Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Lecture notes
Aurel Stratan
Timioara 2014
Contents
COURSE 1.
COURSE 2.
COURSE 3.
COURSE 4.
COURSE 5.
COURSE 6.
COURSE 7.
COURSE 8.
COURSE 9.
Course 1
Introduction to Structures
Structural Materials
Structures
Man-made structures
buildings
bridges
dams
masts
drilling platforms
ships aircrafts, etc.
Natural structures
skeleton of animals
shell of snails
spider's web
tree trunk and branches, etc.
Design criteria
Suitability for its function: a building should be designed
and realised in a manner that will offer to its users a
certain function
Safety and serviceability:
Structures should resist loads and other external actions without
collapse, protecting its inhabitants
Structures should not develop excessive deformations and
cracks, nor vibrate alarmingly
Structural materials
A building consists of the structure and other
components used in order to protect and provide for
building function and aesthetics (cladding, partitions,
floors, etc.)
Structural material is the one which is used in those parts
of the structure which carry loads and give it strength
and stiffness
Properties of
.
structural materials:
strength
stiffness
ductility
.
.
deformation
force
strength
ductility
stiffness
deformation
force
force
ductile
brittle
deformation
deformation
Structural materials
"Traditional" materials: used by builders and engineers
since the ancient times
Stone and timber: occur naturally
Bricks: man-made
sun-dried clay/mud bricks - from 4500 B.C.
fired bricks - from 3000 B.C.
calcium silicate bricks
Ancient concrete:
lime mixed with stone and sand: early civ. of the Middle East
"hydraulic cement" - lime, stone, sand and silicates: Romans
Structural materials
Timber:
substantial tensile strength along the grain
weak in compression and across the grain (difficult to realise
connections in tension)
Granite
Limestone
Brick
Along grain
Timber
(spruce) Across grain
Modern
Stone
Ultimate strength u
(N/mm2)
Tensile Compression
40
200
5
40
6
60
120
30
3.5
2
20
60
355
355
700
700
2000
450
450
Specific strength
All structures have to support their own weight
Can the size of a structure be increased indefinitely for it
to be able to carry its own weight?
Specific strength
Weight = Volume specific weight
W=ALg
Tensile resistance = Area ultimate tensile strength
R = A u
Equate weight to resistance:
W = R A L g = A u
L = u / ( g) = S = specific strength
There is an absolute limit (= S) to the length
that the bar can attain without breaking
Larger a structure is, larger is the
proportion of its own weight to the
total load that can be carried by itself
First to realise this: Galileo Galilei
Specific strength
For structures subjected to tension/compression, as the
size of an object increases, its strength increases with
the square of the ruling dimensions, while the weight
increases with its cube
For each type of structure there is a maximum possible
size beyond which it cannot carry even its own weight
Consequences:
it is impossible to construct structures of enormous size
there is a limit to natural structures (trees, animals, etc.)
larger a structure becomes, stockier and more bulky it gets
large bridges are heavier in proportions than smaller ones
bones of elephants are stockier and thicker than the ones of mice
Specific strength
Material
Traditional
Granite
Stone
Limestone
Brick
Along grain
Timber
(spruce) Across grain
Modern
Ultimate strength u
(N/mm2)
Tensile Compression
40
200
5
40
6
60
120
30
3.5
-
Compression
7000
1800
3200
6000
-
20
90
900
60
270
2700
355
355
4500
4500
600
600
8000
8000
2000
26700
450
450
17000
17000
Specific strength
Stone, brick and concrete: used in compression
Steel: used in tension
Timber: excellent performance in terms of specific
strength, especially in tension
Aluminium: high specific strength
Aircrafts must carry loads and must be capable of being
raised into the air under their own power materials with
high specific strength
wood was extensively used in early planes
modern material: aluminium
Elastic region
Inelastic region
Steel: elastic region
is almost linear
Stone, brick,
concrete, aluminium:
elastic region is
not linear
10
11
Modulus of elasticity
Specific modulus
E (N/mm2)
Ductility
M (m 10
5)
Traditional
Granite
Limestone
Brick
Along grain
Timber
(spruce) Across grain
45 000
30 000
30 000
15 000
-
1.57
1.35
1.60
3.00
-
25 000
1.12
40 000
1.80
210 000
2.80
210 000
2.80
210 000
2.80
Low
ductility
70 000
2.80
Ductile
Stone
Mild steel
Modern
High strength
Iron and steel
steel
Very highstrength
prestressing
wires
Aluminium alloy (dural)
Brittle
NA
Brittle
Large
ductility
Moderate
ductility
12
13
Course 2
Structural action: cables and arches
Structural action
Structural action: the way in which a structure of a given
type and configuration resists the loads acting on it
Types of structures:
Cables
Arches
Trusses
Beams
Plates and shells
Frames
Parabola:
easier to calculate
differences between parabola and catenary negligible for small
spans
Arches
The simplest chain structure
(material working in tension):
Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch
Three-bar arch
Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch
Linear arch (funicular shape) - the shape for which under
loads acting on it (including its own weight), the thrust in
the arch acts along the axis of members at all points
Arches: forms
Perfect arch: shape of catenary (example: Taq-e Kisra
Palace, Ctesiphon, Iraq - built 220 B.C.)
