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Contributors:
Ivan Kaliban, P.E.
Robert MacKay
Cynthia Garrison
Third Edition, May, 2002
DISCLAIMER
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reliable. However, the author does not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
information herein. Further, the author shall not be responsible for any error, omission, or
damages arising out of use of the information contained herein. This work is provided with the
understanding that the author is supplying information but is not attempting to render
engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an
appropriate professional should be sought.
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ii
rev. 7/8/2002
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Loads, Factor or Safety, and Engineering Law
Introduction, Causes of Failure
Dead Load, Live Loads
Snow Loads
Wind Loads, Earthquake Loads
Load Combinations and Design
Factor of Safety
The Law Pertaining to Engineers
1-1 1-2
1-2
1-2 1-4
1-4
1-4 1-5
1-5 1-6
1-6 1-8
2-1
2-2
2-2 2-6
2-6 2-9
2-9
2-9
2-10
2-10 2-11
2-11
3-1
3-1 3-2
3-2
3-2 3-4
3-4 3-6
3-6 3-7
4-1 4-2
4-2 4-3
4-3
4-4 4-5
4-5 4-7
4-8 4-10
4-10 4-12
5-1
5-1 5-2
5-2
5-2 5-4
5-4 5-9
5-9 5-10
5-10 5-13
5-13 5-19
6-1
6-1 6-2
6-2
6-2 6-3
6-3 6-4
iii
rev. 7/8/2002
6-5
6-5
6-5 6-9
6-9
6-9 6-10
6-11 6-12
6-12 6-13
6-14 6-15
6-15 6-17
6-17
6-17
6-17 6-18
6-18
6-18 6-21
6-20 6-21
6-21 6-23
6-23 6-24
7-1 7-2
7-2 7- 4
7-3
7-4 7-8
7-5
7-5 7-6
7-6 7-8
7-8 7-14
7-10
7-11 7-13
7-14 7-15
7-15 7-16
7-16 7-18
7-18 7-19
7-19 7-21
7-21 7-22
7-22 7-23
8-1 8-3
8-2
8-3 8-4
8-4 8-5
8-5 8-7
8-7 8-10
8-10 8-12
8-12
8-12
8-13
Chapter 9. Glossary
Glossary
9-1
iv
rev. 7/8/2002
REFERENCES:
1. International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). 1997 Uniform Building Code.
Whittier, CA: ICBO, 1997.
2. Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer. Structural Engineering Handbook, fourth edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1997
3. American Institute of Steel Construction. Manual of Steel Construction, ASD and LRFD
versions. Chicago: AISC, 1993
4. International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). Concrete Manual. Whittier, CA:
ICBO, 1989.
5. American Welding Society (AWS). Structural Welding Code, Steel; ANSI/AWS D1.1-94.
Miami, Florida: AWS, 1994.
6. Olin, Schmidt, and Lewis. Construction Principles, Materials, and Methods. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
rev. 7/8/2002
construction
correctly
Make a buck
welcome it in my practice).
1.1. Causes of Failures. Sometimes structures
fail due to poor design by the engineer. In these
cases, most often the failure occurs not because
a main beam or column breaks in two, but rather
a connection fails. Engineers have a tendency
1.2.2.
follow:
40 psf.
are as follows:
rail.
water content.
1.2.3.
determine this.
1.2.4.
loads.
description.
was required.
applied stresses.
for more.
frame members.
know why.
break.
Definition of Engineering.
Performance of Engineering.
Question: The plans examiner required
He is only competent if
of the above.
hand.
determined by an engineer.
ways.
in bending.
primarily in bending:
supports or cantilevers.
support point(s).
loaded area.
2.2.3.
support(s).
2.2.2.
moment.
2-2
2-3
Application of Moments.
The previous
work.
2.2.5.
Cantilevered beams.
laterally.
2.2.6.
common culprits.
engineer.
at all.
support.
members!
engineering tasks.
important!)
very phenomenon.
2-9
probably okay.
DEFLECTION a lot.
Its top and bottom flanges are big and wide, and
cross-sectional area.
compression.
