POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Analog
process
Control and
sensors
PRESENTERS:

BERGANIO, JASMIN F.
CASTRO, JAMELO B.
ESCOTE, JIMMY M.
ESTANGCO, MARY ANGELINE L.
FRIAS, MARA B.
GANZALINO, MARK PAUL S.
SORIANO, PATRICK JIM O.
BS ECE 4-4
Presenter #1: BERGANIO, Jasmin F.

1. Presented topic:

Introduction to Analog Process Control and Sensors

A.

Objectives

The goal of this presentation is to provide a motivation for, and an introduction to, process control and
sensors. After studying this material, the reader, should be able to grasp and be able to recognize the concept behind
the topic Introduction to Process Control and Sensors and be able to do the following:

Will be able to identify and discuss each stage in a process control system.
Assess the importance of process control from safety, environmental,
and economic points of view
Understand the basic idea of actuators, control valves, control sensors, transmitters & transducers and
process sensors.

The major sections of this presentation are as follows:

I.
Introduction to APCS
a. Define Process Control system
b. Illustrate and discuss the Process Control Flow
c. Describe the Basic Process Control components
d. Application of APCS

B.

Discussion

Sensors to measure process conditions and valves to influence process operations are essential for all aspects
of engineering practice. Engineers want to design and operate processes that remain in safe conditions, produce the
desired amounts of high quality products and are profitable. Therefore, engineers must provide measuring devices
for key variables and valves (or other devices, such as variable speed electric motors) to influence of steer the
process. This discussion provides educational material on sensors and valves for use in the analog process control
industries.

While sensors and valves are important in all aspects of engineering, they assume greatest importance in the
study of automatic control, which is termed process control when applied in the process industries.

Definition of Process control system

Process control is the study of automatic control. It deals with the regulation of processes by applying the
feedback principle using various computing devices, principally digital computation. Process control requires
sensors for measuring variables and valves for implementing decisions. Therefore, the presentation of this material
is designed to complement other learning topics in process control.

The Process Control Flow

The Figure shows basic elements of a feedback control system as represented by a block diagram. The
functional relationships between these elements are easily seen. An important factor to remember is that the block
diagram represents flow paths of control signals.
Below are several terms associated with the closed-loop block diagram:
The Logical Signal is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control system to cause
the plant to produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired value of a controlled variable
and is also called the setpoint.
The Signal Processing and Amplification is where the input signals where processing and amplified
enabling the signal to be transferred to the preceding elements of the process control flow.
The actuator sensor is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point and
algebraically added to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.
The mechanism block is where the control valves are located. These control are valves used to control
conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing
in response to signals received from controllers that compare a "setpoint" to a "process variable"
whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such conditions.
Basic Process Control components
These are the basic process control components to be discussed:
An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is
operated by a source of energy, typically electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and
converts that energy into motion.
Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level by
fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that compare a "setpoint"

to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such conditions.[1] Control
Valve is also termed as the Final Control Element.
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment. The
specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other
environmental phenomena.
Transducers are voltage-output devices that can be used with simple signal conditioning but are more
sensitive to electromagnetic interference.
Transmitters are current-output devices and may have two or three wires. Where two wires are used to both
receive power and transmit an output signal, significant cost savings can be made where long cables are
needed.

Application

As an example for Analog Process Control system heres a shower flow diagram. The cold water and hot
water serves as the input signal on the control system. The valve signifies the use of control valves which opens the
outlet in the shower which opens or closes the shower valve. The actuator on this diagram is the individual in the
shower room which turns on or off the control valve.
Presenter #2: CASTRO, Jaimelo B.
1. Presented topic:

Process Actuators and Output Devices

A. Objectives
This presentation aims to provide in-depth understanding about process actuators and output devices. After
studying this topic, the reader, should be able to

Define what process actuators and output devices are.

Know how process actuators and output devices works.

Know the common and industrial types of process actuators.

Know the different types of output devices.
Know the applications of process actuators.

The major sections of this presentation are as follows:

I. Process Actuators and Output Devices
a. Introduction to Process Actuators
b. Common Types of Actuators
c. Industrial Actuators
d. Introduction to Output Devices
e. Types of Output devices

B. Discussion
Actuators are the final elements in a control system. They receive a low power command signal and energy
input to amplify the command signal as appropriate to produce the required output. Applications range from simple
low power switches to high power hydraulic devices operating flaps and control surfaces on aircraft; valves, car
steering, process plant automation, etc.
An Actuator converts the command signal from controllers or higher-level components into physical
adjustment in adjustable process variable. Actuators drive motions in mechanical systems. Most often this is by
converting electrical energy into some form of mechanical motion.

