S EPT.

3,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

THE INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING

CONGRESS AT GLASGOW.
(Continued front page R23.)

TaN large attendances and practical business-like

briskness which characterised the proceedings of
all the nine sectiollB of t he Congress at t he meetings of Tuesday, the 3rd inst., which we reported in
last week's issue of ENGINEERING, werefullysusta.ined
right to the close of the Congress ; and the result,
recognised on all hands, has been that the papers
read-which of themselves impar ted useful information on a wide variety of subjects- provoked discussions that in many cases were unusua11y valuable
in their wealth of suggestion. This-the most important advantage of the Congress--was due in
large measure to the consid erable number of foreign
guests who took part in t he proceedings and contributed the results of t heir experience and their
research in the solution of problems which they had
probably approached wit h a freedom from that bias
that t radition and a successful past are inclined to
engender in the British 1nind. Thus t hose who
study our reports in last week's issue and now
appended may find, if not new light, at all events
some stimulus towards renewed effort.
All the nine sections met on Wednesday, the 4th
inst., in one or other of the University rooms, and
the Iron and Steel and Mining Sections concluded
their business, so t hat there were seven sections at
work on Thursday morning, and the attendances
were, for summer meetings, exceedingly well maintained until the close. We will now pro~eed to
give a report of the discussions in the various sections on Wednesday, the 4th inst.

SECTION I.

RAILWAYS.

In this section Mr. Alexander Rosa, one of the

vice-chairmen, occupied the chair in the absence of
S ir Benjamin Baker.
RAII.WAY SIGNALLING.

Th~ first

paper was on "Modern Practice in Railway Signalling, , by Mr. J. A. Timmis. This paper
we shall print in extenso, with its illustrations, in
an early issue.
At the conclusion of the paper Sir Douglas F ox
said it was about nine years ago since t he author
put his system of electric signalling, under his
ad vice, into actual practice in connection with
the Liverpool Overhead Rail way. Very little was
t hen known as to what the result would be, but it
was felt that a railway system in which there was
no shunting done except at the two t ermini was
an excellent opportunity of testing the applicability
of magnetism to operate the signals. The Board
of Trade were at first properly very cautious as to
sanctioning the experiment , and required regular
returns of the extent to which the system failed to
act. Of course, every failure meant delay in the
traffic, because the signals were always at danger.
At first there were minor difficulties, but they were
simply in connection with t he action of the magnets,
and experience was gained by degrees. He might
say, speaking on behalf of the Company, that the
signals on the intermediate stations, of which there
were twelve, had given great satisfaction, with the
result of the saving of the services of a dozen
signalmen during the whole of that t ime. He did
not then feel satisfied in authorising t he introduction
of the electrical system..at the termini, where t here
was a certain amount of shunting to be done, and
where it was necessary to introduce the human
brain as the directing power. It seemed to him
t hat the system at Crewe had a great future before
it. He could not believe t hat the low-pressure
pneumatic system could come into anything like
serious competition with electrical signalling in the
end, because of the large number of pipes involved,
which were more likely to get out of order, and
cause heavy Axpenditure for repairs. He was
quite convinced that in t he case of underground
railways, where electricity was available for
the purpose of electric traction, electric signalThey
ling presented very great advantages.
had not experienced any difficulties caused
by leakages or induction, and he thought that
the last-named evil would certainly have been
brought out very strongly, if it had existed, in
t he Liverpool Overhead Railway, because it was
worked electrically, and the electrical conductors
were in close juxtaposition to the operators of the
signals. They were indebted to Mr. Timmis, and
it was hoped that he would have great success in

working out this very important innovation in railway signalling.

Mr. F. C. Webb (London and North-Western
Railway) said Mr. Timmis was to be thanked for
allowing his company to use the long-pole magnet
in connect ion with t heir work. So far as they
were concerned, they did not require a track
system to a large station, in regard to the crossing
of one line and the other ; because all the points
had to be worked automatically and in connection
with the electric system. At Crewe, where some
60 miles of E:hunting sidings had lately been put
down for exchanging wagons to all parts of the
system, t he whole of the signalling and the points
were worked electrically ; and when the pas~ en ger
station was completed, he trusted there would not
be a single wire or point- rod to be seen on t he
ground. It was 2! years since the first main-line
junction was opened at Crewe with the motorworked facing point s, and up till t he present the
system had given ent ire satisfaction, and had caused
fewer delays in the traffic than any other arrangement. Small details, such as levers and lockings,
had been considerably improved, and the system
was now as perfect as it could be made.
Mr. W . B. Worthington (Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway) asked what was t he supposed
advantage of the low-pressure pneumatic system.
It seemed to him that where four or five pipes had
to be worked in connection with every pair of
points, there must be much complication and difficulty in their maintenance. In the New York
Central Railway that system was used, and it was
clearly proved that pipes for distant signals were
very disadvantageous as compared with an electrical wire.
Mr. Timmis, in reply, said the system at Crewe
was, to his mind, all that was r.equired, and he had
to thank not only Sir Douglas Fox for his advice,
and Mr. Webb for his assistance, but also Mr.
Thompson, the very able signalling superintendent
of the London and North-Western R~ilway at
Crewe. In conclusion, he pointed out t hat if t he
low-pressure pneumatic system had been used at
Crewe, there would have to be considerably over
1200 pipes put down, which would have caused
much trouble.
THE SUDAN RAILWAY.
Major C. B. Macauley, R .E. , read a paper on
the ''Sudan Government Military Railways." This
paper we publish in extenso on page 385.
Sir Benjamin Baker, in opening the discussion,
explained t hat t he paper originated really from the
committee of the Engineering Section, who thought
that, considering the Sudan Railway had been so
very much before the public for some years, it was
rather remarkable t hat no authoritative description
by any of the engineers employed had been sent
down.. The railway was first prospected about 1865,
by the la~e Mr. Walker, the contractor of the
Manchester Ship Canal, the Severn Tunnel, and
many other great works. Then, some years later,
Sir J ohn Fowler sent out another expedit ion .
Later still the scheme was revived when the Gordon
Relief Expedition was sent out; and then L ord
Kitchen er and his adviser, Lieutenant Girouard,
were consulted ; and the last-named, at least, had
made a great reputation by this work.
Sir Guilford Moleswor th said it often happened,
in pushing on a rail way like this for military or
political purposes, it was quoted, sometimes with
impatience, by the public with regard to other
railways which did not make so great a progress.
He himself had been officially connected with a
large number of railways which were pushed forward for military or political purposes, notably the
desert lines across Baluchistan, that up the Bolan
P ass, the Ra wal Pindi line in t he Ky ber Pass,
the Burmese Railway, and the Uganda line. The
Baluchistan and Uganda railways formed a contrast.
On the former, 95 miles were completed in about
two months, and the last 20 miles were made at the
rate of 3! miles p er day; while in Uganda it took
a year to complete 100 miles, at a maximum of
I! miles per day. In Baluchistan the gradients
were about 1 in 2000 on a dry, barren, treeless,
houseless plain, rising all t he way, as against gradients of 1 in 50 up to 1 in 66 on the permanent
line, and 1 in 30 on the temporary diversions in
l Tganda. Then, in Baluchistan the desert was
absolutely smooth and plain, while the other was
mountainous, broken and rolling in parts, with long
stretches of fiats. In the former there were practically no curves, while in Uganda the sharpest