3-3
sometimes by accident.
moment.
3.5.2.
the ledger.
stresses.
3.5.3.
Cables
Tension rods
Rope
or compression)
compression)
3-8
stress.
conditions.
application!
1,495 psi.
2 (about half!).
bolted members.
psi.
psi.
strength.
Lumber).
4.8.1.
your life.
greater).
surfacing is performed.
of primary importance.
are surfaced.
4.8.2.
20% less).
22% less.
than 28%.
same).
over 20.
Pressure Treatment. Some manufacturers
are able to provide pressure treated PSLs
columns.
4-6
4.8.3.
members.
expected.
prescriptive requirements.
loading).
4.10.
members were 2x4s and they overlapped 31/2, youd likely split the heck out of them trying
range, not 5.
4.11.
strengths.
Zperpendicular.
shear.
3/4 diameter bolt, you must provide 3/4 x 5 = 34.11.3. Species of Wood being Bolted. The
a holdown(s).
4.14.
following:
than wood.
projects.
as follows:
strength steel.
5.5. Types of Steel. There are many different
types of steels. Most never find their way to a
site.
5.3. Grade of Steel. Sometimes steel is
5.5.1.
5.5.2.
larger member.
5.5.3.
same E).
thickness.
steels.
5.6. Shapes. In the construction industry, there
are certain shapes of steel members that are
section.
5.6.3.
negative moments!
5.6.2.
5.6.4.
of this.
it at all.
basically:
sections.
5.6.6.
5-7
inches.
shapes.
5.6.9.
5.6.8.
5.6.7.
cable itself.
brittle.
TO BRITTLE FRACTURE:
high strength.
manufacturer.
encountered.
5.8.1.
will occur.
head.
default.
connection.
readings.
wall.
that it will not ever slip. The only way (per AISC)
respectively.
bolt(s).
Less edge
bolts.
5.11.
welded.
shielding methods.
5.11.1.1.
5.11.1.3.
welding.
and so on.
5.11.1.2.
distance.
5.11.3.1.
metal.
5.11.3.2.
types of grooves:
square
single-V
double-V
single-bevel
double-bevel
single-U
double-U
single-J
double-J
joint penetration
penetration
5-17
induced.
instead of a corner.
5.11.8. Welder Certification. Any welded
called secondary.
following cases.
Inspection:
Welding equipment
Joint preparation
glass. There are other methods for nondestructively testing welds, such as: magnetic-
joists
powder.
portland cement.
cement.
appreciable strength.
Type I mix. This will give you both high early set
added as necessary.
air-entrainment is added.
necessary.
following:
heat problems
topic.
weather concreting).
6.6.3.
as your aggregates.
6.6.4.
concrete.
6.6.2.
following reasons:
type.
deleterious result.
following sections.
6.9.1.
air-entrainment follow:
Improved durability
Improved water-tightness
of air-entrainment is 3 6%.
they follow:
6.9.2.
presence of steel
alkaline soils
6.9.3.
early finishing
curing
rebar.
6.9.4.
normal rate.
water-cement ratio.
6.9.5.
Damproofers, Waterproofers,
structures.
beware.
pozzolans.
Increased workability
bleeding
supplier
6.12.
de-icers
temperature.
foot intervals.
6.13.
6.11.
6.14.
concept).
6.15.
diameter equaling 1.
6.16.
This is a heavy
6.17.
reinforcement present.
area.
both directions.
gravity loads.
required.
grade.
compressive strength.
catastrophically.
6.19.
Development of Reinforcement. In
Embedment length
Hooks, or
Mechanical devices
following subsections.
an earthquake.
6.20.
end
extension .
6-14
diameters extension.
ends.
diameters or 6.
6.23.
end.
6.22.
6 apart.
length.
correctly.
displacements.
compression splices).
6.23.2. Welded Splices. These are allowed
be staggered.
by engineering analysis).
6.26.
resisting elements.
6.27.
any member.
6.24.
Spacing of Rebar.
Minimum clear
lower bars.
6.28.
6.29.
diameter.
bottoms of footings.
6-17
and columns.
drop distance.
present.
larger = 2.