Arches: forms
The first civilisation to
make extensive use of
arches: Romans
Shape of Roman arches:
semicircular
why?
Circle - the easiest way
to set out
Semicircular arch
A cable takes a
circular form
when subjected
to a uniform
radial load
A linear
semicircular
arch: loaded by
uniform radial
pressure
Loading in
bridges and
buildings quite
different from the
condition above
Gothic arches
Gothic period - pointed
arches
Rectangular spans can be
covered by varying the
ratio of rise to span
10
Gothic arches
A kink in an weightless cable implies a concentrated
force at the kink, as well as a distributed load along the
two sides corresponding shape of linear Gothic arch
This condition is not present in almost all Gothic arches,
which requires support from the adjoining masonry
Gothic arches
Correct use of pointed arch: Font Pedrouse viaduct in
France
11
Arches: design
A stone arch
(no strength
in tension)
will fail when
the thrust line
reaches the
extrados and
intrados in
four points,
becoming a
mechanism
Arches: design
19th century approach - avoid cracking (tensile stresses)
under service loads - keep the thrust line within the
middle third of the arch cross-section
12
Arches: design
Thrusts at
springings
(reactions at
supports) are
inclined:
vertical component
horizontal
component
Horizontal
reactions tend to
spread the
supports apart
buttresses can be
used, especially for
arches/vaults on
high walls
Arches: buttresses
13
Course 3
Structural action: trusses and beams
Arch
Truss
rafter
tie
Relieving of support
spreading: adding a tie
between the supports
Truss forces
Truss members connected by
pins: axial forces
(direct stresses) only
Supports:
one pinned, allowing free rotations
due to slight change of truss shape
due to loading
one roller bearing support ("simple
support") - allowing free rotations
and lateral movement due to
loading and change in temperature
- (C)
- (C)
+ (T)
Truss forces
If more forces are present within
the length of the rafter
bending stresses
Truss shapes
Curved shape of the arch: difficult to fabricate trusses
with parallel chords
Trusses with parallel chords: web members (diagonals
and struts) carry forces whatever the loads
Pratt truss:
top chord in compression
bottom chord and diagonals in tension
economical design as
longer members
(diagonals) are in tension
Truss shapes
Howe truss:
top chord in compression
bottom chord in tension
diagonals in compression
Warren truss:
top chord in compression
bottom chord in tension
diagonals in tension and
compression
economy of fabrication: all
members are of the same
length and joints have the
same configuration
Truss joints
Pinned joints statically
determinate structures member
forces can be determined from
equilibrium only
Rigid joints small bending
stresses will be present, but which
are negligible due to the triangular
shape
Traditionally trusses are designed
with pinned joints, even if members
are connected rigidly between them
Space trusses
The most common plane truss
consists of a series of triangles
The corresponding shape in three
dimensions: tetrahedron (a)
The truss at (b) is a true space
truss
theoretically economical in material
joints difficult to realise and
expensive
Beams
Beam: a structure that supports
loads through its ability to resist
bending stresses
Forces in a
Howe truss
Forces in a
truss with
double diagonals
(reasonable estimate)
Diagonals:
The forces in the diagonal members are equal, but opposite in
sign, and have the same values in all panels
Diagonals have to resist the shear forces, the same in all panels
The best
arrangement
of material
for bending
resistance:
away from
the neutral axis
A/2
F = (A/2)
F = (A/2)
A/2
F = (0.5db/2)
2d/3
A
+
M = Ad/2
M = Ad/6
F = (0.5db/2)
10
11
12
Structural shapes
Simply supported beam
subjected to a uniformly
distributed load
A/2
A/2
13
Structural shapes
Simply
supported truss
subjected to a
uniformly
distributed load
Structural shapes
Bridge with a simply supported central span and two
cantilevered sides
The shape of the truss must resemble the bending
moment diagram in order to make efficient use of material
in upper and bottom chords
Quebec
railway bridge
14
Structural shapes
Forth
bridge,
Scotland
Angel
Saligny
bridge,
Romania
15
Course 4
Structural action:
- prestressing
- plate and shell structures
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Prestressing
Prestressing: setting up an initial state of stress, that
makes the structure work better than without it
Examples:
wall plugs
spider's web
bicycle wheel
Prestressed concrete
Type of prestress:
Posttensioning: the prestressing force is applied after concrete
has been cast and has set, through tendons located in holes left
in concrete elements. The prestress is retained due to anchorage
of steel tendons at the end of the element.