Figure 1.2Process flow in an actuator

Basic actuators are used to move valves to either fully opened or fully closed positions. Actuators for
control or position regulating valves are given a positioning signal to move to any intermediate position with a high
degree of accuracy. Although the most common and important use of an actuator is to open and close valves, current
actuator designs go far beyond the basic open and close function. The valve actuator can be packaged together with
position sensing equipment, torque sensing, motor protection, logic control, digital communication capacity and even
PID control all in a compact environmentally protected enclosure.
Common Types of Actuators
Manual actuators do not require an outside power source to move a valve to a desired position. Instead, they
use a hand wheel, chain wheel, lever, or declutchable mechanism to drive a series of gears whose ratio results
in a higher output torque compared to the input (manual) torque. Most manual actuators use worm gears,
mechanical devices that transmit motion between non-intersecting right-angle axes.
Electric actuator has a motor drive that provides torque to operate a valve. Electric actuators are frequently
used on multi-turn valves such as gate or globe valves. With the addition of a quarter-turn gearbox, they can
be utilized on ball, plug, or other quarter-turn valves.
Electromagnetic Actuators exploits the mutual attraction of soft ferrous materials in a magnetic field. The
device has one coil which provides the field energy and the energy to be transformed. The attractive force is
unidirectional such that the return device of some type is needed, often a spring. Relays or solenoids are
based on this principle which is widely used in cars to switch a range of electrical equipment with a current
demand of more than about 10Amps examples include in fans, head lights, horn, and wipers.
Electrodynamic Actuators is based on the (Lorenz) force generated when a current carrying conductor
(often in the form of a coil) is held in a magnetic field. DC motors are frequently used as part of an actuator
system.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators are often simple devices with a minimum of mechanical parts, used on
linear or quarter-turn valves. Sufficient air or fluid pressure acts on a piston to provide thrust in a linear
motion for gate or globe valves. Alternatively, the thrust may be mechanically converted to rotary motion to
operate a quarter-turn valve. Most types of fluid power actuators can be supplied with fail-safe features to
close or open a valve under emergency circumstances.
Industrial Actuators
Solenoids Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic principle of operation is that,
there is a moving ferrous core (a piston) that will move inside wire coil as shown in Figure 3.1. Normally the
piston is held outside the coil by a spring. When a voltage is applied to the coil and current flows, the coil
builds up a magnetic field that attracts the piston and pulls it into the center of the coil. The piston can be
used to supply a linear force. Well known applications of these include in pneumatic values and car door
openers.

Figure 3.1Operation of Solenoid Actuators

Piston and Cylinder Actuators A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear force/motion. A
fluid is pumped into one side of the cylinder under pressure causing that side of the cylinder to expand, and

advancing the piston. The fluid on the other side of the piston must be allowed to escape freely - if the
incompressible fluid was trapped the cylinder could not advance. The force the cylinder can exert is
proportional to the cross sectional area of the cylinder.
Output Devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data
processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically
generated information into human-readable form.
Types of Output Devices

Graphics (Visual) A digital image is a numeric representation of an image stored on a computer. They don't
have any physical size until they are displayed on a screen or printed on paper. Until that point, they are just a
collection of numbers on the computer's hard drive that describe the individual elements of a picture and how
they are arranged.

Tactile A tactile feedback technology takes advantage of the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or
motions to the user. Several printers and wax jet printers have the capability of producing raised line
drawings. There are also handheld devices that use an array of vibrating pins to present a tactile outline of the
characters or text under the viewing window of the device.

Audio Speech output systems can be used to read screen text to computer users. Special software programs
called screen readers attempt to identify and interpret what is being displayed on the screen and speech
synthesizers convert data to vocalized sounds or text.

Presenter #3: ESTANGCO, Mary Angeline L.

1. Presented topic:

Control Valves
A. Objectives
The aim of this presentation is to provide important information about control valves and its relevance in the
industry and in our daily existence. After studying, this material will let the reader to be familiar with:
The fundamental nature of control valves and how it works in a system.
Distinguishing the relevance and application of control valves.
Identifying the things to be considered in selecting control valves.
The major sections of this presentation are as follows:
I. Introduction to Control Valves
a. Definition of control valves
b. Explanation of each parts of control valves
c. Types of control valves
d. Classifications of control valves

B. Discussion
Control Valves
The most common method for influencing the behavior of chemical processes is through the flow rate of
process streams. Usually, a variable resistance in the closed conduit or pipe is manipulated to influence the flow rate
and achieve the desired process behavior. A valve with a variable opening for flow is the standard equipment used to
introduce this variable resistance. The valve is selected because it is simple, reliable, relatively low cost and available
for a wide range of process applications. In some cases the valve resistance is set by a person adjusting the opening,
like a home faucet. In many cases, the valve resistance is determined by an automatic controller, with the valve
designed to accept and implement the signal sent from the controller. These are control valves.
It is a power-operated device used to modify the fluid or substance flow rate in a process system. The control
valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load
disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.
Parts of Control Valves
Globe
The name "globe" refers to the external shape of the valve, not the internal flow area. A typical
globe valve has a stem that is adjusted linearly (up and down) to change the position of the plug. As the
plug changes, the area for flow between the plug and seat (opening) changes. Many different seat and
plug designs are available to achieve desired relationships between the stem position and flow rate; see
the discussion on valve characteristic below. The standard plug must oppose the pressure drop across the
valve, which is acceptable for small pressure drops.

Ball

The restriction for this body is a solid ball which has some part of the ball removed to provide an
adjustable area for flow. The ball is rotated to influence the amount of flow. The example ball valve
displayed through the link below has a tunnel through the ball, and the ball is rotated to adjust the fraction
of the tunnel opening available for flow. Other types of ball valves have different sections removed from
the ball to give desired properties.

Butterfly

The butterfly valve provides a damper that is rotated to adjust the resistance to flow. This valve
provides a small pressure drop for gas flows.