6.30.
6.32.
herein.
6.31.
successful results.
minimize this.
6.33.
chute.
relative to these.
okay.
thicker concrete.
All slab reinforcement should be supported at
approximately mid-height of slab on mortar
blocks or chairs (sometimes called dobies). If
welded wire fabric is used, it is recommended
that it also be pulled upward during pouring to
ensure that it winds up toward the middle of the
slab. If the slab is heavily reinforced, the rebar
purpose and location may vary, consult with
your engineer.
6.33.5. Concrete Mix. It is recommended that
slab concrete have a 28 day compressive
strength, fc of at least 2,500 psi. Cement
content of at least 5 sacks per cubic yard for
non-vehicular applications and at least 5-1/2
construction.
is interrupted or discontinued.
6.34.
interface.
temperature
corrosion of rebar
concreting:
quickly as possible
175 degrees F
frozen ground
strength.
0
0
Maintain the temperature at 55 F, 50 F, or
accelerated Type I
0
minimum temperature of 40 F for one full week.
6.35.
practice.
6-24
to resist them.
loads.
7-1
7.2.2.
up.
7.2.3.
7.2.4.
and components.
sides.
considered.
facilities.
7-4
7.3.3.
concrete.
7.3.4.
zone 2B region.
7.3.5.
they follow:
extent.
7-5
soft rock.
7.3.7.
evaluation.
of facilities.
7.3.8.
Examples of essential or
present.
7.3.6.
consequences.
7-6
above.
analysis.
horizontal diaphragms.
diaphragms.
7.3.8.10.
principal axes.
7-8
stronger)
below:
metal, or concrete.
horizontally.
stronger)
the stronger)
splitting)
7-9
3-1/2:1
how to do this.
ratio is 4:1
openings.
BRACED WALLS:
7-11
7.4.1.4.1.
section).
at all edges.
required.
7.4.1.4.2.
7-12
pounds each.
with each.
25%.
construction.
Washington).
specified minimum.
7.4.3.
K type CBFs.
below it.
horizontal diaphragm.
including:
plywood
OSB
particleboard
7.4.5.
7-16
connections.
connection.
devises.
installations.
holdown.
structural system.
connection elements.
smaller element.
section.
assumed.
design.
7.4.8.
phase, and things are built per the plans and per
the UBC.
7.4.9.
much.
event.
movement.
study.
8.2.1.
8.2.2.
heaving.
piling.
first place.
away.
footing.
8.7.1.
8.7.3.
8.7.2.
Groundwater. If groundwater is
surcharge load.
8-4
8.7.6.
proposition to correct).
8.7.7.1.1.
8.7.7.1.2.
a cantilever wall:
saving money.
8.7.7.1.4.
this.
8.7.7.2.1.
upsloping backfill.
8.7.7.2.2.
8-7
as counterforts.
8.7.7.2.5.
calculations show).
8.7.7.3.1.
8-10
8.7.7.3.2.
becomes excessive.
common problem.
8-13
Continuous Beam
A beam held-up by several supports.
Deflected Beam
A beam that has movement downward due to
dead and live loads.
Eave Overhangs
The extension of the top chord of a truss beyond
the heel. Measured horizontally.
Fog Nozzle
Firefighting hose nozzle that breaks water into
tiny droplets. Creates more surface area.
Anchor Bolt
A bolt or threaded rod embedded in concrete to
hold structural members in place. Used to
anchor a sill plate to the foundation.
Footer
The supporting base for a wall or structure.
Foundation
A construction, normally below the ground, that
distributes / supports the load of a building or
wall.
Beam
Long piece of timber used in construction.
Normally use as a horizontal support.
Framing Clip
Metal plates used to connect the trusses to the
top plates to add structural stability during
earthquakes.
Bending Members
A beam that works by resisting bending forces.
For example - joist, rafter, beams, girder.
Bottom Chord of Truss
The bottom horizontal mem ber of a truss.
Cantilever Beam
A beam that is supported only on one end.
Allows for overhanging structures without
external bracing.
Girder
Large beam, usually steel, used a main support
in a building.