Pretensioning: prestressing wires are stretched over a long
length and the concrete is cast around them in steel forms. The
prestress is retained due to the bond between the concrete and
the steel wires.
Plates
Plates: a flat surface
element that acts in
bending in order to
resist out of plane
loading
The simplest plate: a
flat slab spanning
between two supports
It may appear to behave
like a wide beam, but it
is not as simple as that
One-way plates
When a narrow beam bends, the material in the lower half
of the beam extends longitudinally it contracts in the
transversal direction due to Poisson effect ( times the
longitudinal strain)
The material in
the upper half of
the beam contracts
longitudinally
it expands in the
transversal direction
An anticlastic
curvature of the beam in the
transversal direction equal
with times the longitudinal curvature
One-way plates
In plates the anticlastic curvature is
suppressed due to large dimension in
the transversal direction (the deflected
shape is almost cylindrical, except
near the free edges)
At any point of the beam there is a
transverse bending moment equal to
times the spanwise bending moment
Suppression of the transverse
curvature induces an additional
spanwise curvature
In one-way plates reinforcement is
needed in both spanwise and
transverse direction
Two-way plates
Two-way plates simply
supported on all four sides:
complicated interaction
between the two ways in
which a load is supported
If a slab is more than about
4 times as long as it is
wide, the bending moment
at the center of the plate is
almost the same as in a
one-way plate supported
on longer edges. Why?
Stiffer structural action
(bending in the short
direction) attracts larger
forces
10
Membrane action
Some structures can support loads only in bending.
Example: simply supported beam
Uniform loading:
the neutral axis becomes curved
roller support moves slightly toward the other end of the beam
11
Membrane action
A beam pinned at both ends
Uniform loading:
the neutral axis becomes curved
horizontal movement of the support is prevented longitudinal
tension H develops the beam begins to support load as a
slightly curved cable or catenary
Membrane action
The catenary action is much stiffer than bending
Beam action: stiffness remains constant
Catenary action: stiffness increases with the square of
the deflection
As the load increases, the portion of the load carried
axially (w1), as catenary, increases rapidly
It can be shown that w1/w2 = 3.33(/h)2
w2 - the portion of the loading carried through bending.
When the deflection ammounts to twice the depth of the
beam, w1/w2 = 13.33, so that the catenary action
ammounts to 13.33/14.33 = 0.93 of the total resistance to
load
Membranes: surface elements in which loading is
resisted through direct (axial) stresses
12
Shells
Shells: surface elements resisting loading through
bending and membrane action
Examples:
dome
human skull
turtle's armour
bird egg
Shells
Bird's egg: weak under a concentrated loading (breaking
against a cup's rim) but strong under distributed loading
(squeezing between ends with palms)
distributed loading resisted through membrane action (stronger)
concentrated loading resisted through bending action (weaker)
Domes:
used since ancient times
capable of resisting through membrane
action a variety of distributed loading
13
14
15
16
17
Course 5
Structural action:
- Cable structures
- Multi-storey structures
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Cable structures
Cables - good resistance in tension, but no strength in
compression
Tent:
a cable structure consisting of a waterproofing membrane
supported by ropes or cables and posts
cables must be maintained in tension by prestressing in order to
avoid large vibrations under wind forces and avoid collapse
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges: the earliest method of crossing
large gaps
Early bridges realised from a walkway suspended from
hanging ropes of vines
To walk a lighter bridge of this type at a reasonable pace
requires a particular gliding step, as the more normal
walking step will induce travelling waves that can cause
the traveller to pitch (uncomfortably) up and down or
side-to-side.
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridge realised following the simple design
of early bridges:
cables (catenaries)
light deck
hangers suspending the deck on catenaries
Suspension bridges
Capilano Suspension Bridge, Canada
Suspension bridges
Improved behaviour under traffic and wind loads:
stiffening trusses at the level of the deck, that distributes
concentrated loads over greater lengths
Suspension bridges
The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan: 1991 m span
Suspension bridges
Golden Gate Bridge, California, USA: 1280 m span
Suspension bridges
Brooklyn Bridge, USA (the largest from 1883 until 1903):
486 m span
Cable-stayed bridges
A cable-stayed bridge consists of one or more piers, with
cables supporting the bridge deck
Basic idea: reduce the span of the beam (deck) several
times compared to the clear span between the piers
Steel cable-stayed bridges are regarded as the most
economical bridge design for spans ranging between 200
and 400 m
Shorter spans: truss or box girder bridges
Larger spans: suspension bridges
Cable-stayed bridges
Reducing the
span of a
beam greatly
improves the
maximum
stress and
deflection
Multi-storey buildings
Why multi-storey buildings?