Diaphragm

The diaphragm valve has one surface which is deformed by the force from the valve stem to vary
the resistance to flow.

Gate
These valves have a flat barrier that is adjusted to influence the area for flow. These bodies are
used primary for hand-operated valves and valves automated for emergency shutoff.
Types of Control Valves
Rotary-motion Control Valve
Rotary type valves, often called quarter-turn valves, include plug valves, ball valves and
butterfly valves. All require a rotary motion to open and close, and can easily be fitted with
actuators.

Linear-motion Control Valve

Linear types include globe valves and slide valves.

Classifications of Control Valves
The two-port valves which throttle or restrict the fluid passing through them.
a. Globe valves
Globe valves are frequently used for control applications because of their suitability for
throttling flow and the ease with which they can be given a specific 'characteristic', relating valve
opening to flow.

b. Slide

valves

Slide valves tend to come in two different designs; wedge gate type and parallel slide type.
Both types are well suited for isolating fluid flow, as they give a tight shut-off and, when open, the
pressure drop across them is very small.
c. Eccentric plug valves
These valves are normally installed with the plug spindle horizontal as shown, and the
attached actuator situated alongside the valve
d. Ball valves
The ball has a hole allowing fluid to pass through. When aligned with the pipe ends, this gives
either full bore or nearly full bore flow with very little pressure drop. Rotating the ball through 90
opens and closes the flow passage.
e. Butterfly valves
In the open position the disc is parallel to the pipe wall, allowing full flow through the valve.
In the closed position it is rotated against a seat, and perpendicular to the pipe wall.

The three-port valves which can be used to mix or divert liquid passing through them.
a) Piston valve type
This type of valve has a hollow piston which is moved up and down by the actuator, covering
and correspondingly uncovering the two-port A and B.
b) Globe plug type
The actuator pushes a disc or pair of valve plugs between two seats increasing or decreasing
the flow through ports A and B in a corresponding manner.

c) Rotating
This type
shuttles across

shoe type
of valve employs a rotating shoe, which
the port faces.

Issues in Selecting Control Valves

Capacity
The maximum flow rate through the flow system (pipes, valves, and process equipment) must
meet operating requirements. Guidelines are available for calculating the pipe diameter for a desired flow
rate, and guidelines are given here for the percentage of the system pressure drop contributed by the
valve.
Range
The range indicates the extent of flow values that the valve can reliably regulate; very small and
large flows cannot be maintained at desired values.
Pressure drop
The purpose of the valve is to create a variable pressure drop in the flow system. However, a
large pressure drop wastes energy. In some systems, the energy costs for pumping or compressing can be
very high, and the pressure drop introduced by the valve should be as small a practically possible.
Precision
Ideally, the valve would move to exactly the position indicated by the signal to the valve, which is
usually a controller output. However, the valve is a real physical device that does not perform ideally.
Dynamics
The valve is part of the feedback system, and any delay due to the valve slows the feedback
correction and degrades control performance. Therefore, the valve should achieve the desired opening
rapidly.
Cost
Engineers must always consider cost when making design and operations decisions. Valves
involve costs and when selected properly, provide benefits. These must be quantified and a profitability
analysis performed. In some cases, a valve can affect the operating costs of the process, where the
pumping (or compression) costs can be high, and the pressure drop occurring because of the valve can
significantly increase the pumping costs. In such situations, a valve with a low (non-recoverable) pressure
drop is selected.
Presenter #4: GANZALINO, Mark Paul S.
1. Presented topic:

Introduction to Control Sensors

A. Objectives
The aim of this presentation is to broaden each and everyones knowledge on the topic Introduction to
Control Sensors which will educate us about its significance not just in the industry but also in our daily lives. This
presentation also intends to let the readers:

Understand the essence of sensors in any control and automation system.

Apprehend the main parameters that are being measured and controlled by the control sensors
Perceive the basic knowledge on the issues that they might encounter in using and/ or when choosing
the appropriate control sensors

The major sections of this presentation are as follows:

I. Introduction to Control Sensors
a. Define and illustrate purpose of Control Sensors
b. Discuss the main parameters measure and controlled by Control Sensors
c. Enumerate and explain the issues encountered in sensor selection

B. Discussion
Control Sensors
Sensors play a major role in any control and automation system. Without sensors the apparatus is essentially
running blind. The sensors convey details of the status of the real world in a more detailed way than any human
senses can. They exist to cover most measurable quantities of the real world and include motion, temperature,
proximity, light, sound, moisture and many more.

Control Sensors are used for process monitoring and for process control. These are essential elements of
safe and profitable plant operation that can be achieved only if the proper sensors are selected and installed in the
correct locations. While sensors differ greatly in their physical principles, their selection can be guided by the
analysis of a small set of issues.
Many types of sensors have been developed during the past several years. Some those are being used in the
military, medicine, automotive applications, and others but it mostly used for INDUSTRIAL PROCESS CONTROL.
PROCESS CONTROL SENSORS plays a significant role in improving productivity, qualitatively and quantitatively.
Parameters
There are main parameters to be measured and controlled in industrial plants. Those are temperature,
displacement, force, pressure, fluid level, and flow. In addition, detectors for leakage of explosives or combustible
gases and oils are important for accident prevention. And, from these parameters different types of sensors are being
made.

TEMPERATURE Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and
temperature must be maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable operation of process
equipment.