347
were 573ft. radius on the permanent, and 400ft.
on the temporary line ; there were 46 miles of curves
in 200 miles. In Baluchistan the effective hauling
power of the locomotives was about eleven times
that in Uganda. Then t here was no clearing and
grubbing. In the Uganda Railway, in the first ~00
miles there was 13i per cent . of open country, 19 wtth
open country with scrub and j ungle, 5t with patches
of forests, 11 with thin jungle, o-t with dense
forests, and 45i per cent. of dense thorny jungle.
The work was very heavy in parts in Uganda. As
to bridges, there were none on the Haluchistan
line, whereas in Uganda there were 43 spAns, from
10 ft. to 60 ft., in 200 miles, excluding culverts and
spans of less than 10 ft. , and t he large Macupa
trestle bridge. In the former native labour was
plentiful, while in the latter almost all was imported,
under plague restrictions ; it was new to the
country and its condit ions, and there was great
difficulty in obtaining subordinates. In Baluchistan
t he transport of India was avallable, but in Uganda
t here were no transport animals, and a '"ast num ber
that were imported died from the tsetse fly. In
fact, everything had to be imported there. In
Baluchistan water was good and plentiful, and the
healt h of the labourers excellent ; but in Uganda
there was much sickness and the water had to be
distilled. Then, in Baluchistan t here were no
temporary diversions, while in Uganda 21 miles
were required in 200 miles, which involved 98 temporary bridges. There, too, many coolies were
eaten by man-eating lions, sufficient rolling stock
was not obtainable, and some had to be purchased
from India. Platelaying was very difficult on
account of gradients and curves. I t would be seen,
therefore, that a comparison of t he progress of t he
two lines would be absurd.
Sir Douglas Fox said it was very unfair, without
a full knowledge of the circumstances surrounding
the case, to make invidious comparisons either as to
speed or cost. I t was absolutely necessary t hat this
line should be constructed, and t herefore special
means had to be adopted. It was regrettable that
so many different types of locomotive should have
been used, which would lead to an ultimate withdrawal of a large number and the relaying of the
permanent way, or else there would be serious
difficulty and cost of maintenance. Such a system
should certainly not be introduced except where
military urgency called for it. U nder the circumstances they must praise the way in which t he difficulties were overcome. With reference to the
Atbara Bridge, he could never understand how
there could be any difficulty in getting an ordinary
drawing of it. One point in the paper which had
been read gave him infinite satisfaction, which was
that this line must fonn a part, in the fut ure, of the
Cape to Cairo railway, on which many British engineers were actively at work. The line had arrived
1500 miles from Cape Town t owards t he north, and
whoever it was who had had to settle the question of
gauge was to be congratulated on having adopted the
3 ft. 6 in. guage, which no doubt would be extended
down to t he coast of Egypt , and form, he should
think, the standard gauge of that portion of Africa.
They, as engineers, ought ever to endeavour, as far
as possible, to deprecate break of gauge, and encourage a uniform system. He felt sure that this
Sudan railway must lay the foundation of what
must be the gauge in t he future in that country.
Referring to the R hodesian Railway, he said it
now extended nearly 2000 miles, the gauge being
3 ft. 6 in., with 60 lb. rails, and steel sleepers.
masonry piers, steel tops to bridges, ballast in all
soft ground, complete arrangements for t he water
supply, passing-places every 15 miles, and a supply
of rolling-stock which enabled them to carry on considerable traffic in spite of the difficulties of the
war. The average cost of t he line up to date had
been about 4000l. per mile, which, taking into
account its length, was not a bad result.
Sir Benjamin Baker agreed that the S udan line
was not to be taken as a model with regard to locomotives, as the constructors had to take what they
could. Other engineer officers in Sout h Africa had
also tak en what they could, and it would be interesting t o note their inventive genius in some instances, notably, their taking the driving wheels
from the locomotives, boring out and repairing
them, and using them for their gun-carriages.
This he considered to be a highly creditable performance. With regard to the Atbara Bridge, he
thought that the British makers were caught napping. They could have done it perfectly well,
there was no doubt. As an instance of quick work,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

he mentioned a case of a bridge having been blown

up by the Boers, when he (the speaker) was asked
by. the Cape Government to get it replaced as
qu1ckly as possible. He got it done in this
country in the period of three weeks. He moved
a cordial vote of thanks to Major Macauley, the
author of the paper, and t he motion was carried
with acclamation.
.
AUSTRALIAN RAIL w A.YS .

A paper entitled " Australian Rll.ilways" was

read by Professor W. C. Kernot, M.A., M.C.E,
M. Inst. C.E. This paper we publish in abstract on
page 386.
~t the conclu~ion of the reading, Mr. Hall Blyth
satd a great pomt, which had been fought about
over and over again in this and other countries,
was the break of gauge. It was settled long ago in
this country, and it appeared to be the view of the
author of the paper that it would have been better
for Australia if some arrangement could have
been come to for a uniform gauge out there. The
question was not altogether an abstract one now,
because it was arising every day here with light railways. There were many advocates for a narrower
gauge than the 4 ft. 8i in. No doubt, from an
engineering point of view, narrow-gauge lines were
more cheaply constructed, but that would be a
great deal more than counterbalanced by the
difficulty and inconvenience which occurred when
goods had to be transferred from the narrow to the
broad gauge lines. That certainly was the almost
universal opinion of rail way engineers. There
were, of course, isolated cases in which it would
be impossible to bear the cost of the construction
of the broad gauge, but he (the Chairman) was
satisfied that in light rail ways it would be far better
to adhere to the ordinary gauge, so t hat they could
connect at one end or the other with existing lines.
A vote of thanks was then passed to the author,
and the Section adjourned.

SECTION II.-WATERWAYS AND MARITIME WORKS.