large urban population
expensive land
10
Columns support
gravity loads only
To avoid tension on the
brick walls, the resultant
force must lie in the
middle third of the
thickness of the wall
very thick walls in the
lower storeys
11
frames resisting
vertical loads only
load-bearing walls
for lateral loads
load-bearing walls
or braced frames
load-bearing walls
or braced frames
frames resisting
vertical loads only
frames resisting
vertical loads only
12
stiff floor
flexible floor
Steel structures:
moment-resisting frames
braced frames
13
Concentrically
V-braced frames
Eccentrically
braced frames
14
15
16
17
18
19
Course 6
Structural action:
- Foundations
- General remarks on structural action
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Foundations
Most structures invariably rest on the ground
The best solution would be to place the supports of a
structure on solid rock, but this is seldom possible
In most cases solid rocks lies deep in the ground, with
softer and weaker soil layers above it
Relatively high stresses in the superstructure have to be
safely transferred to the much softer and weaker soil.
This is done through foundations
Types of foundations
Isolated footing
Top soil layer is removed and a block of
concrete, wider than the one which rests
on it, is placed on the ground
Plan dimensions of the isolated footing
need to be larger than the ones of the
column, in order to have lower stresses
at the foundation-soil interface
Foundation dimensions should be large
enough to allow stresses acting on the
soil to be smaller than the soil strength
Types of foundations
Raft foundation:
When the soil is very poor, larger
area is required for the foundation,
which extends over the full plan
dimension of the building
Raft foundations were developed by
Romans, who built them from
hydraulic concrete several metres
deep
Modern raft foundations are much
thinner, as they area realised from
reinforced concrete
Raft foundations can be
constructed as a series of boxes,
with the walls in the basement
contributing to the strength of the
foundation and enabling thinner
slab
Types of foundations
Isolated and continuous footings, and raft foundations
are shallow foundations:
placed relatively close to the surface of the ground
loads are transferred from the building to the soil by providing
large enough area of the foundation in order to reduce stresses
below the ones allowed by the strength of the soil
Types of foundations
Pile foundations:
Soil properties get better as the depth
increases. When the soil near the surface is
very poor, pile foundations can be used.
Pile foundations are made of tree trunks (in
old times), steel or reinforced concrete (in
modern times)
Loads are transferred to the soil through
shear stresses between the pile shaft and
the soil (major contribution) and
compression stresses at the bottom of the
pile (minor contribution)
Piles are long, enabling them to reach
stronger and stiffer soil layers, or even
solid rock
First pile foundations date back to Neolithic
period, and were made of tree trunks
Types of foundations
Pile foundations:
Without pile foundations, cities like Venice
and Amsterdam, located due to strategic
and economic reasons on marshes could
not have been developed at all
Wooden piles were usually of oak or, in the
sea, of greenheart from Central America,
which is particularly resistant to marine
borers
Pile foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground (wooden, steel
and precast concrete) or drilling a shaft and
filling it with concrete
Types of foundations
Cofferdam foundations
Cofferdam is an enclosure beneath
the water constructed to allow
water to be displaced by air for the
purpose of creating a dry work
environment
Were developed by Romans and
remained mainly unchanged until
the early 19th century
Pneumatic caissons were then
invented, allowing underwater
foundations to be excavated,
keeping the water out by air
pressure. Difficult and expensive
to operate.
Failure of foundations
Complete failures of foundations are rare, though they
may happen
Example: Transcona grain silo, Winipeg , Canada. In October
1913, this grain silo started to tip over. It was loaded with over a
million bushels of wheat and was newly built. It continued to sink
slowly for over 12 hours until finally it was at an angle of 30
degrees from vertical but still intact. The wheat was emptied from
the bins, and work began to right it. By tunelling underneath it,
they built new foundations down to the bedrock and then pushed
it back into position. It is still in use today
Failure of foundations
Complete failure of foundations are rare, though they may
happen
Example: Tilting of apartment buildings at Kawagishi-Cho,
Niigata, produced by liquefaction of the soil during the 1964
Niigata Earthquake
Example: Venice
Water supply in Venice originally came from mainland
Starting from 1910, this was increasingly supplemented from
boreholes up to 300 m deep
General subsidence of buildings (100-200 mm) extremely
damaging to buildings as walls of most Venetian houses start at
only about 1 m above average sea level
ill-conceived structure
10
11
Course 7
The process of structural design
Load paths
References
ESDEP
http://www.esdep.org/members/master/wg01b/l0100.htm
Load path visual aids:
http://www.ce.jhu.edu/steel/aisc_web/Visual_Aids/Animati
ons/building_design/index.html
Tributary Areas and Load Diagrams by T. Bartlett Quimby
http://www.bgstructuralengineering.com/BGSMA/BGTrib
Area/BGSMA_TA_02.htm
Structures
Civil engineering
structures: how to
design?
