
Sometimes peter got worse,
stayed the same and got
better
Sometimes he was observed
twice a day, sometimes not
so often
From session 8 onwards
classical conditioning was
used to help Peter
Other children acted as role
models and helped Peter to
move closer to the rabbit
He eventually accepted new
animals, lost his fear of
cotton, the coast and
feathers and said I like the
rabbit

Conclusions
Both classical
conditioning and
social learning
helped to
decondition Peter.

Evaluation
Strengths
Jones made detailed
observations over a long
period which show clear
progress and changes
Asked other people to order
the tolerance series so
wouldnt be biased.
She used diferent ways to help
Peter

Evaluation
Weaknesses
The gaps between the
sessions were variable
Used two diferent
techniques as well as other
people who made Peter feel
more confident. This makes
it difficult to see which was
most efective

It also reduced
generalised fears
and helped him to
cope with new
animals

Bennett-Levy and Marteau: Fear of animals

Aim:
To see whether we are
more afraid of or avoid
animals that:
Move quickly
Move suddenly
Look very diferent from

Procedure
They used 2 questionnaires
Both asked questions about
the same 29 animals. They
were told none of them
were dangerous
Questionnaire 1- asked
about fear of animals and

Findings
Most feared animal was
rat, least was rabbit
Some animals were rated
as more ugly. These
animals were quite
diferent in structure to
humans, such as spiders
and cockroaches

people

close they would get to

them on a fear scale 1-3
and nearness scale 1-5
Questionnaire 2- measured
how the participants felt
about each animal
Total of 30 men and 34
women answered
questionnaire 1.
49 diferent people
answered questionnaire 2
Some were also interviewed

Conclusions
The features of ugliness,
sliminess, speediness
and sudden movement
all make animals more
frightening
Ugliness is judged by
how diferent an animal
is from humans
Supports the idea that
preparedness relates to
an animals features

Evaluation
Strengths
Diferent participants
answered the 2
questionnaires, helped to
make sure they didnt know
what they study was about
Used men and women as
their phobias can be
diferent
Did not see actual animals
which avoided ethical
issues
Findings are useful as an
explain why fears are not
always related to actual
experiences

They found that people

were more afraid of some
animals and less likely to
get near them. for example
even they knew the rats
were harmless they were
still, more likely to be
afraid of them
Overall people were less
likely to approach ugly or
slimy, speedy or suddenly
moving animals
More of afraid of these
animals
Thought that speedy
animals moved suddenly
Men and women judged
ugliness in similar ways

Evaluation
Weaknesses
Participants were told
animals were not
dangerous but many still
thought the rats were
harmful so the instruction
was not successful
Only a few people were
interviewed

Heinrichs et al: Cultural differences in fears

Aim
Wanted to see if being brought up in
diferent cultures afected social
anxiety

Procedure
Total of 909 uni students
studying psychology were
tested
From 8 diferent
universities in 8 diferent
countries. All volunteered
Divided into 2 groupscollectivist (Spain, Korea,
Japan) and individualistic
(USA, Australia, Canada,
Netherlands, Germany)
Given short descriptions of
social situation and asked
how would react]were also
asked to complete a social
anxiety and blushing
questionnaire
This measured their

Results
Participants from
collectivist cultures
often responded in
ways that showed
high social anxiety
Gave answers that
avoided public
interaction or
speaking
They were more
fearful of blushing
and scored higher
on the social
anxiety
questionnaire
compared to
individualistic
cultures

individual fear of social

situations and interaction
with other people.
Blushing questionnaire
measured their fear of
embarrassment

Conclusion
Nature nurture debate
Collectivist countries show
This is relevant to nature
greater social anxiety and
nurture as it relates to
fear of blushing that
development of fears and
individualistic cultures
phobias
This is because they have
This study explains that
strict rules about acceptable
culture determines how we
behaviour. If someone breaks
think and act
the norm they get a greater
In this way culture can
punishment
actually make is anxious or
They will also hold back
confident in social
through fear of letting a
situations
group down if they are wrong
Behaviour is a result of
This is very diferent from
people around us so
individualistic where high
supports nurture side of
value is placed on
the debate
individuality-it is important to
stand out from the crowd and
shyness could be a burden
The social norms we live in guide our behaviour. If social norms determine how we
behave could it also determine the fears we have? Heinrichs and her team focused on
how culture afects social anxiety. Social anxiety is a fear someone has of social
situations such as meeting new people, being watched, public speaking and being the
centre of attention