The second sitting of the Section was held on
Wednesday morning, the 4th inst., Sir John W olfe
Barry presiding.
PROPOSED WATERWAY BETWE~N THE BALTIC AND
WHITE SEAS.
-

The first paper read was on ''A Proposed Inland

Waterway between the Baltic Sea and the White
Sea," by M. M. E. de Timonoff, of St. Petersburg.
In this paper, of which our space will only permit
us to give a brief abstract, M. M. E. de Timonoff
reviewed the hydrography of the North West
of Russia, and laid down certain obvious conclusions, namely, that a seaport on an inland waterway should be designed so as not to hamper ultimate development of the waterway, bridges being
a noteworthy consideration ; that inland waterways should be opened with the utilisation of
lakes, to the ad vantage alike of commerce and
natural defence ; and that such schemes should
be carried out in sections, so as to bring early
return upon the capital expenditure. Professor de
Timonofi"s main object, however, was to describe
and advocate the construction of a waterway from
the Baltic to the White Sea, utilising the lakes
Ladoga, Onega and Vyg. It is not necessary,
however, to describe the details of the project, as,
if it were carried our., it is just probable that while
the main features would be adopted, the details
would be varied.
Baron Quinette de Rochemont thought that M.
Tiruonoff's conclusions were right in principle, but
that it was difficult to separate t he practical from
the theoretical. He saw very great difficulties in
cll.rryina out the work, especially having r egard to
the I ck of population in the district through which
the canal ran. The waterway on t he Manchester
Ship Canal had only a rise altogether of 70 ft .,
whereas M. Timonoff's scheme had a much greater
rise and the work would be very expensive.
W. H. Hunter said with regard to the
Manchester S hip Canal, the Runcorn Bridge existed before the canal was built, and consequently
it furnished a gauge which limited the headway and the height of masts of vessels. The
limiting headway of t~e Runcorn Bridge above
ordinary water level m the canal was something like 82ft. or 83 ft., while the limiting headway on the canal itself was 75 ft., a figure
arrived at after considerable consideration of the
diffi?ulties of th~ railwar communic~tions which

Mr.

crossed the canal and of the question of the masts

of ships. He did not think the headway of 75ft.
had ever stopped a single steamer coming to
Manchester. In a district such as that with which
Professor Timonoff was dealina there was not the
sl~ghtest d~ffi.culty in con structing railway bridges
w1th openmg spans. Coming t o the question of
the desirability that the seas on the coast of the
same count ry should be connected by deep navigab~e w at~rways p~ssing through the country, it was
a httle difficult to accept that conclusion generally.
Some years ago h e was connected with a project for
uniting the Forth with t he Clyde by means of a
waterway, which would have enabled the largest
ironclad of the fleet to pass from coast to coast of
the country. Very moderate assistance from the
Government would have carried that scheme
t~rough. B.ut th? Government of this count ry,
t1ed by pubhc feelmg, could do absolutely nothing,
and the scheme was abandoned. M. de Rochemont
spoke without much sympathy for the project of
the Canal de Mer, but a French Commission appointed by the French Govern;11ent were at Manchester only a week or two previously, going over
the Ship Canal, in view of the revival of the
project of which M. de Rochemont spoke with such
little faith. There could be no question that the
scheme fer connecting Lake Ladoga with the sea
was a useful one. Some progress had been made,
and he hoped it would be pushed through on
account of the enormous resources that were to be
found in the northern provinces of Europe, that
were pract ically unavailable at the present moment.
. Mr. W. Brown, of Woolwich, said t.hat if dredgmg could do the work, Professor Timonoff, who
was a great authority in Russia on that point, would
carry his scheme through.
Mr. Mavor questioned the commercial practicability of the scheme. The ad vantage of a waterway for ocean-going vessels up t he river to Ladoga,
and through the river to Onega, was, of course,
beyond dispute, but beyond that the country was
undoubtedly a poor one. The population was
exceedingly sparse in the region through which the
canal would pass, and on the northern coasts the
population was a merely summer one. It appeared
to him that it was to the South-West that increased
facilities of water communication should be provided, in the densely populated portion of the
country. The question of providing a way for war
vessels from the Baltic to the White Sea was a
strategic one, but to some extent its necessity from
a Russian point of view had been reduced by the
opening of the new ice-free port on the Mourman
coast within the last year or two.
Mr. C. H. Moberly objected to the scheme, which
he thought meant the moving of the port of
St. Petersburg, or the greater part of it, some
hundreds of miles away, to a place where there was
practically nothing doing. The great complaint of
the commercial world at St. Petersburg now was
that there was a block on the L adoga canals. There
were two canals, and there ought tu be no difficulty
i:n keeping them to the depth required. He thought
it would be better to spend the money in clearing
and properly working the existing canals, instead
of spending n1illions of money to force the commercial world to go where t here they did not want
to go. With regard to the strategic part of the
scheme, whether it would be an advantage to the
Government to take their men-of-wart~ the White
Sea, or not, he did not pretend to know. Men-ofwar wanted to get to the ocean, but the White Sea
was not the ocean. Supposing the vessels got
there, they would have a port which was only open
for five months in the year, which was hardly what
they wanted.
Professor Timonoff having briefly r esponded in
French,
The Chairman said that as he happened to
be connected with the Suez Canal, he might take
the opportunity of saying t!lat the objections
which were raised against the Suez Canal from
an engineering point of view were based upon
defective data, which had been supplied by a
survey made several years previously, and which
was relied upon as showing._that there were different
levels between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean ;
but apart from that, the commercial success of the
Suez Canal had been entirely based upon the great
development of steam ~avigation. It was rat~1er
interesting that the subJect of a canal connectmg
two seas should be brought forward in Scotland,
because one of the earliest works connecting two
seas was constructed in Scotl&n<l itself, in the great

[SEPT. 13, 1901.

Caledonian Oanal constructed by Telford, which

now existed as a monument to that dist inguished
engineer, and to the enterprise of our forefathers a
hundred years ago. Unfortunately, it had not been
a commercial success, or answered its strategic
purpose. So far as the commer cial results were
concerned, he imagined that the northern part of
Professor Timonoff's project would not be very
encouraging, but the southern part pointed to
much more interesting questions from the commercial point of \liew. On general principles, and
speaking as an engineer, it was, no doubt, very
interesting to join seas, but the question of cost and
difficulties had to be considered. He was sure the
m em hers all wished Professor Timonoff every
success in the prosecution of his enterprise.
IMPRO VEl\! ENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

