Chapter 1-Introduction

1. define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other;

anatomy- the study of structure.

studied through observation

ex: embryology, developmental biology, cell biology, histology

physiology- the study of function

branches use experimentation

ex: neurophysiology, endocrinology, cardiovascular physiology

together they are the basis of all health sciences
physiology gives anatomy meaning and anatomy makes physiology possible
2. describe several ways of studying human anatomy and the method(s) that are used.
inspection- looking at the bodys appearance
palpation- feeling a structure with the hands
auscultation- listening to the natural sounds made by the body
percussion- taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound
for signs of abnoralities
dissection- the careful cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships
medical imaging- methods of viewing inside the body without surgery (radiology)
histology- taking a thin and stained slice of tissue and observing it under the microscope
3. describe how human physiology is studied.
experimental science
comparative physiology- study of how different species have solved problems of life such as
water balance, respiration, and reproduction
4. list the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest;
organismal level- human
system level- digestive system
organ level- stomach
tissue level- smooth muscle tissue
cellular level- smooth muscle cell
organelles- mitochondria
chemical level- atoms (C, H, O, N, P) and molecules (DNA)
5. describe the clinical significance of anatomical and physiological variation among humans.
books teach the anatomy seen in 70% of people
no one is made the same
some people are missing organs
situs inversus- internal organs located on opposite side

important to be aware of condition when making diagnoses

kidneys

normal

pelvic kidney- one droops


horseshoe- one horseshow shaped kidney
6. describe the characteristics that distinguish living organisms from nonliving objects;
organization- living things exhibit a high level of organization. They expend a great deal of
energy to maintain order, and a breakdown in this order is accompanied by disease and
often death.
cellular composition- living matter is always made into cells
metabolism- living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change
them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide
them with energy.
responsiveness and movement- the ability of organisms to sense and react to stimuli is called
responsiveness, irritability, or excitability.
homeostasis- although the environment around an organism changes, the organism maintains
relatively stable internal conditions.
development- any change in form or function over the lifetime of the organism

differentiation- transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are
committed to a particular task

growth- increase in size

reproduction- all living organisms can produce copies of themselves, passing on genes
7. define homeostasis and explain why this concept is central to physiology;
homeostasis- the bodys ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and
thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
negative feedback- a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that
negate or reverse it.
positive feedback- a self amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater
change in the same direction, rather than producing the corrective effects of negative
feedback.
8. Describe the components of a feedback loop.
stimulus- disrupts homeostasis by increasing or decreasing a...
controlled condition- monitored by..
receptors- that send nerve impulses or chemical signals to a (input)...
control center- that receives the input and provides nerve impulses or chemical signals to
(output)...
effectors- that bring about a change or..
response- that alters the controlled condition
return to homeostasis when the response brings the controlled condition back to normal
9. define negative feedback, give an example of it, and explain its importance to homeostasis;
example: body temperature

body shivers to combat cold

body sweats to combat heat

36.5*C-37.5*C is the normal range of body temperature.


10. define positive feedback and give an example of it, describe its importance
example: giving birth

fetus pushes against womans cervix and stimulates nerve endings

the signals travel to the brain and the brain tells the pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin

oxytocin stimulates the uterus to contract

positive feedback creates necessary and rapid change
11. Know anatomical position, anatomical planes, directional terms, major body regions, body
cavities and membranes, basic human organ systems, and the common imaging procedures.
Chapter 2- THE CHEMICAL LEVEL
1. name the major chemical elements in the body and recognize their chemical symbols;
O=oxygen
C=carbon
H=hydrogen
N=nitrogen
P=phosphorus
2. describe basic atomic structure including protons, neutrons and electrons
protons- positive charge, located in nucleus, make up atomic mass
neutrons- neutral charge, located in nucleus, make up atomic mass
electrons- negative charge, located outside of nucleus, very little weight
3. understand atomic number and atomic mass
atomic number- number of protons
atomic mass- protons + neutrons
4. distinguish between chemical elements and compounds or molecules
chemical elements- simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
compound- molecules composed of two or more different elements
molecules- chemical particles composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond
5. describe ions
ions- charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons

anions- negative charge

cations- positive charge

6. define the 3 types of chemical bonds discussed in class.
covalent bonds- formed by the sharing of electrons

single, double, and triple bonds

polar-unequal attraction

nonpolar- equal attraction

ionic bonds- relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation. easily disrupted in
water, as when salt dissolves
hydrogen bond- weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of
the same molecules. Hydrogen bonds with N, O, and F

7. describe some biologically important properties of water;

pH 7
hydrogen bonds to each other
universal solvent
dissociates into hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion
8. define acid, base, and buffer and interpret the pH scale.
acid- any proton donor, a molecule that releases a proton (H+) in water, pH below 7
base- a proton acceptor, pH above 7
buffer- regulate pH by converting strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases
9. Define energy and its forms.
potential energy- is energy contained in an object because of its position or internal state but
that is not doing work at the time
kinetic energy- the energy of motion, energy that is doing work
chemical energy- potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules

chemical reactions release this energy and make it available for physiological work
10. Understand that energy is stored in chemical bonds.
11. Given a chemical equation, describe what is happening in the chemical reaction.
12. Describe factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction
concentration increase, rate increase
temperature increase, rate increase
catalyst can increase rate by making reaction more likely to happen.