Design objectives
Design is "the process of defining the means of
manufacturing a product to satisfy a required need"
conceptual ideas,
study of human intentions,
detailed technical and
manufacture stages
Design objectives
Re-using an existing design:
not always suitable (e.g. need for larger spans, larger loads,
different function, etc.)
need to improve a deficient design
new materials
boring
Design approach
Many design methods exist
Suggested approach:
Recognise that a challenge
exists and clearly define the
overall objectives for a design.
Research around the task and
investigate likely relevant
information (Analysis).
Evolve possible solutions to
the task (Synthesis).
Decide on, and refine, the best
solution (Evaluation),
establishing clear priorities for
action (in terms of
manufacture, construction,
operation and maintenance).
Communicate decisions to
others involved in the task.
Design process
The design process is
highly complex, as all
factors in the design
are interdependent to
a greater or lesser
degree
All factors and
combinations must be
explored
comprehensively from
idea to detail, with
many compromises
having to be finely
balanced to achieve a
feasible solution
10
11
12
13
Course 8
Design codes:
- Structural Eurocodes
- Current Romanian codes
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved ancient law
code, created about 1760 BC in ancient Babylon.
It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi.
Only one example of the Code survives today, inscribed
on a basalt stone stele. Originally, several stelae would
have been displayed in temples around the empire.
The text has been broken down by translators into 282
laws, but this division is arbitrary, since the original text
contains no divisional markers
Building codes
Many of the restrictions encountered in building design
are imposed by legal regulations
The most important ones for structural engineers are
building codes, which represent a set of regulations
regarding:
principles of structural design
guidance in evaluation of loads on structures
specific design provisions for different type of structures (steel
structures, reinforced concrete structures, foundations, etc.) and
building components (electrical system, HVAC, plumbing, etc.)
EN 1992
EN 1993
EN 1994
EN 1995
EN 1996
EN 1999
EN 1998
Seismic design
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
EN 1991-1-2:2002
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-2: General actions Actions on structures exposed to fire
EN 1991-1-3:2003
EN 1991-1-4:2005
EN 1991-1-5:2003
EN 1991-1-6:2005
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-6: General actions Actions during execution
EN 1991-1-7:2006
EN 1991-2:2003
EN 1991-3:2006
EN 1991-4: 2006
EN 1992-1-1:2004
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1992-1-2:2004
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire design
EN 1992-2:2005
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 2: Concrete bridges - Design and detailing
rules
EN 1992-3:2006
EN 1993-1-2:2005
EN 1993-1-3:2006
EN 1993-1-4:2006
EN 1993-1-5:2006
EN 1993-1-6:2007
EN 1993-1-7:2007
EN 1993-1-8:2005
EN 1993-1-9:2005
EN 1993-1-11:2006
EN 1993-1-12:2007
EN 1993-2:2006
EN 1993-3-1:2006
EN 1993-3-2:2006
EN 1993-4-1:2007
EN 1993-4-2:2007
EN 1993-4-3:2007
EN 1993-5:2007
EN 1993-6:2007
10
EN 1994-1-1:2004
EN 1994-1-2:2005
EN 1994-2:2005
11
EN 1995-1-1:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures Part 1-1: General - Common rules and rules for
buildings
EN 1995-1-2:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures Part 1-2: General - Structural fire design
EN 1995-2:2004
EN 1996-1-2:2005
Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures - Part 1-2: General rules Structural fire design
EN 1996-2:2006
EN 1996-3:2006
12
EN 1997-2:2007
13
EN 1998-2:2005
EN 1998-3:2005
EN 1998-4:2006
EN 1998-5:2004
EN 1998-6:2005
14
EN 1999-1-2:2007
EN 1999-1-3:2007
EN 1999-1-4:2007
EN 1999-1-5:2007
15
16
17
18
National Standards
The National Standard transposing the EN Eurocode Part,
when published by a National Standards Body, will be
composed of the EN Eurocode text preceded by the
National Title page and by the National Foreword and
generally followed by the National Annex
The National Standards Bodies should normally publish
the National Annex, on behalf of and with the agreement
of the competent National Authorities
19
20
21
Course 9
Actions on structures:
permanent loads, imposed loads and snow loads
roofing;
surfacing and coverings;
partitions and linings;
hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs;
wall cladding;
suspended ceilings;
thermal insulation;
fixed services.