A paper was then read on ''The Improvement of

the Lower Mississippi River," by J. A. Ockerson.
I t will be found on page 381 of the present issue.
Mr. Whiting, referring to the fact that at the
present day dredging on the .M.ississippi was carried
out by means of water jets, said it was a fact that
when the dredgers were provided with Mr. Bates'
cutters, the output was very much greater than was
obtained by the water jets.
Mr. W. li. Wheeler asked why more use had not
been made of the transporting power of the water
instead of removing the material. He paid a great
deal of attention to the subject some few years ago,
and for the last few years he had had in operation
an eroding dredger, with which he had deepened a
number of shallows in a river where the material used
to cost something like 1s. 6d. a yard for removing,
but which was now removed for about l,d. per cubic
yard. It seemed to be a very economical way of
deepening the river to stir up the material and make
the water do its own transport. Then another
question was, Why stone was used for the mattresses
instead of clay 1 Stone was expensive, and clay
was much better for the purpose. In the Fen
rivers large mattresses were not used, but fascines
about 6 ft. long and 1 ft. in diameter. He had
drained a river with a depth of 20 ft. at low water,
and a current of 4 miles an hour, without any
trouble with the fascines. The fascines should be
laced together, and the quantity of earth be more
than the weight of the fascines. Some of the work
on the Fen rivers had been done for more than
three-quarters of a century, and it stood the heavy
wash of steamers of several thousand tons, and a
very large fleet of fishing trawlers, which were
always running into the banks.
Mr. William Brown, of Woolwich, said that with
regard to better work being done by cutters than
by water jets, his firm had constructed 10 or 12
dredgers a year, and never t wo alike, and he
thought it would be agreed it was hardly possible
to say that one dredger was better than another.
Each dredger was made for the local conditions
with which it had to deal. With regard to Mr.
Bates' system, the results brought out on the
previous day were very good, particularly in dealing
with dense clay. It was quite possible for builders
in this country to build a dredger for 7500l. to do
8000 tons an hour.
Mr. Vernon Harcourt thought one of the reasons
why the cutters were suppressed was on account of
the t runks of trees in the Mississippi, and what
were called "snags." It was found where bars
had been recently formed, chiefly of sand, that the
water jets stirred up the material sufficiently well,
and gave a better resul t than the cutters, which
were liable to be damaged by any obstacles which
might happen to be amongst the bars. He could
hardly believe that the American engineers would
use stone for the mattresses if clay did quite as
well, and if it was cheaper.
The Chairman said the mere statement of the
immensity of the problem of the Mississippi was in
itself most interesting, and it was very i nteresting
to see how the American engineers had adapted
local materials to their requirements in the const.ruction of the enormous matt.resses.

Il\IPitOVEUENT OF THE DANUBE.

The third paper was on" Recent Improvements

effected in the Navigable Condition of the Sulina
Branch and Outlet of the Danube, " by Mr. 0. H.
L. Kuhl. This paper we shall print next week.
Ir11 commencing the discussion, Mr. W. H. Hunter
said there was one point in the paper which was
interesting as showing the extraordinary difference
of opinioll which appeareq to obta~n in different