How to treat Phobias

There are a number of possible therapies for treating phobias. Two of the more traditional
types are flooding and systematic desensitisation.
Flooding
It is an extreme therapy based on the theory of classical conditioning.
Involves confronting your fears directly
Classical conditioning is based in principle of association. We can learn to
associate one thing with another.
Flooding is idea of getting people to associate their fears or phobias with
relaxation
How is flooding done?
Client is forced into situation where they are exposed t o the fear and cannot escape
This is very stressful but body eventually clams down. Body naturally relaxes because
it cant
sustain an anxious state

When we calm down we will learn to associate the fear with relaxation
Joseph Wolpe tested this on a girl afraid of cars and drove her around for hours, after a
while she calmed down and associated her fear with relaxation
Problems with flooding

It is not always considered a very ethical thing to do and people are not always
going to want to be involved in it
Not always efective, more ethical and more tested therapies are preferred

Systematic Desensitisation

Is similar to flooding but is less stressful for the patient

Involves being exposed to the fear and principle is the same of associating fear with
relaxation but is more gradual
1. The patient identifies their fear
2. They develop a list of least and most feared situations. This is called
hierarchy of fears
3. The therapist teaches patient relaxation techniques
4. Therapist introduces patient to the situation at the lowest fear rating, then
moves up to the next level
5. Patient moves up the hierarchy becoming more relaxed each time.
Gradually the patient confronts their works fears and associates with
relaxation

Ethics of treating Phobias

Causing distress

Both flooding and desensitisation cause distress

Because desensitisation is more gradual and allows more patient control it is less
distressing
We must also remember that:
Patients are aware of the nature of the therapy
They are only used for the most serious phobias
Patients have to be clearly distressed ort unable to carry on with normal activities
to access these therapies
Patients know what the therapy involves and whether they are able to withdraw or
not.

Other Phobias
Phobias take many forms. These are some common phobias:
-

Achluophobia- fear of darkness

Algophobia- fear of pain
Xenophobia- fear of strangers
Ophidiophobia- fear of snakes

Right to Withdraw

Patients who undergo flooding cannot withdraw as this could make fear worse in
long term
Systematic desensitisation is diferent because the patient can withdraw at any
stage, this is because have much more control
Unlike flooding withdrawing will not worsen a patients fear.

If they withdraw early it will not help cure the patient completely bit it at least
goes some way to helping them cope with the less threatening experiences of
their phobia
Because of the ethical issues of distress and right to withdraw, desensitisation is a
much more popular therapy.

The Clinical Psychologist

Psychologists in general deal with dysfunction in the sense of mental health
problems and works in health settings.

What a clinical psychologist does

Works with those with
mental health such as
depression, anxiety or
behavioural disorders.

Works with people with

physical illnesses to help
them adjust, cope or make
positive changes.

Suggests solutions
Solutions can involve
therapies, counselling or
advice.

Training
Often involved in training
others.

Multi agency working

Must work in team and
liaise with other agencies
such as social services and
doctors.

Reporting on clients
needs
They need to listen to their
clients and discuss issues.
Likely to observe their
clients behaviour. Might
use psychometric testing.

Deals with anger and

withdrawal in clients, which
can be hard to do. Some of
issues they deal with could
be fears, phobias,
disabilities etc.
Research
They can undertake
research themselves. This
may be a specialism such
as working with adults with
head injuries.
Chartered status CPD
(continued professional
development).

Becoming a clinical psychologist

Who a clinical psychologist might work for

Most work for the NHS. Problems like fears or with relationships are called
illnesses
Opportunities to work within private practice
The British psychological society has a register of chartered clinical psychologists
and they can be contacted about work through the BPS
Some agencies outside hospitals employ them such as universities
They work a normal week Monday-Friday
Earnings can be from 30,000 to 70,000

Skills Required

Needs to be able to listen, understand and reflect on situation of others

Help with solutions
Understanding diversity
Being able to look at your own experiences and how these afect others.
Need to be prepared to search for solutions that are not at first obvious
They need to be able to communicate well to clients and other professionals

Qualifications

Degree in psychology which is recognised by BPS

Have relevant work experience
Apply for a place on a doctorate course which last three years
Once completed then they enter profession as a trainee clinical psychologist in
NHS