PRESSURE Most liquid and all gaseous materials in the process industries are contained within
closed vessels. For the safety of plant personnel and protection of the vessel, pressure in the vessel is
controlled. In addition, pressured is controlled because it influences key process operations like
vapor-liquid equilibrium, chemical reaction rate, and fluid flow.

FLOW Flow measurement is critical to determine the amount of material purchased and sold, and in
these applications, very accurate flow measurement is required. In addition, flows throughout the
process should the regulated near their desired values with small variability; in these applications,
good reproducibility is usually sufficient. Flowing systems require energy, typically provided by
pumps and compressors, to produce a pressure difference as the driving force, and flow sensors
should introduce a small flow resistance, increasing the process energy consumption as little as
possible.

LEVEL Level of liquid in a vessel should be maintained above the exit pipe because if the vessel
empties the exit flow will become zero, a situation that would upset downstream processes and could
damage pumping equipment that requires liquid. Also, the level should not overflow an open vessel
nor should it exit through a vapor line of a closed vessel, which could disturb a process designed for
vapor.

POSITION Displacement sensors measure the distance an object moves and they can also be used to
measure object height and width.

Issues
From the main parameters, the major issues in sensor selection are summarized in the following:

Accuracy - Accuracy is the degree of conformity of the measured value with the accepted standard or
ideal value, which we can take as the true physical variable.

Repeatability The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the

same variable (value) under the same operating conditions, approaching in the same direction.

Reproducibility The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the

same variable (value) under the same operating conditions over a period of time, approaching from
both directions.

Range/Span - Most sensors have a limited range over which a process variable can be measured,
defined by the lower and upper range values.

Reliability Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform (as specified) for a
period of time under specified operating conditions.

Linearity - This is the closeness to a straight line of the relationship between the true process
variable and the measurement.

Maintenance - Sensors require occasional testing and replacement of selected components that can
wear. Engineers must know the maintenance requirements so that they can provide adequate spare
parts and personnel time.

Dynamics - The use of the sensor dictates the allowable delay in the sensor response. When the
measured value is used for control, sensor delays should be minimized, while sensors used for
monitoring longer-term trends can have some delay.

Safety - The sensor and transmitter often require electrical power. Since the sensor is located at the
process equipment, the environment could contain flammable gases, which could explode when a
spark occurs.

Cost - Engineers must always consider cost when making design and operations decisions. Sensors
involve costs and when selected properly, provide benefits. These must be quantified and a
profitability analysis performed.

The relative importance of each issue depends upon the specific application; for example, one application
might require excellent accuracy, while another might require only moderate accuracy, but high
reliability. Generally, we find that the greater the requirements for good performance, the higher the cost for
purchase and maintenance. Therefore, we must find the proper balance of performance and cost, rather than always
specify the best performing sensor.
Presenter #5: SORIANO, Patrick Jim O.
1. Presented topic:

Transducers and Transmitters

A. Objectives
The intent of this presentation is to provide the fundamental knowledge on the topic Transducers and
Transmitters. This presentation also wants to:

Discuss and define transmitters and transducers

Illustrate how do transmitters and transducers operates
Explain the differences between transmitters and transducers

The major sections of this presentation are as follows:

I. Transducers and Transmitters
a. Definition and functions of Transducers
b. Effectiveness factor of a transducer
c. Classification of Transducers
d. Definition and functions of Transmitters

B. Discussion
Transducers are simply the transformation of a form of energy into another basically electric. These
parameters often contain voltage levels at which the transducer system practically read at levels linear to parameter
change. There is also inverse transducer which would read the electrical signals into a form desired by the user as
another energy type. Inverse transducers are often called indicators. Transmitters, on the other hand serves as an
indicator that reads electrical signal but forms into electrical signal capable of transmission. This signal is then
receive by a inverse transducer capable of decoding information and transform into another energy form.
Transducer
It is a device used to convert one form of energy into electrical signals. Also, it is capable of switching a
physical quantity into an electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

Transducers are being used to convert a physical occurrence into an equivalent electrical output. Transducer
devices have two basic parts the sensing element and the transducer element. Sensing element functions as the
physically component that reads the physical signals in different parameters, such as pressure, temperature, position
and etc. The transducer element functions as the reactive component to the input signal and converts it into an
equivalent intensity of reaction.
Effectiveness factor of a Transducer
Sensitivity device must be sensitive enough to produce readable voltage or current output.
Operating range must reach deep minimum and high maximum working intensity.
Accuracy must perform according physical interface.
Error must prevent high percent errors.
Operating Principle it must be used depending on the needed specifications and parameters present
in the environment.
Transient and frequency response should meet desired time domain specification such as V
overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic errors.
Loading effect should have a high output impedance and low input impedance to avoid loading
effects.
Environmental Compatibility should be assured that the transducer being used in a certain
environmental condition will not be affected by
other environmental phenomenon.
Insensitivity to Unwanted signal it should minimize capture of unwanted signal and maintain good
reception of wanted signals.
Classification of Transducers
1) Analog and Digital
Analog - converts input into output into continuous time function.
Digital converts input into output into form of time based pulses.

2) Primary and Secondary

Primary when signal is sensed by transducer and converts it into electrical signal directly.
Secondary when signal that serves as input is not a direct physical parameter, in other words came
from the primary transducer, it is classified as secondary.