SEPT. 13, 190!.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

349

par_ts of t he ear th. H e referred to the paragraph very shallow river into such a. magnificent water- made single storey i f there had been width of
wh10h stated "For the p rotection of the river way. As in other cases, the peoplo of Glasaow
ground : but the docks were all constructed within
0
works, groynes, and revetments, steamer s of m.or e had been r ather short-sigh ted in allowing so m uch city limits, and it could be well understood t hat
than 800 r egistered t ons are not allowed to navi- of t he g round to pass out of t heir hands in the the ground was very precious, and every possible
gate to a. sp eed exceeding 8 knots an h our . vicinity of t he harbour, g round t hat had to be effor t required to be made to minimise land and
S~aller st.eamors c!'n go as fast as t hey please., acquired a fter wards at a very great cost. One water space. It was thought necessary to provide
~ts experience, wh10h was a lengthy one, pointed feature of the paper was the system of two-storey space for one line of rails between the coping and the
In exactly t he opposite diteotion. The smaller shods, 75 ft. wide, which had beenadoptedatPrince's shed. The weir wac; n ot t he work of the Clyde Navisteamers would run at 8, 10, 12, or 14 miles an D ock. In ... berdeen he had adopted the system, gation, but was being done by the Corporation.
hour, and they would pile u p a wave t hat no ocean following the example of Glasgow, on account of Originally t he weir was built to preserve the foundasteamer could p ossible produce.
the limit in q uay space, and he found that the upper t ions of t he lowest town bridge, which it did for many
The chairman said the paper had a special interest storey was very much more valuable than t he years. Then the water had to be maintained in
because the works on th e Danube took t heir origin ground floor. On t he g round floor it was neces- connection with the water works, and various Acts
from an International Commission, which com- sary to allow a great amount of carting space, but of Parliament prevented the trustees removing the
menced its operations at t he conclusion of the th e top floor could be filled up solid. With regard weir unt il a certain water supply was introduced.
Crimean War.
That International Commission to the quay walls, he thought the met hod of sink - The weir from first to last existed for over 100
had been of t h e very greatest benefit to t h e com- ing caissons was an admirable one, and cer tainly years. I n 1881 it was removed, with very injurious
merce of t h e world, and it was a happy circumstance allowed going down to a very great depth without result; t he ri ver banks gave in, and the Corporation
t hat th e Commission had been able to carry on its the expense of coffer-damming and taking out and proprietors were at very great expense in pro' work uninterruptedly without any national predi- the foundations. He t hought all work should be tecting the banks, which became extremely offenlections or j ea.lousies, working with one idea, viz., faced with some hard s tone, as the amount of wear sive at low water. It was decided to adopt the
the improvement of the g reat waterway of t he and tear that went on on the face of the q uays neces- same system as at Richmond, and he understood
Danube, the granary of Europe. The International sitated a very hard surface.
the gates were to be raised at every tide, so t hat
Commission of the Danube was t o t hat extent smneMr. Vernon H arcourt said t he Clyde had a per- the river could have a free scouring effect. With
what differen t to some of t h e Con certs of E urope fectly-protected entran ce, and that had been a regard to t he tidal docks, the Clyde Trustees were
that h ad been h eard of in other places, and all one great advantage. Mr. H unter obj ected t o the authorised to construct two docks, which were t o
could hope was t hat the example of t he International open basins, but, of course, it was a great advan- be docks with gates. T4e work was not constructed
Commission of t he Danube might be followed in tage to have open basins if there was not too much for several years, and then the question was raised
other instances where t he great European nations rise of t ide, as it did away with all the difficulties whether it was n ecessary to have gates at all.
wer e interested. There was in some cases too lit tle of locks and gat es and machinery. Southampton It was felt to be much more important to allow
of t he international view and too much of private in- was another place with open basins, and there vessels t o have liber ty to come and go at any t ime
terests. The paper was of g reat interest to him per- were river q uays at Antwerp. With regard to the of the tide than to consider t he question of imsonally, because one of his dearest friends had been q uestion of the weir, he wished to know in what pounding water. Very large steamers t raded on
t he engineer to t h e International Commission ever way i t was worked. He also desired to know what the Clyde, and there was not much objection raised
since its origin. Sir Charles H ar tley's name was proportion t he actual maintenance of t he depth of by them.
Mr. Hunter asked whether the Anchor Line
well known in all parts of England, and almost in t he river bore to the amount of dredging t hat was
boats or the Clan Line boats, or any of the liners,
all parts of the ivorld, as one of the dist inguished carried out 1
Mr. W . M. Alston, in reply, said the deposit- took the ground 1
engineer s in his branch. I t was a matter of great
Mr. W. M. Alston said that all the liners act ually
congratulat ion that the International Commission ing of the dredgings on low-lying land was very
was fortunate enough to secure the ser vices of Sir ex pensive, and t he carrying out to sea was adopted took t he ground.
Mr. Hunter said t hat, with him, if they only
Charles H artley, because it. required n o little skill for the purpose of saving expense. The objection
and firmness to m sist on t h e fact that the Sulina to deposit ing in L och L ong was considered to be touched the ground there would be a very great r ow.
Mr. W. M. Alston continued, that with regard
mout h was the on e to be treated. He knew t hat very sen timen tal, and it was held t hat the people
great pressure was put upon Sir Charles Hartley in themselves did far more harm than the authorities. to the proportion between t he new work and mainfavour of the Kilia Mouth and the St. George's There was no diminution in the depth of the water, tenance, last year t he proportion was about half and
M out h, but Sir Charles stood firm, and he thought and, notwit hstanding most careful soundings, half.
The Chairman said the case of the Clyde always
it would be r ealised that t he results obtained at a nothing could be found of an objectionable nature.