Chartered Status

Apply for chartered status with BPS

Means you have met requirements to be called a psychologist
Also involves continuing professional development

Clinical Psychology and Phobias

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

Very popular with clinical psychologists

Has good results in many areas and is derived from scientific theories
Uses twin approach of treating thoughts and behaviours
Tires to replace negative thoughts with less negative thoughts

Exposure based CBT

This involves elements of changing the clients thinking patterns as well as

lowering their fear response to the situations that are feared. Similar to
systematic desensitisation
According to Canada 90% of patients can overcome their phobias in this way even
in a few sessions
Works best for specific phobias rather than social phobias
Process:
1. Understand what phobia is e.g. is the fear of dogs about getting bitten or
catching a disease
2. Develop fear hierarchy
3. Work with client to overcome each stage of fear. Session usually lasts between
one and two hours
Important features of exposure therapy:
The procedure must be gentle and manageable
Allow enough time for the fear to pass. client must feel at least some of the fear
pass at each stage
Sessions must take place often enough that progress is not lost one or two times a
week is best
During sessions client must challenge the thoughts linked with that fear his is how
the therapy links with CBT
Client has to face their fear so can be more confident
Might need skills training as well

Hypnotherapy

This involves helping client into an altered state of awareness.

They are not focussing on every day problems but have heightened awareness
where they can accept suggestions from the therapist about overcoming phobias

Ethical Guidelineshttp://images.google.co.uk/imgres?
imgurl=http://www.nkadd.org/files/Pictures/scales_of_justice.jpg&imgrefurl=http:/
/www.nkadd.org/CommunityEconomic/RegionalEthicsAuthority.asp&usg=__SteQ_r
M0mDX4IN_8OwCKXaVJqI=&h=380&w=351&sz=75&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=u1T8ahTXeRIrM:&tbnh=123&tbnw=114&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dethics%2Bsclaes%26hl
%3Den%26safe%3Dactive%26um%3D1
1. Consent
a) Adult Participants
The investigator should inform the subjects of the objectives of the investigation. A full
description of the procedures to be undergone by the participant should be provided and
any potential hazards should be discussed. This information sheet should be available in
writing.
b) Children
When research involves infants and children under 16 as participants, consent should be
obtained from parents or those 'in loco parentis'. However, if a child clearly shows
distress (eg, crying, refusing etc), the wishes of the child must be followed.
2. Right to Withdraw
The investigator must emphasize that the participant is a volunteer and as such may
withdraw from the investigation at any time. Furthermore, wherever a situation turns out
to be more stressful for an individual subject than anticipated by the investigator or by
the subject, then the investigator has an obligation to stop the investigation.
3. Deception
Deception of subjects or the withholding of relevant information should only occur when
the aims and objectives of the research cannot be met by other means and when the
proposed deception does not produce undue psychological stress. Where deception or
the withholding of information has been necessary, participants must be told afterwards
what the truth was.
4. Debrief
Participants should be told the real aim of the study when it is over. They should also be
returned to the same state as when they started the study.
5.Competence
A researcher must be qualified and capable of carrying out the research. Psychologist
must be members of a professional body. For example, the British Psychological Society
(BPS)
6. Confidentiality & Privacy
Investigations shall endeavour to record information about subjects in ways which do not
allow identification of individuals. If it proves necessary to record data concerning named
individuals then this information must not be communicated to others in a way which
allows identification, without the consent of the subject.
a) Security of results
Investigators must take all reasonable steps to safeguard records of results, including
those stored in a computer.
b) Identifiable material
Any video, audio or photographic recording of subjects, except for those made of public
behaviour in public places, may only be made with their express consent. Such material
would normally only be accessible to the investigator and to others only with the
subject's agreement. Thus a separate consent for recording is usually required.
7. Protection of participants

a) Physical harm: The investigator should refrain from any procedures involving harm
and/or risk of harm to subjects. For example: pain, physical damage, exhaustion, sensory
deprivation, hunger, thirst, sleeplessness.
b) Psychological stress: This concept is difficult to define and to separate from physical
stress. A useful guideline might be the extent to which any normal person would be
distressed or worried by a particular procedure.
How can we protect participants?
Before research is carried out all risk of harm should be investigated and
minimised
Psychologist should seek professional help from colleagues or advisors about how
to minimise risk
Participants should always be given the right to withdraw
Counselling should be ofered to all participants after the study
Results should be kept confidential