3) Transducers and Inverse Transducers

Transducers Converts non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
Inverse Converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.

4) Active and Passive

Active if the transducer operates if and only if there is a voltage source applied in the system.
Passive transducers that operates even without the use of voltage source.
Transmitters
It is similar to the transducers but it is a device with a current output. Trasmitters are electronics that would
allow the transducers millivolt signal output to be processed and converted to current for transmission over long
distances. Since current are virtually unaffected by radio frequency interferences unlike voltage which are sensitive
and to it and would add noise to its reading in addition to being intolerant to resistance, usually a two-wire
transmitter is used with 4-20mA output.

Presenter #6: ESCOTE, Jimmy M.

1. Presented topic:

Process Sensors: Temperature, Pressure and Flow

A. Objectives
This topic aims to give knowledge about different types of sensors and how they work. It will educate
students about the basic functions of sensors and will broaden their thinking about it which will led in understanding
the use of sensors in our industry. The readers were expected to learn the following:

Understand the use of sensors in machinery, factories and in homes.

Have knowledge in selecting sensors that they will use for a project.
Different parameters and factors that may affect the functions of sensors

The major sections of this presentation are as follows:

I. Different Process Sensors
a. Defining temperature, pressure and flow sensors
b. Comparing the three sensors
c. Application of the sensors in industry

B. Discussion
Temperature Sensors
Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and temperature must be maintained
within limits to ensure safe and reliable operation of process equipment. Temperature can be measured by many
methods; several of the more common are described in this subsection. You should understand the strengths and
limitations of each sensor, so that you can select the best sensor for each application. In nearly all cases, the
temperature sensor is protected from the process materials to prevent interference with proper sensing and to
eliminate damage to the sensor. Thus, some physically strong, chemically resistant barrier exists between the process
and sensor; often, this barrier is termed a sheath or thermowell, especially for thermocouple sensors. An additional
advantage of such a barrier is the ability to remove, replace, and calibrate the sensor without disrupting the process
operation.
Types of Temperature Sensors
Thermocouples: When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures, an
electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction, referred to as the reference, is maintained
at a known temperature, and the measuring junction is located where the temperature is to be
determined. The temperature difference can be determined from the measured emf.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD): The electrical resistance of many metals changes with
temperature; metals for which resistance increases with temperature are used in RTDs.
Thermistor: This sensor is similar to an RTD, but applies metals for which the resistance decreases
with increasing temperature. The relationship is often very nonlinear, but thermistors can provide
very accurate temperature measurements for small spans and low temperatures
Bimetallic: Metals expand with increasing temperature, and the rate of expansion differs among
metals. A spiral constructed of two bonded metal strips will coil (uncoil) as the temperature changes.
The changing position of the coil can be detected and used to determine the temperature. This

provides a rugged, low cost sensor that is often used for local displays and for on-off temperature
control, i.e., a thermostat.
Filled systems: A fluid expands with increasing temperature and exerts a varying pressure on the
containing vessel. When the vessel is similar to a bourbon tube, the varying pressure causes a
deformation that changes the position detected to determine the temperature.

Pressure Sensors
Most liquid and all gaseous materials in the process industries are contained within closed vessels. For the
safety of plant personnel and protection of the vessel, pressure in the vessel is controlled. In addition, pressured is
controlled because it influences key process operations like vapor-liquid equilibrium, chemical reaction rate, and
fluid flow.
Types of Pressure Sensors
a. Based on Mechanical Principles
Bourdon : A bourbon tube is a curved, hollow tube with the process pressure applied to the fluid
in the tube. The pressure in the tube causes the tube to deform or uncoil. The pressure can be
determined from the mechanical displacement of the pointer connected to the Bourdon tube.
Typical shapes for the tube are C (normally for local display), spiral and helical.
Bellows : A bellows is a closed vessel with sides that can expand and contract, like an accordion.
The position of the bellows without pressure can be determined by the bellows itself or a spring.
The pressure is applied to the face of the bellows, and its deformation and its position depend
upon the pressure.
Diaphragm : A diaphragm is typically constructed of two flexible disks, and when a pressure is
applied to one face of the diaphragm, the position of the disk face changes due to deformation.
The position can be related to pressure.
b. Based on Electrical Principles
Capacitive or inductance : The movement associated with one of the mechanical sensors already
described can be used to influence an electrical property such as capacitance affecting a measured
signal. For example, under changing pressure a diaphragm causes a change in capacitance or
inductance.
Resistive, strain gauge : The electrical resistance of a metal wire depends on the strain applied to
the wire. Deflection of the diaphragm due to the applied pressure causes strain in the wire, and the
electrical resistance can be measured and related to pressure.
Piezoelectric : A piezoelectric material, such as quartz, generates a voltage output when pressure
is applied on it. Force can be applied by the diaphragm to a quartz crystal disk that is deflected by
process pressure.
Flow Sensors
Flow measurement is critical to determine the amount of material purchased and sold, and in these
applications, very accurate flow measurement is required. Flows throughout the process should the regulated near
their desired values with small variability; in these applications, good reproducibility is usually sufficient. Flowing
systems require energy, typically provided by pumps and compressors, to produce a pressure difference as the
driving force, and flow sensors should introduce a small flow resistance, increasing the process energy consumption
as little as possible.
Types of Flow Sensors
Orifice: An orifice plate is a restriction with an opening smaller than the pipe diameter which is
inserted in the pipe; the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp edged opening.