reminded him of the gentleman who said that it
The
result
of
going
so
far
away
was
t
he
construction
compa.rative1y s mall cost at Sulina could never have
was an example of the beneficence of Nature that
of
larger
barges
to
contend
with
the
rougher
been obtained at eith er of t he oth er mouths of t he
Providence had made great rivers run by the side
Danube. Many of t he g reat works so much ad- weather, but it was found that the stuff was being of great cities. That was not done by Providence
mired depended almost en t irely upon the develop- carried rather more cheaply, due to the fact in t he case of Glasgow, but by the dogged persement of dredger plant which had tak en place within that larger barges were used. The space between verance of its inhabitants. A friend of his had told
the last ten or twen ty years. L ooking b ack twenty the monoliths was purposely kept, as shown in t he him that he remembered riding across Glasgow on
years one r ealised how great that development had diagram, to permit of a digger gett.ing in betw~en his hor se and fording t he river, with perhaps a foot
been.' For example, dredging in .t he open sea was the caisson s after they were sunk. and excavating and a half of wat er, at t he very spot where now the
a matter of comparatively modern experience, since the space, which was ultimately filled up with con- largest ocean-going ships could be seen passing.
but a short t ime ago dredging in t he open sea, crete. But before that operation took place the The Chairman ' pointed out that the caisson and
especially in b ad weather, was considered almost piling was driven, and t hat piling went down to cylinder foundations had been used by t he inhabiimpossible. The g reat work of the Suez Can~l the top of the shoe . The concrete went down as tants of India for many t housand years. I t was a
oould never b e maintained at its present depth if n early as possible to the bottom of the p ile. Mr. very interesting q uestion to know to what distance
B
rown
seemed
to
favour
the
making
of
t
he
space
it wer e not for t he great development of dredging
larger but t he view taken was t hat the holes it paid, under modern condit ions, to t ransport t he
plant .
.
should be only such as would be sufficient for the dredgings to t he sea as compared with pumping on
the land. It was quite an open question whether
digger
to
fairly
work
in,
and
t
hat
t
he
more
bri?kRIVER OLYDE AND GLASGOW HARBOUR.
work which could be put on t he b etter ~o give the t ime had not now arrived when the dredgings
"The River Clyde and Harbour of Glasgow" weiaht to the caissons. So far the contentiOn had of Glasgow might be pumped on to the foreshores
was the subject of t he next paper , by Mr. W. M. pro~ed correct, b ecause no ~eights were . be~ng a.s cheaply as they were conveyed 46 miles by sea.
Alston.
.
.
used in the sinking of th e caissons, t he sink~ng Mr. Alston had said that it was impossible to state
Mr. W. M . Alston, who is Engineer-In-Chtef .to being done sim]Jly by a grab worked by a derrick with certainty if any change had taken place in the
the Clyde Navigation Trust_e es, reviewed t he ~~s crane t he water was not taken out, and t he grab high-water level of . Glasgow. .A. pri01i it . seemed
tory of the riyer, a!ld desc~1bed the works carrie.d worked through t he water. At first r olled joists that if t he hydrauhc mean depths of a r1ver was
out in connectiOn w1th the r1ver and harb o~r. ~ts were used to carry cross walls, but it seemed to be increased, and the tidal wave greatly accelerated, it
paper is valuable alike as a g~ide to t h e eng meer1ng expensive, and timber was adopt.ed. After .t he was almost necessary that the level of high water
visitor and a r ecord of splendid work ; but the suc- brickwork had set, t here was practically no wetght must be raised in order to destroy the momentum
cessive additions to t he facilities of t he porb have upon t he t imber. The shoe was set up near low- of the tidal wave.
The Section then adjourned unt il the following
been illustrated and described in E NGINEERING, and water level and about one-half of the height of
we may h ere refer to articles in rec~nt vol?m~s. *
the monolith was built in situ. Digging commenced, day.
- -Several questions, which ar e suffiCiently Inclteated and was carried on t o a certain length, and t hen the
SECTION ill. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
in the r eply, were asked by m em hers presen t, and other half was built, and digging -resumed, and the
t he discussion was opened by Mr. W. H . Hunter, cai:)son was run down to its intended depth. The
The proceedings in this Section were resumed on
who said it might be imagin ed t hat t he absonce of steel work extended to only 25 ft. in height, every- Wednesday morning, when there was again a large
lock-gates or entrance-gate.s .wou~d lead to a con- thing above that being built in brickwork and attendance, and the proceedings were most interestsiderable increase of the silt~g 1n t h e docks, and concrete. With regard to t he face of the quay ing, the papers giving rise to very ? seful discu~
t hat the docks would become h t tle better than cess- wall, freestone had been used to a very large oxt~nt, sions. Mr. W. H. Ma.w, the Chauma.n of this
pools. He should be glad to ~ear what ~he reas<?ns and moulded concrete blocks ;, b.ut t he latest _Idea Section, again presided.
wer a t hat led to the conclusiOn t hat t1dal basms was to face t he wall with vitrified blue ~r10ks.
THE uSE OF HIGHLY-SUPERHEATED STE.UI IN
With r egard to t he possible wan~ of fo~esight of
were prefer able to lock s.
ENGINES.
Mr R Gordan Nicol said the work done on the the Clyde Trustees, it was exce~dmgly diffic~lt for
Mr. R . L enke, of E rith, contributed the first
Clyde. might be alm0st termed a canalisati<?D: of t he them in past years to see how thmgs were gomg to
river and it reflected great credit on t he c1t1zens of turn. When t he new lines were adopted and .dykes paper on '' Some Experiences and R esults derived
Glasgow t hat they had oeen able to transform a built, t he land t hat was reclaimed from the river- from 'the Use of Highly-Superheated Steam in
Engines,
"
which
was.
read
by
the
~ecret_ary,
Mr.
from hiah-water mark to the dyke-fell to the
E. Worthington. Th1s paper was printed ~n e:ctenso
* ee ENGINEERING, vol. xlix.' page 19 ; v_<?l. li., page: landed p~oprietors, and in many ?ases t he trustees on page 342 of our last issue.
J had to buy that land back.
W1th r egard b-.) t he
106, 439; vol. lv., pages 810, 819, 820 ; v~~ lvu., page 689!
Mr. Bryan Don~in was the first speaker, anq
vol. lx., pages 174. 293. 381, 474; ~ol. lxu., pages 469, 620' two-storey shed, possibly they wou~d have been
.
'
vol. lxiv., pages 330, 756; vol. Ixv1. , page 287.
.
I

350

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[SEPT.