Cedar
Wood of a cedar tree. Evergreen coniferous
trees having stiff needles on short shoots.
Durable aromatic wood often used in making
chests.
Grout
Thin mortar used to fill the joints between
masonry tiles. Or thin plaster for finishing walls
and ceilings.
Colum n
Vertical structural component that supports the
weight of a structure above to the structure
below. This is a compression element.
9-1
Load - Snow
Additional load added by falling or drifting snow.
M odular Home
House built in sections, at a remote facility, and
assembled on the jobsite.
Joist
Horizontal supporting member that runs from
wall to wall, wall to beam or beam to beam, to
support a ceiling, roof or floor. It may be made
of wood, steel or concrete. Typically a beam is
bigger than a joist. Joists are supported by
beams.
Pilot Hole
A hole drilled in the wood to serve as a guide for
a nail or a screw or for drilling a larger hole.
Helps prevent the wood from splitting.
Knee Brace
A stiffener between a column and a supported
truss or beam. Provides greater rigidity in the
fram ework under transverse loads.
Plywood
A structural material made of wood layers glued
together, with the each layer's grain at right
angles to each other.
Lag Bolts
Heavy woodscrew that tapers to a point, so it
can be driven into wood with a screwdriver.
Portland Cement
A hydraulic cement made by heating a clay and
limestone mix in a kiln. Then pulverizing the
resulting material.
Load
Weight or mass being supported.
Load - Dead
Constant load on a structure due to the weigh of
the structure being supported. For example weight of roofing, flooring, insulation, ceiling
material, etc.
Load - Live
A variable or moving weight added to the dead
load of a structure. For example - snow or wind.
Rafter
A structural member which supports the roof of
a building. It is a type of a beam and typically
made of wood.
9-2
Seismic Zones
Areas of the country where earthquakes occur.
Zones indicate the tendency for earthquakes to
occur in that area.
Rebar
Rod or bar used in concrete or asphalt for
reinforcement.
Shear Walls
A rigid vertical diaphragm capable of transferring
lateral forces from exterior walls, floors, and
roofs to the ground foundation in a direction
parallel to their planes.
Shoring
The placing of braces (called shores) against or
beneath a structure for support. Often used to
stabilize a structure during modification or
repair.
Retaining Wall
A wall built to support or hold back earth, loose
rock, etc.
Scaffolding
Temporary working structure erected for the
convenience of workers.
Stirrups
U-shaped bar which is anchored perpendicular to
the longitudinal steel as reinforcem ent to resist
shear.
Strongbacks
Beam which acts as a secondary support
member to an existing structure.
Structural Member
Support that is part of any structure or building
Stud
An upright post in the framework of a wall for
supporting sheets of lath, wallboard, or similar
material.
9-3
Trex
A composite product made of a unique
combination of wood and plastic fibers. An
alternative to standard lumber.
Truss
Rigid framework of beams or bars, designed to
support a structure.
Turnbuckle
A device consisting of a link with screw threads
on both ends, that when turned tightens a rod
or stay.
Vapor Barrier
A material layer installed on the warm side of a
concrete wall or floor to prevent absorption and
condensation of moisture.
Tension Rod
Rod used to strengthen a timber fram ework,
roof, etc. as a tension member.
Toenail / Toenailing
A nail driven at an angle to join vertical and
horizontal beams.
Top Chord Of Truss
The inclined member that makes the upper edge
of a truss.
W elding Electrode
The rod that carries the current from the welder
to the work piece.
Top Plate
The horizontal member of a building frame at
the top of the studs. The member to which the
rafters are fastened.
W elds - Fillet
Weld joining two edges at right angles. Weld
shape is approximately triangular in
cross-section.
W elds - Groove
A weld placed in a groove between two
mem bers.
W elds - Plug
A circular fusion weld made in the hole of a
slotted lap or tee joint.
W elds - Slot
Weld, similar to plug weld, but hole is elongated
and might extend to the edge of the member
without closing.
Torque W rench
Hand or power tool used to turn a nut or bolt to
a predetermined amount of force.
9-4