Venturi Tube: The venturi tube shown in Figure 2 is similar to an orifice meter, but it is designed to
nearly eliminate boundary layer separation, and thus form drag. The change in cross-sectional area in
the venturi tube causes a pressure change between the convergent section and the throat, and the flow
rate can be determined from this pressure drop.
Flow Nozzle: A flow nozzle consists of a restriction with an elliptical contour approach section that
terminates in a cylindrical throat section. Pressure drop between the locations one pipe diameter
upstream and one-half pipe diameter downstream is measured.
Elbow meter: A differential pressure exists when a flowing fluid changes direction due to a pipe turn
or elbow. The pressure difference results from the centrifugal force
Pitot tube and annubar: The pitot tube, shown in Figure 4 below, measures the static and dynamic
pressures of the fluid at one point in the pipe. The flow rate can be determined from the difference
between the static and dynamic pressures which is the velocity head of the fluid flow.
Turbine: As fluid flows through the turbine, it causes the turbine to rotate with an angular velocity
that is proportional to the fluid flow rate. The frequency of rotation can be measured and used to
determine flow.
Vortex shedding : Fluid vortices are formed against the body introduced in the pipe. These vortices
are produced from the downstream face in a oscillatory manner. The shedding is sensed using a
thermistor and the frequency of shedding is proportional to volumetric flow rate.
Positive displacement: In these sensors, the fluid is separated into individual volumetric elements
and the number of elements per unit time is measured. These sensors provide high accuracy over a
large range. An example is a wet test meter.

APPLICATIONS
a. Temperature Sensor
T-GAGE M18T Series Temperature Sensors

b. Pressure Sensor
Digital air pressure sensor

c. Flow Sensor
Water Management One of our most precious resources needs to be managed
responsibly and within a clearly reported framework. We understand the increasing
pressures that exist within this industry and have a great number of specialized tools
for this purpose.

Presenter #7: FRIAS, Mara B.

1. Presented topic:

Process Sensors: Level and Position

A. Objectives
The presentation aims to discuss further about sensors specifically level and position parameters. The topic
also deals with:

Different means of parameter changes and indications

Functions of different types of position and level sensors

The major sections of this presentation are as follows:

I. Different Process Sensors
a. Defining position and level sensors
b. Discussing the types of position and level sensors

B. Discussion
Sensors is a transducer whose purpose is to sense (that is, to detect) some characteristic of its environments.
It detects events or changes in quantities and provides a corresponding output, generally as an electrical or optical
signal; for example, a thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage.
Position Sensors
Basically it is a sensor that reacts from an input of position or mechanism. Position sensors are basically
sensors for measuring the distance traveled by the body starting from its reference position. How far the body has
moved from its reference or initial position is sensed by the position sensors and often the output is given as a fed
back to the control system which takes the appropriate action. Motion of the body can be rectilinear or curvilinear;
accordingly, position sensors are called linear position sensors or angular position sensors.

A ball mouse is an example of rotary position sensor.

Types of Position Sensors
Position sensors use different sensing principles to sense the displacement of a body. Depending upon the
different sensing principles used for position sensors, they can be classified as follows:
1. POTENTIOMETRIC POSITION SENSOR
Uses resistive effect as the sensing principle. The sensing element is simply a resistive (or
conductive) track. A wiper is attached to the body or part of the body whose displacement is to
be measured. The wiper is in contact with the track. As the wiper (with the body or its part)
moves, the resistance between one end of the track and the wiper changes. Thus, the resistance

becomes a function of the wiper position. The change in resistance per unit change in wiper
position is linear.
2. CAPACITIVE SENSORS
Uses an alternating voltage which causes the charges to continually reverse their positions. The
moving of the charges creates an alternating electric current which is detected by the sensor. The
amount of current flow is determined by the capacitance, and the capacitance is determined by
the area and proximity of the conductive objects. Larger and closer objects cause greater current
than smaller and more distant objects. The capacitance is also affected by the type of
nonconductive material in the gap between the objects.
3. LVDT DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER
comprises 3 coils; a primary and two secondaries.
The transfer of current between the primary and the secondaries of the LVDT displacement
transducer is controlled by the position of a magnetic core called an armature.
At the centre of the position measurement stroke, the two secondary voltages of the displacement
transducer are equal but because they are connected in opposition the resulting output from the
sensor is zero.
As the LVDTs armature moves away from centre, the result is an increase in one of the position
sensor secondaries and a decrease in the other. This results in an output from the measurement
sensor.
4. MAGNETOSTRICTION
Transducer can be used as a sensor and also for actuation as the transducer characteristics is very
high due to the bi-directional coupling between mechanical and magnetic states of the material.
By measuring the amount of time between the electronic pulse's launch and the strain pulse's
arrival, a magnetostrictive sensor can determine the precise positional difference.
5. EDDY-CURRENT SENSORS
Operates with magnetic fields. The driver creates an alternating current in the sensing coil in the
end of the probe. This creates an alternating magnetic field with induces small currents in the target
material; these currents are called eddy currents.
The eddy currents create an opposing magnetic field which resists the field being generated by the
probe coil. The interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance between the probe
and the target.
As the distance changes, the electronics sense the change in the field interaction and produce a
voltage output which is proportional to the change in distance between the probe and target.
The target surface must be at least three times larger than the probe diameter for normal, calibrated
operation; otherwise, special calibration may be required.
6. HALL EFFECT SENSORS
are devices which are activated by an external magnetic field. We know that a magnetic field has
two important characteristics flux density, (B) and polarity (North and South Poles).
The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic field density around the
device.
When the magnetic flux density around the sensor exceeds a certain pre-set threshold, the sensor
detects it and generates an output voltage called the Hall Voltage, VH.
7. OPTICAL SENSORS
Can measure changes from several light sources at once, as in digital and electronic relays, making
them common in automated industrial processes.