3, I 901.

S!l.id that he would be glad if the author could the increasing load. Studying Mr. Lenke's paper, apparatus being upon the same lines as that of Mr.
give some information as to the quality of lubri- he realised the solution of the problem which had McPhail, where the highly-superheated steam was
eating oil used in the engines worked with super- troubled some users of superheated steam, because passed through the water in the boiler before it
heated steam, as it was a matter of importance with steam pressure of 100 lb. the temperature of passed to the engine, and at this remark Mr. 'Vickwith ~eference ~o the ec?nomy, diftic?lt~es .being sat?rated steam would be about 340 deg. Fahr., steed interjected the remark, " No, it does'nt." Pro1
som~hmes expe~1enced ow1ng to the variatwn In th.e wh~le that of superheated steam was 500 deg., indi- fessor Ripper amplified his remark by saying that
quahty of. the oil. He presumed tha~ the exper1- cati~g a 160 deg. of superheat, which seemed to him instead of passing through the water, the steam was
ments whiCh were so fully analysed In the paper to gtve t he satisfactory economy without involving allowed to pass through along lines of pipes, which
~ere chiefly with Continental e.ngines. The author, any of the trouble indicated in Mr. Lenke's paper. gave the same result, although the heat radi11ted by
1n the paper, stated that with saturated steam But he would like to know from the author what steam when traversing the pipes did not evaporate
engines 20 to 25 per cent. of admitted steam was was the difference in the benefit de1ived from usina water, as in the McPhail system. Thus, with
oo~den~ed during the .admission period, and while the 660 deg. to 700 deg. Fahr., which Mr. Lenk~ relatively low superheat the mechanical difficulties
this nug~t be true I~ some cases, he ~oubted regarded as the temperature giving the fullest did not occur, and he felt that we have enough
wh~ther 1t held. good 1n the case of well-Jacketed advantages, and that adopted at his works, namely, practical experience with low superheat to justtfy
cylinders. While an advocate of the system of 500 deg. This was an important point, in view of its application with safety, and certainly with consuperheating, he was not quite satisfied that the the fact that while 700 deg. necessitated special siderable economy-to the extent of 100 deg. or
economy indicated by the author would show such conditions, his own experience would show 500 deg. 150 deg. Fahr. If the phenomenal results indicated
a. high percentage of saving if comparison were involved no trouble, and gave satisfactory economy. in the paper had to be obtained, they were only
Mr. Mi~hael Longridge, in con1plimenting the possible with specially constructed and, perhaps,
m.ade against really well-designed engines working
w1thout superheated steam.
author, said that the subject might give rise to complicated engines.
Mr. C. C. Leach, of Seghill, Northumberland, almost endless discussion, but as time was limited
Professor Good man asked Mr. Wicksteed if he
said he would like to have some information as to he would confine himself to one or two points. would indicate the amount of economy obtained
the economy which might be expected to result Mr. Lenke had restricted himself to a consideration with his system. His own experience, he added,
from the use of superheated steam in such engines of one of several uses and advantages of super- was to the effect that for every 50 deg. of superas were used at the pithead, where the coll con- heated steam, and that one dealt with in the paper heat a gain in economy of 10 per cent. might be
sump~ion was not such an important element owing was perhaps the least important so far as the mill- anticipated ; but this gain considerably decreased
to the low cost of fuel. There the engine had to owners of the North of England were concerned proportionately to the temperature when 100 deg.
be designed so that a large power might be utilis- in view of the low cost of fuel. The first use of were exceeded, and this he felt was due to the fact
able for short periods, such power being greatly in superheated steam was to heat or evaporate water, that for the first 50 deg. they had the ad vantage of
excess of the normal duty, while the speed usually and this was practically the primary object in its dryness as well as superheat.
.
was comparatively low. He would be glad if the application by Mr. McPhail, of Wakefield, who
Mr. Hall-Brown, Govan, wished to have some
author could indicate what degree of economy passed the superheated steam into the boiler, re- information about the application for marine purmight be attained by the use of superheated steam ducing it to the state of slightly superheated steam, poses, and the extent of superheating desirable on
in such engines, having in view particularly the and as such passing it on for use in the steam shipboard, and, moreover, asked for further inforfact that their working was frequently interrupted cylinder. The saving effected in this case was not so mation as to the losses on account of temperature
and that the load was very varied.
much in the engine as in the increase in eYapora- variations in the cylinders, as the author mentioned
Mr. Henry L ea, of Birmingham, also desired tive power, an advantage which enabled, for in- that they were smaller than with saturated steam,
information as to the application of the system in stance, electric light stations to put an overload because the loss of heat from superheated steam
compound engines now working with saturated upon their boiler without increasing the permanent had lower calorific value than the latent heat of
steam, where the valves, stuffing-boxes, and piston steam-generating plant or going to the dangerous saturated steam. Mr. Hall-Brown would like to
rings were constructed in the usual way and of expedient of forcing draught. Incidentally, also, know from the author how he j ustified th11t statethe ordinary materials. He would like to know Mr. McPhail was the first to demonstrate the im- ment. He also asked Mr. Lenke to inform them as
what degree of superheat could with safety be portant fact that steel tubes could be subjected to to whether 700 deg. Fahr. was the maximum pracapplied under such circumstances, and if it were great heat, and thereby he greatly advanced the ticable temperature, and if this was determined by
necessary to alter any of the parts so as to conform possibilities of the use of superheaters. The the mechanical difficulties then becoming insuperto the conditions laid down in the paper. He felt second aim in applying the superheated system was able. With regard to the decreased prime cost
that if a satisfactory degree of economy could be to dry the steam, and, ~ as Mr. Lenke had stated, due to the reduction of boiler power to the extent
obtained without the necessity of practically throw- this was realised by obviating cylinder con- of 30 per cent., indicated in the paper, he thought
ina away existing engines, manufacturers would be densation with multiple expansion. But to that sufficient account had n ot been taken of the
quite satisfied to adopt the system.
attain this it was not necessary to adopt that counterbalancing increase in cost due to the more
Mr. J . Hartley WICksteed gave some interesting degree of refinement which was indicated in the expensive type of engine and the necessary refineparticulars of the application of the system of paper, and thus in print works, bleach works, and ments introduced. In regard to oil consumption,
superheated steam to existing circumstances at his iron works, where there were a number of small the author seemed to forget that with some marine
establishment, which he adopted eighteen months engines situated at considerable distances from the engines no lubricating oil was n ow used within the
ago "without knowledge and without fear " on the boiler st~tion, 100 deg. of s~perheat "':ould probably cylinders, the consequence being a greater purity
recommendation of Messrs. Musgrave, of Bolton. be suffiCient to be beneficial, even In the case of of boiler feed.
Professor Watkinson, Glasgow, was the next
The boiler to which the superheater was applied large and otherwise economical engines. At the
was of the Lancashire type, 8 !t. ~in. ~n diameter, same time, he questione~ whether . th~ perc~ntage speaker, and said that Mr. Lenke seemed to hav~
with a furnace flue 3 ft. 6 1n. In dtameter, the of economy could be as htgh as was mdiCated In the omitted any reference to what he regarded as one
steam pressure being 100 lb. to the square inch. pap.er if the engines other'!ise were of satisfactory of the most important advantages of the use of
The superheater consisted of long ~ -sha~e~ ~ub~s design. Steam of n~arly o~O deg .. Fahr. tempera- superheated steam-the leakage past valves, &c.,
huna down from a cast-iron box with a dtv1s1on In ture could be used In engtnes wtth the ordinary with such steam being considerably less than that
the ~iddle of the box, so that the steam passed Corliss valves without any trouble; and if there was with saturated steam. As to the use of a higher
down the side of each U furthest from the flame<; no difficulty with the valves, there would be none quality of oil, he mentioned that on one occasion
and up the other leg, the hot gases impinging o.n with the pistons. He n oted the author's remark in connection with the lubrication of a Corliss
the pipes right opposite the furnace flue. Thts that temperatures of 660 deg. to 700 deg. Fahr. engine, when difficulties arose, a &uperior oil, costboiler was the central source of power for wo~ks were necessary to obtain the f~ll benefit; ~ut when ing 5s. per gallon, was used for a short period, after
covering three acres of ground ; .one of the P.nn- ~>ne remem~ered the . complicated castmgs for which t.he ordinary oil at 2s. 6d. a gallon was found
cipal engines was as near as possible to the boiler- Jac~eted cylmders w~1ch would be necessary to to work most satisfactorily, and has since been
house another drivina hydraulic pumps, was also restst unequal expanswn, he thought he would be continued. In reference to Mr. Lenke's remarks
in clo~e proxim'ity, while a third adjoinin~ ~as used chary ab~ut recomme.nding such a temperatur~, about the absence of great advantage in multiplefor blowing furnace cupolas. But 1n additwn there more pa~tiCularly as with the low co~t of c~al, as In cylinder expansion when superheated steam was
were a couple of engines 150 ft. distant from the Lan?ash1re, the p~rce~tage of s~vm~ ~u;{ht n~t used, and the possibility of triple-compound engines
boiler for driving three lines of shafting, and there j uRttfy the comphcatwns. The prinCipal d~si being consequently discarded, Professor Watkinwere also steam hammers and a small engine for deratu.m in a mill was ~ot so much low coal c?n- son remarked that the author seemed to forget
driving the smith's fan, with a sand mill engine also s~mptwn, but the certamty o~ cons~ant runn10g that there were other ~d vantages and economies,
at considerable distance, SO that half the steam Wlthout anr stoppag~ ; an~ w.h1le engmeers pla?ed in addition to the question of reducing initial conpower of the boiler had. to be transmitted 150 .ft. as. he was, In conne?t10n wtth 1n~urance compantes, densation, and for these reasons alone there was no
The engines were of different types : some with nught be charg~d 'Y1th c?nservat1sm, h~ fe~t that. he likelihood of the multiple-expansion system being
ordinary slide valves, others with double-beat val~es would ~ot be JUStified 1n su~h cases 1n Involvmg superseded.
Mr. Lenke was then called upon to reply, the
for admission and Corliss valves for exhaust; wh1le expend~ture of other peoples money, as well as
time available not permitting further discussion.
the steam hammers had piston valves, and yet ~ot grave risks. .
the sliahtest difficulty had been experienced with
Professor Rtpper was t.he next speaker, and re- In reply to Mr. Donkin, he said that the oil used had
the superheated steam. Indeed, there was no indi- ferred at ~he out~et of hts remarks to the ~alue ?f a high flash-point - about 180 deg., and that lately
cation of the use of it, excepting for the records of the experience w1 tl~ su.J::erhea~ed steam gtven .In an oil was obtainable in London which gave a very
temperature tak en periodically at the engio.es. the paper. The mam pomt at 1ssu~ seemed to htm satisfactory result, and cost only 2s. 6d. per gallon .
l'h obsenati0ns showed that dry steam was supplied to be the de~ree of superheat engn1eers would .be Mr. Donkin was right in assuming that the experiin et he cylinders of the enginEs 150 ft. distant wise in adoptm.g. If he were a m~n~facturer, w1th ments referred to in the paper were all of Contifrom the boiler, whereas formerly the steam was good pla.nt already fitted, he certamly would be nental origin. There were very few engines using
very c >nsiderably saturated with wate~. Another slow to Intr?du~e such a system a~ ~dvo?ate~ b1 highly-superheated steam running in this country.
result was that less trouble was exper1enced from the author, 1n v1ew of the many dtffic~lt1es Indt- His observation as to the initial condensation being
water _hammering in the cylindera and at the ca.ted ; ~ut these, he felt, were associated only 20 to 25 per cent. in engines using saturated steam
01 t
The enaines worked more cheerfully w1th a h1gh degree of superheat. In the system was really an average taken from many trials. l t
r~pe h f~ sg made m~re revolutions per hour, and adopted by Mr. Wicksteed, he thought that the had been proretf on trial by Professor Schroeter on
ac~o~~o~ated itself mos~ satisfactorily to turning immunity from trouble was, perhaps, due to the highly econom1~al triple-expansion engines that