hand rails,
safety barriers,
parapets and kerbs;
suspended ceilings;
fixed services
Self-weight: example
CARPET FLOOR
RAISED FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
Thickness,
mm
CARPET FLOOR ON RAISED
FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
Specific
weight,
kN/m3
Weight,
kN/m2
0.40
30
150
21.0
25.0
TOTAL
0.63
3.75
4.78
qk
Qk
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11
uniform distribution
chessboard distribution 1
chessboard distribution 2
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Snow load
Two primary load
arrangements should be
considered when modelling
snow action:
undrifted snow load on the roof:
load arrangement which describes
the uniformly distributed snow
load on the roof, affected only by
the shape of the roof, before any
redistribution of snow due to
other climatic actions.
drifted snow load on the roof: load
arrangement which describes the
snow load distribution resulting
from snow having been moved
from one location to another
location on a roof, e.g. by the
action of the wind.
undrifted
snow
drifted
snow
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Course 10
Actions on structures:
Wind loads
Other loads
qb
1
vb2
2
where:
vm z cr z vb
z
kr z0 ln
cr z
z0
c zz
min
r
for
zmin z zmax
z zmin
where:
cr(z) is a roughness factor
z - height above ground
z0 roughness length
z
kr z0 0,189 0
0, 05
0,07
qm z cr2 z qb
Wind turbulence
Wind velocity varies with time as shown in the figure
below. This variation with respect to the mean wind
velocity is called turbulence and is generated by the
eddies caused by the wind blowing over obstacles
Wind turbulence
The turbulence intensity I(z) at height z is defined as the
standard deviation of the turbulence divided by the mean
wind velocity.
Iv z
v
vm z
I v z 2.5ln
z0
I v z zmin
for
z zmin
Wind turbulence
Wind turbulence decreases with height above ground
c pq z 1 2 g I v z 1 7 I v z
where:
g = 3.5 is the amplitude factor
Iv(z) is the turbulence intensity at height z
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q p z ce z qb
The product between the gust factor, the roughness
factor and the topographical factor is called the exposure
factor, and is denoted by ce(z):
ce z co2 cr2 z c pq z
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ce z co2 cr2 z c pq z
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13
we Iw c pe q p ze
wi Iw c pi q p zi
where:
Iw the importance factor
qp(ze) peak wind pressure at level ze
ze reference height for external pressure.
cp aerodynamic pressure coefficient (cpe for exterior
surfaces; cpi for internal surfaces)
Pressures are considered positive (+)
Suction is considered negative (-)
The total pressure on a structural element is obtained as
the algebraic sum of pressures on one side and suction
on the other side
we Iw c pe q p ze
wi Iw c pi q p zi
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Pressure coefficients
Similar procedure are specified in the code for roofs of
buildings (of different geometry), canopies, isolated
vertical walls, fences etc.
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Fw Iw cd c f q p ze Aref
where:
Iw the importance factor
qp(ze) peak wind pressure at level ze
ze reference height for external pressure.
cf - wind force coefficient
cd - dynamic response coefficient
Aref - reference area perpendicular on wind direction
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Course 11
EN 1990:
Design requirements
The limit state method
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Design requirements
A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way
that, during its intended life, with appropriate degrees of
reliability and in an economical way it will have adequate:
structural resistance [strength] (the structure should be safe for
people and contents, sustaining all actions and influences likely
to occur during execution and use)
serviceability (remain fit for the use for which it is required - the
deformations, deflections and vibrations should not be too large)
durability (a structure should continue to resist environmental
influences and be usable after an extended period of time and
usage)
fire resistance (in the case of fire, the structural resistance shall
be adequate for the required period of time)
robustness (a structure should not be damaged by events such
as explosion, impact, and the consequences of human errors, to
an extent disproportionate to the original cause)
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11
12
FORCE
DISP.
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15
16
pinned
connection
rigid
connection
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Course 12
EN 1990:
Basic variables
The partial factor method
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Variability of loads
Loads change in time.
What loads to design a structure for?
Most loads are determined today based on
measurements taken over time
Example: maximum
wind speed measured
over 5-min periods in
each month between
1884 and 1950 in New
York at a height
of 140 m.
Histogram
Theoretical distribution
Fractiles
A p-fractile is defined as the x-value of the distribution
which includes p*N observations, with 0<p<1 and N being
the number of observations.
Example : the 0.1-fractile of the distribution shown below
is 14.6, as it includes 10% of all observations (starting
from the left)
Variability of loads
Loads are probabilistic variables (not deterministic)
Basic value of a load can be defined in probabilistic terms
only, e.g. "for annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02,
which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years".