catalysts can bring reactant together

13. Identify the major macromolecules that make up living organisms

carbs
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
14. Know the monomers that make up each macromolecule.
carbohydrate- monosaccharides/simple sugars
lipids- fatty acids and glycerol
proteins- amino acids
nucleic acids- nucleotides
15. Explain the importance of the function of each of the four major macromolecules
carbs- energy for life
lipids

fatty acids- used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to

generate ATP

triglycerides- protection, insulation, energy storage

phospholipids- major lipid component of cell membranes

steroids

cholesterol- minor component of all animal cell membranes; precursor of bile

salts, vitamin D, and steroid hormones
bile salts- needed for digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
vitamin D- helps regulate calcium level in body; needed for bone growth and
repair
adrenocortical hormones- help regulate metabolism, resistance to stress, and
salt and water blace
sex hormones- stimulate reproductive functions and sexual characteristics

proteins

20 amino acids. amino acids are subunits of proteins

structure- primary, secondary, tertiary, quartenary

regulation

protection- antibodies of immune system, clotting factors

enzymes- highly specific catalysts for reactions

nucleic acids

polymers of nucleotides

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

genetic information

encodes information for making proteins

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

carries out genetic instruction for synthesizing proteins

carries the genetic code and assists in making proteins

17. Understand the importance of shape in the functioning of a protein

denaturation- conformational change that destroys function. can be caused by temperature
chagne
18. Understand that enzymes can lower activation energy of a chemical reaction
19. Know the major functions and types of nucleic acids

Chapter 3
1. Know that all cells have a plasma membrane and contain many specialized organelles
2. Understand the terms plasma membrane, intracellular, and extracellular.
intracellular- cytoplasm
extracellular- watery solution
3. Know the components of the plasma membrane and define the Fluid Mosaic model.
phospholipid bilayer
cholesterol
glycolipids
transmembrane proteins
Fluid Mosaic- substances such as cholesterol in the bilayer, membrane has the consistency of
vegetable oil at body temp and proteins and other substances can move across

4. Know the meaning of selectively permeable

certain molecules can pass
small, nonpolar molecules
5. Define the electrochemical gradient and describe its components.
concentration (amount) gradient- one side of membrane has a different concentratioin of a
chemical than the other
Electrical (charge) gradient- one side of a membrane has a different concentration of an ion(s)
than the other
electrochemical gradient- combination of concentration and electrical6. Describe the
processes that transport substances across the plasma membrane.
7. Describe tonicity and be able to correctly use terms that refer to it
isotonic- equal concentration inside and outside cell
hypertonic- higher concentration of solutes outside of the cell than inside the cell
hypotonic- greater concentration of solutes inside the cell than outside the cell
8. Define the transport maximum and describe why it is important.
refers to the point at which increases in concentration do not result in an

increase in movement of a substance across a membrane.

9. Define Symport, and Antiport.
symport- molecules move in same direction
antiport- molecules move in opposite direction
10. Understand and describe the differences and similarities between facilitated diffusion and
active transport
Facilitated- transmembrane proteins help solutes move through the lipid bilayer

channel mediated (ex. aquaporin)- uses channel proteins, high to low

carrier mediated- particle bind to carrier proteins

Active Transport- ATP used to transport proteins from low to high
11. Describe the difference between primary and secondary active transport
primary active transport
Energy derived from ATP is used to pump a substance across plasma membrane
against its gradient. Low-->high

Na+/K+ pump

generate body heat, electrochemical gradients, powers secondary active transport

secondary active transport- energy stored as a concentration gradient is used to drive other
substances against their own concentration gradient

uses energy from primary active transport

12. Describe vesicular transport processes

movement of large particles, fluid droplets or numerous molecules through the membrane in
vesicles

endocytosis- brings material into the cell

phagocytosis- engulfing large particles (lysosomes can do this)

pinocytosis- engulfing fluid drops
receptor-mediated- specific molecules recognized by a receptor are brought into
cell

exocytosis- releases material from the cell

13. Describe the structure and function of DNA, and how it is packaged in the nucleus
folded around histones and twisted into chromosomes

contromere

chromatids
double helix

Adenine-thymine

guanine-cytosine
gene expression

DNA is a part of transcription

DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase

19. Organelles of cell

cytoskeleton- made up of protein filaments

microfilaments

intermediate filaments

microtubules
peroxisome

oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids; detoxifies harmful substances, such as hydrogen
peroxide and associated free radicals
proteasome

degrades ____, damaged, or fault proteins by cutting them into smaller peptides
centrosome

pericentriolar material contains tubulins, which are used for growth of the mitotic
spindle and microtubule fomration