Optical sensors can be either internal or external. External sensors gather and transmit a required
quantity of light, while internal sensors are more often used to measure bends and other small
changes in direction.
For optical sensors to work effectively, they must be the correct type for the application, so that
they retain their sensitivity to the property they measure. In addition they must not be able to
measure any other property.
Optical sensors are integral parts of many common devices, including computers, copy machines
and light fixtures that turn on automatically in the dark.
Common applications include alarm systems, synchros for photographic flashes and systems that
can detect the presence of objects.
8. FIBER OPTICAL CABLES
May be used in intrinsic source and reacts to pressure from material enclosure relevant to
positioning.

Level Sensor
A level sensor detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids,
including slurries, granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface.
The level measurement can be either continuous or point values.
Continuous level sensors measure level within a specified range and determine the exact amount of
substance in a certain place
Point-level sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point.
Types of Level Sensor
1. OPTICAL LEVEL SENSOR

optical liquid level sensors have no moving parts and are ideal for point level sensing of water and
other liquids.

These optical level sensors provide a switched output that can sense the presence or absence of
fluid.

2. CONDUCTIVE LEVEL SENSOR

Conductivity level control systems rely on the liquid level sensing capability of probes (electrodes)
that are housed inside fittings designed to accommodate one or more probes.

3. INDUCTIVE LEVEL SENSOR

Are non-contact proximity devices that set up a radio frequency field with an oscillator and a coil.

The presence of an object alters this field and the sensor is able to detect this alteration.

4. HYDRO STATIC LEVEL SENSOR

The level can be read as the function of the head pressure with calibration in inches of
water column or psi taking into account the specific gravity of the fluid.

C. Questions with Answers

C.1 Definition of Terms:
1. __________ is the study of automatic control. It deals with the regulation of processes by applying the
feedback principle using various computing devices, principally digital computation.
ANS: Process Control
2. __________ conveys details of the status of the real world in a more detailed way than any human senses
can.
ANS: Sensors
3. It refers to the degree of conformity of the measured value with the accepted standard or ideal value, which
we can take as the true physical variable.
ANS: Accuracy
4. It converts the command signal from controllers or higher-level components into physical adjustment in
adjustable process variable.
ANS: Actuator
5. Rotary-motion Control Valve is a type of control valve that is often called.
Quarter-Turn Valves

ANS:

6. _______ is one of the classifications of valves which can be used to mix or divert liquid passing through
them.
ANS: Three-port Valves
7. A device or object that transforms energy into another form.
ANS: Transducers
8. It refers to transducer that operates even without the presence of voltage source.
ANS: Passive Transducer
9. A sensor that reacts from input of position or mechanism.
ANS: Position Sensor
10. A sensor that detects the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids,
including slurries, granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface.
ANS: Level Sensor

C.2 Enumeration:
1. List all (5) the parameters that are being measure and controlled by control sensors.
ANS: Temperature, Flow, Pressure, Level and Position
2. Enumerate the five (5) common types of actuators.

ANS: Manual Actuators, Electric Actuators, Electromagnetic Actuators, Electrodynamic Actuators and
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
3. Enumerate the types of control valves.
ANS: Rotary-motion Control Valve, Linear-motion Control Valve
4. Enumerate at least 3 stages in a process control system.
ANS: Logical Signal, Signal Processing and amplification, Control element stage, Actuator sensor
5. Enumerate all the process sensors.
ANS: Temperature Sensor, Pressure Sensor, Flow Sensor, Position Sensor and Level Sensor

C.3 Multiple Choices:

1. These are used for process monitoring and for process control. These are essential elements of safe and
profitable plant operation that can be achieved only if the proper sensors are selected and installed in the
correct locations.
a. control Valves
b. control Sensors
c. Control Actuators
d. none of the above
ANS: C
2. A _______________ takes advantage of the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to
the user.
a. touch feedback technology
b. touch feedback devices
c. tactile feedback devices
d. Tactile feedback technology
ANS: D
3. Actuators are the _______________ in a control system.
a. first element
b. Final element
c. first process
d. final process
ANS: B
4. _______ is a power-operated device used to modify the fluid or substance flow rate in a process system.
a. process Control
b. sensor
c. Control Valve
d. all of the above
ANS: C
5. _______ is a type of control valve that is often called quarter-turn valves.
a. Rotary-motion Control Valve
b. linear-motion Control Valve
c. vertical-motion Control Valves
d. horizontal-motion Control Valves
ANS: A