A larger or smaller
probability of the loads
being exceeded can
be considered in design
(corresponding to
smaller or larger
mean return periods)
Smaller or larger design loads
More or less economical structure
Variability of loads
The engineer can never be absolutely sure that the loads
he designs his structure for will not be exceeded in its
lifetime.
equation:
ln 1 p
STRESS
STRAIN
10
Geometrical data
Geometrical variables describe the shape, size and
overall arrangement of structures, structural members
and cross-sections.
No structure can be erected without some deviations of
form, shape and dimension from the ones assumed in
design
Example: steel sections are rolled under
very careful control, but some variation
in thickness and depth cannot be avoided.
Concrete formwork may be slightly out in dimensions.
Load-bearing walls in a multi-storey building may be out
of alignment one above the other.
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Structural analysis
Generally, any structural model should be regarded as an
idealization of the structural system.
A simplified model should take account of significant
factors and neglect the less important ones.
The following is a list of factors that may be important for
the structural model:
geometric properties (e.g. structural configuration, spans, crosssectional dimensions, deviations, imperfections)
material properties (e.g. strength, constitutive relations, time and
stress state dependence, plasticity, temperature and moisture
dependence)
actions (e.g. direct or indirect, variation in time, spatial variation,
and static or dynamic)
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14
Example:
F,1 F rep,1 (Gd = F,G Grep)
+
ad (L)
Ed (M Ed)
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where
Rd is a partial factor covering uncertainty in the
resistance model, plus geometric deviations if these are
not modelled explicitly;
Xd,i is the design value of material property i.
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Effect of actions
Ed
Ed Rd
Resistance
Rd
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Course 13
EN 1990:
The partial factor method (cont.)
Mmax
where
"+" implies "to be combined with"
implies "the combined effect of"
Examples of
limiting
values for
vertical
deflections
10
The following
actions can be
identified:
Permanent loads Gk
Imposed loads Qk
Snow load Sk
Wind load Wk
Seismic action Aed
Imposed load (Qk,1)
most
relevant
Persistent design
situation
ULS
SLS
Seismic design
situation
ULS
SLS
11
check
strength and
stability of
members
and
connections
12
check beam
deflections
check lateral storey
deformations
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Course 14
Principles
A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the
ground and that provides total or nearly total shelter for
machines, processing equipment, performance of human
activities, storage of human possessions, or any
combination of these
Building design is the process of providing all
information necessary for construction of a building that
will meet its owners requirements and also satisfy public
health, welfare, and safety requirements
Architecture is the art and science of building design. It is
primarily driven by the creative manipulation of mass,
space, volume, texture, light, shadow, materials, program,
and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction and
technology, in order to achieve an end which is aesthetic,
functional and often artistic.
Principles
Engineering design is driven primarily by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical
and scientific principles
Building construction is the process of assembling
materials to form a building
Building design may be legally executed only by persons
deemed competent to do so by the state in which the
building is to be constructed. Competency is determined
on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass
a written test of design skills
Architects: persons legally permitted to practice architecture
Engineers: experts in specific scientific disciplines and are legally
permitted to design parts of buildings; in some cases, complete
buildings (structural, mechanical, electrical engineers)
Principles
Building construction is generally performed by
labourers and craftspeople engaged for the purpose by
an individual or organization, called a contractor.
The contractor signs an agreement, or contract, with the
building owner under which the contractor agrees to
construct a specific building on a specified site and the
owner agrees to pay for the materials and services
provided.
Design procedure
Design usually starts when a client recognizes the need
for and economic feasibility of a building and engages an
architect, a professional with a broad background in
building design.
The architect, in turn, engages consulting engineers and
other consultants
structural engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
load-bearing walls, floors, roofs, foundations, and skeleton
framing needed for the support of buildings and building
components
mechanical engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
plumbing, elevators, escalators, horizontal walkways, conveyors,
installed machinery, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
electrical engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
electric circuits, electric controls and safety devices, electric
motors and generators, electric lighting, and other electric
equipment
Design procedure
for buildings on a large site, the architect may engage a
landscape architect as a consultant
for a concert hall, an acoustics consultant may be engaged; for a
hospital, a hospital specialist; for a school, a school specialist
Design procedure
The location and orientation of the building is shown in a
site plan.
The architect also prepares the specifications for the
building. These describe in detail the materials and
equipment to be installed in the structure.
In addition, the architect, usually with the aid of a lawyer
engaged by the client, prepares the construction
contract.
Construction procedure
Construction is performed by contractors
they need to satisfy the requirements of the client and the
building designers
however, their primary objective is to make profit contractors
must prepare bid prices based on accurate estimates of
construction costs
after the contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish
and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labour, and
supervision required for construction
Construction procedure
Subcontractors have contracts with the general
contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor
a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing
an electrical contractor installs the electrical system
a steel erector structural steel, and an elevator contractor installs
elevators
Construction procedure
Administration of the construction procedure often is
difficult some owners seek assistance from an expert,
called a professional construction manager, with
extensive construction experience, who receives a fee.
The construction manager negotiates with general
contractors and helps select one to construct the
building. Managers usually also supervise selection of
subcontractors.
During construction, they help control costs, expedite
equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on
schedule.
Construction procedure
Owners also engage an inspector who has the
responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the
requirements of the contract documents and is performed
under safe conditions
Inspections also are made by representatives of one or
more governmental agencies. They have the
responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal
requirements and have little or no concern with detailed
conformance with the contract documents. Such legal
inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain
stages of construction.
Building costs
Construction cost of a building usually is a dominant
design concern
If construction cost exceeds the owners budget, the
owner may cancel the project
Costs that occur after completion of the building (such as
property taxes and insurance) often are proportional to
the initial cost
Building costs
Before construction of a building starts, the owner
generally has to make a sizable investment in the project.
The major portion of this expenditure usually goes for purchase
of the site and building design.
Remaining preconstruction costs include those for feasibility
studies, site selection and evaluation, surveys, and program
definition.
Building costs
The initial cost to the owner is the sum of
preconstruction, construction, and occupancy costs.
After the building is occupied, the owner incurs costs for
operation and maintenance of the buildings. Such costs
are a consequence of decisions made during building
design.
Life-cycle cost is the sum of initial, operating, and
maintenance costs.
Often, post-construction costs are permitted to be high
so that initial costs can be kept low
the design makes artificial lighting necessary when daylight could
have been made available
the extra heating and air conditioning are necessary because of
inadequate insulation of walls and roof
frequent repairs may be needed because of poor choice of
materials during design
Building costs
Generally, it is life-cycle cost that should be minimized in
building design rather than construction cost, enabling
the owner to receive the greatest return on the
investment in the building.
Nevertheless, construction cost frequently is a dominant
concern in design, because the client establishes a
construction budget independent of life-cycle cost.
Reasons:
the client does not have adequate capital for an optimum building
and places too low a limit on construction cost. The client hopes
to have sufficient capital later to pay for the higher operating and
maintenance costs or for replacement of undesirable building
materials and installed equipment.
The clients goal is a quick profit on early sale of the building, in
which case the client has little or no concern with future high
operating and maintenance costs for the building.
10
Building legislation
Many of the restrictions encountered in building design
are imposed by building regulations:
Dealing with administration and enforcement. They cover
licenses, permits, fees, certificates of occupancy, safety,
projections beyond street lines, alterations, maintenance,
applications, approval of drawings, stop-work orders.
Specifying requirements for design and construction in detail.
They give requirements for structural components, lighting,
HVAC, plumbing, gas piping and fixtures, elevators and
escalators, electrical distribution, stairs, corridors, walls, doors,
and windows.
Requirements for fire-protection purposes. Objective - to delay or
prevent spread of fire over large portions of the building
set allowable floor areas
restrict building height and number of stories
limit the occupant load, or number of persons allowed in a building or
room to permit rapid egress
Building legislation
Zoning regulations are established by local authorities to
protect the health, welfare, and safety of the public
Zoning primarily regulates land use by controlling types
of occupancy of buildings, building height, and density
and activity of population in specific parts of a
jurisdiction
Zoning regulations are usually developed by a planning
commission and administered by the commission or a
building department. Land-use controls adopted by the
local planning commission for current application are
indicated on a zoning map.
Zoning map divides the jurisdiction into districts, shows
the type of occupancy, such as commercial, industrial, or
residential, permitted in each district, and notes
limitations on building height and bulk and on population
density in each district.
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Building legislation
The planning commission usually also prepares a master
plan as a guide to the growth of the jurisdiction. A future
land-use plan is an important part of the master plan. The
commissions objective is to steer changes in the zoning
map in the direction of the future land-use plan.
In the vicinity of airports, zoning may be applied to
maintain obstruction-free approach zones for aircraft and
to provide noise-attenuating distances around the
airports. Airport zoning limits building heights in
accordance with distance from the airport.
Building legislation
Control of Building Height. Zoning places limitations on
building dimensions to limit population density and to
protect the rights of occupants of existing buildings to
light, air, and aesthetic surroundings.
12
Building legislation
In addition to building and zoning codes, building design
and construction must comply with many other
regulations. These include those of the local or state
health, labour, and fire departments; local utility
companies; and local departments of highways, streets,
sewers, and water. These agencies may require that
drawings for the building be submitted for review and
that a permit be granted before construction starts.
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