6. _______ is one of the issues in selecting control valves which indicates the extent of flow values that the
valve can reliably regulate; very small and large flows cannot be maintained at desired values.
a. Range
b. capacity
c. precision
d. pressure drop
ANS: A
7. Conversion of Light to electricity is often termed as.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Photonelectricity conversion
photoelectric effect
luminosity volt level
light Energy generator

ANS: A
8. Device use to read sound response.
a. microphone
b. speaker
c. piezo crystal
d. Both a and c
ANS: D
9. This sensor is similar to an RTD, but applies metals for which the resistance decreases with increasing
temperature.
a. thermocouple
b. Thermistor
c. bimetallic
d. both a and c
ANS: B
10. It is consists of a restriction with an elliptical contour approach section that terminates in a cylindrical
throat section.
a. orifice plate
b. venturi tube
c. Flow nozzle
d. elbow meter
ANS: C

C.4 Real Life Engineering Problem:

1. As automation is adopted in more facilities, physical work is being replaced by machines and their
automatic controls. The need for valve actuators to provide the interface between the control intelligence and
the physical movement of a valve has grown. There is an important need for the increased working safety and
the environmental protection that valve actuators can provide. Some areas are hazardous or hostile to human
beings. In these circumstances an automated actuation device can reduce the risk to the individuals. Certain
critical valves need to be opened or closed rapidly in the event of emergency circumstances. Hence, if you are
assigned to design a generic process control systems how will you designed it in response to needs as said
earlier? Note: Use a block diagram to design a generic process control system. You are free to use any type of
actuators or control valves.
ANS:

2. Generally, we find that the greater the requirements for good performance, the higher the cost for purchase
and maintenance. How can an individual/engineer select a good and suitable control valve for a specific
control system?
ANS:
We must find the proper balance of performance and cost rather than always specify the best
performing valve. An individual/engineer should refer to accepted standards provided such as the
capacity, range, pressure drop, precision, dynamics and cost.
3. Site a real life application of analog process control system and identify its stages related to process control
system.
ANS:
Shower flow diagram example. or (Any example with actuators, control valve, sensors, input signal
etc.)

D. References:
Presenter #1
1) Buckley, P., Dynamic Design of Pneumatic Control Loops, Instr. Techn., Part I, April 1975, 33-40;
Part II, June 1975, P. 39-42
2) Humphries, J. T., and L. P. Sheets, Industrial Electronics, 4th ed., Delmar, 1993,
3) Matley, J. (Ed.), Practical Instrumentation and Control II, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986
4) Johnson, C. D., Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 7th ed.,
Prentice Hall, 2003, pp.
9799.
5) Introduction to Process control. Retrieved from:
http://homepages.rpi.edu/~bequeb/books/Process_Control/Chapter1.pdf
6) Harriott, Peter, Process Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964
7) Sensors. Retrieved from. http://homepages.rpi.edu/~bequeb/books/Process_Control/Chapter1.pdf
8) Instrumentation for Process Control. Retrieved from: http://www.pceducation.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm

Presenter #2
1) Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, MSc, BEng, MIET, MEIZ, REng -2010 Copperbelt University: Introduction
to Process Control Actuators
2) Manual Actuators. n.d. Retrieved from:
http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/flow_transfer_control/valve_actuators_positioners/manual_
valve_actuators
3) Electrodynamic Actuators. n.d. Retrieved from: http://www.google.com/patents/US7030519
4) Output Devices. n.d. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_device
5) Output Devices. n.d. Retrieved from: http://www.newark.com/input-devices-applications

Presenter #3
1) http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/controlvalve.htm
2) http://www.maintenanceresources.com/referencelibrary/controlvalve/cashcontrolpg1.htm

3) Driskell. L., Control Valve Selection and Sizing, ISA Publishing, Research Triangle Park, 1983
4) Hutchison, J. (ed), ISA Handbook of Contro Valves, 2nd Edition, Instrument Society of America,
Research Triangle Park, 1976

Presenter #4
1) Issues and Parameters from
http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
2) Sabrie Soloman, Sensors Handbook Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2010
3) Process Control PPT from http://www.che.ncku.edu.tw/facultyweb/changct/html/teaching/Process
%20Control/Chapter_1_Chang.ppt

Presenter #5
1) http://www.slideshare.net/amrit0894/transducers-28494795?related=1 - Amrit Aggarwal; Nov 21,
2013
2) http://www.npl.co.uk/reference/faqs/what-is-the-difference-between-a-transducer-and-a-transmitter(faq-pressure) ; 9 Aug 2007
3) http://imgs.inkfrog.com/pix/dhlmarket/FM_TRANSMITTER.jpg

Presenter #6
1) http://www.pc education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_sensor
3) https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=flow+sensor+applications&espv=2&biw=1024&bih=667&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0
CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMIvKTelJ6NyAIVQdumCh2okQnR#imgrc=UvFM-3__uDLYxM%3A
4) http://micronicsflowmeters.com/applications/
5) http://www.bannerengineering.com/en-US/products/8/Sensors/50/Temperature-Sensors

Presenter #7
1) http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/position-sensors
2) http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_2.html
3) http://www.embedded.com/design/mcus-processors-and-socs/4218309/Waking-up-a-capacitive-touch-sensingdevice-with-an-MCU-peripheral
4) http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/lvdt/lvdt_theory.cfm
5) http://www.lionprecision.com/eddy-current-sensors/
6) http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/hall-effect.html
7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_sensor - anonymous