SEPT. I

1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

351

gas, was totally different from that of a mechanical work turned out, "the system having for the first
engineer, who experienced k een competition at home time in his experience encouraged the workmen to
as well as abroad. But the fundamental princi- bring forward suggestions for increasing the outp.ut ,
ples he had in view in carrying out the p rofit- and this, it seemed to him, was one of the most 1msharing principle at the outh Metropolitan p01tant advantages. While he greatly appreciated
'Vorks ought to actuate engineers also- the benefit- the scheme carried out so successfully by Mr.
ing of the employe as well as the employer ; such Livesey, he questioned whether it could be adopted
schemes must be of mutual advantage, or they in all works, because t he workers not infrequently
soon came to nought. The papers t.hat had been moved from shop to shop, and thus only. a proporread dealt satisfactorily with the employers' view, tion remained permanen tly and could be mterested
and at the same time they tended to increase the financially in the establishmen t. The department
interest of the worker in the concern to turn out in which they adopted the premium system was
the work to the greatest advantage; and from this that for the manufacture of torpedoes, in which 200
point of view the premium system was admirable ; men were engaged, and their experience was very
but h e was afraid they fell short in one particular satisfactory. They had a very good piecework
- they did not render the workman any permanen ~ system in other departments of the works, but he
good. The real question was, What did the men looked forward to the time when they would extend
do with the money 1 They worked harder, and the premium system to other departments.
Mr. W. H. Allen, Bedford, r eferred to the great
used the tools to greater advantage; but be was
afraid that in nine cases out of ten the money was improvements which had recently been made in
spent to no purpose-a remark which was greeted the shops for the comfort of the workers, a developwith many contradictions. Mr. Livesey quoted the ment in which Germany had led the way, and by
view of Mr. George Thomson, a large woollen which they bad been able to remove conditions
manufacturer in Huddersfield, in support of his which wer e most pronouncedly a reproach upon
view, to the effect that such schemes did more harm the capitalist of n ot remote years. At his works
than good, because the thriftless presumed upon at Bedford they had a scheme for suggestions somethem, and sometimes spen t their bonus in advance. what similar to that described in the paper read by
His own experience was that such a plan would Mr. Richmond, but he found that it required much
11ave been dead long ago in connection with the whipping up to maintain the inter est of the
South Metropolitan Works, whereas the scheme he ordinary employe; and be thought that the perhad carried out had been of lasting ad vantage. I t centage of men who exercised their brains in such
was based on an adaptation of the sliding scale to the matters was comparatively small. One of the
advantage of the worker, who secured a bonus accord- most hopeful signs of the times was the fact that
ing to the reduction in the selling price of gas. From men who had been trained in a uni"ersity were
the first they sought to encourage the men to lf ave turning more readily to the pursuit of mechanics,
the bonus in the hands of the company, and and in his place alone there were 15 men froll'
allowed interest at the rate of 4 per cent., which, Oxford and Cambridge, and the fer tility of their
however, had ultimately been reduced t o 3 per brains was wonderful. They had also in operation
cent. , the workers at the sa me time having leave to a jury system for the adjustment of disputes, and
withdraw their money at a week's notice. About his experience was that not on1y were t he work45 per cent. left their bonus in the company's men more guarded in presenting a grievance
h and~?, but the greater proportion took it out year without r eal basis to such a jury of their fellowby year, and it did them no good. Now, it was workers than they would be if they bad only their
compu1sory upon the worker that half the bonus employers to deal with, but the decision of the
must be left in the hands of the company, and for jury was more r eadily acquiesced in, and in his
thifl the workers got shares in the ordinary stock of case he n ever failed to accept t he decision . Mr.
the company, and the result had been that many Alien was doubtful as to the ultimate s uccess of
left in the whole of their bonus, and at the present the premium system in all cases, and was anxious
time about 3000 of the workers owned 140, OOOl. of to know if it gave the workmen a permanent
the company's stock, about 2000 of the workers increase in the amount of their year's earnings.
having 100,000l. stock. About 90 per cent. of the
Mr. A. Saxon , Marchester, said that in his
workers were now saving the whole of their bonus. experience of general engineering work he was
The result was a permanent gain to the men. From gratified to find to what extent standardising could
this point of view he thought that the premium be adopted, and he believed that there were few
THE REMUNERATION OF LA BOUR.
system might be improved upon, b ecaus~, with a practical obstacles to the adoption of the premium
Three papers dealing with this important subject boom in trade, he felt that it was only a case of the system.
were next read, with the view t0 their being dis- liquor bill increasing, and that there was no perMr. Hans Renold, Manchester, said that he had
cussed simultaneously. The first was by Mr. manent benefit. In Messrs. Weir and Richmond's early sought to introduce piecework under most
J ames Rowan, of Glasgow, on ''A Premium paper he n oted that there were no representatives favourable conditions so far as repetition work was
System of Remunerating Labour, ,, and this we of the workers on the "Friction Club., He concerned, as he produced about 2! millions of one
print in full on page 383 of this issue. At the con- thought this was a mistake, and instanced the fact piece in a week, but he found that the quest ion of
clusion of his paper Mr. Rowan p ointed out that that upon the board of directors of the South the ultimate passing of the product interfered with
under the system be h:\d described no man could Met ropolitan Company they had bad for over the result. He had, about three years ago, adopted
earn double wages. Presuming that a worker three year3 two working men directors who had the premium system for some half-a-dozen operators,
euniog 8d. per h0ur was allowed 100 hours to do a risen to the full dignity of their responsibility and had since developed it to forty, but he still
given job (~he co&t for labour to the employer and had become in the full est sense of the word re- felt that the scheme did not give t he full benefit
being, under such circumstances, 800d. ), and he presentatives of the company, and not, as was that he would like, and he sympathised greatly
did ic in 50 hours, he reduced the time taken 50 feared by many, mer ely delegates of the workers. with the r emarks that Mr. Livesey had made. I nper cent., and h is hourly w::.ge became 1s. infltead In this way the employe appreciated confidence. deed, he had in contemplation a scheme which was
of 8d., while the cost of labour to the employer The workmen's ' ' Suggestion Scheme" mentioned in not dissimilar to that described, but he did not
became 60 x 12 = 600d. But supposing he did the the same paper was admirable, but he thought the feel confident yet in launching it . One important
work in one hour, hi:; wage was increacd by 99 authors had been unfortunate in their reference to essential in the premium system was to fix a fair
per cent., becoming 15 92d. per hour, while the the National Cash Register Company, where, not- standard, so that the mediun1 class of workman
total cost of labour to the employer was 1o.9d. wit hstanding such projects, there was now prevail- would make a satisfactory wage, and a more intelliIn other premium systems where t he man was ing one of the worst strikes of recent times. The gent one something more, and the weaker artisan even
allowed 100 hours and reduc~d the time occupied company had aimed at doing good, but in the wrong a little extra when h e did a little extra wotk. The
to 1 hour, the wage b ecame 40id. per hour, a way. Concluding, Mr. Livesey said that the em- standard must not be cut down in any way, because
state of affairs that any employer would object to, ployers were not called upon to be a Providence for nothing was more discouraging to the workers.
and would be a great temptation to cut down their their men; what they should aim at was to put What he believed would bring a satisfactory re~;ult
them in the way of helping themselves : let them was a greater attention on the part of the manager
rate.
The second paper was by Mr. W11lia,m Thomson, become capitalists in their small way.
of t he works. He was also certain that the premium
Glaf:gow, on ''Some F actors Affecting the EconoMr. Wigham Richardson asked if the shares of system could n ever enable them to dispense with
mical Manufacture of ~1arin e Engines,,, which is the South Metropolitan Gas Company were sold careful inspection. "The wage of liberty is etern11l
printed in full on page 379 of this issue; while t he to the men at par value, and received the r eply watchfulness.,,
third paper was on "Workshop lVIethods; Some from 1\ir. Livesey that th~y were transferred at
1\-Ir. T. Hurry Riches, Cardiff, said that the
Efficiency Factors in an Engineering Business,, by market price. Mr. Richard~on also asked Mr. papers read raised a problem which he regarded
1\'Iessrs. 'Villiam Weir and ,J. R. Richmond, Glas- Rowan
how
his
scheme
was
r
egarded
by
the
trades
with considerable anxiety, because he was not

gow. This paper also will be found in extenso on UlliOn.

quite clear as to the advantages of the premium
Mr. Arthur Greenwvod said that they had in one system over piece work, a~cl whether it held out
page 376, so that we may proceed at once to report
the discussion on the three paper~, which proved section of their works adopted the premium system the same inducement to get over a larger volume of
of great interest.
almost on the lines indicated in Mr. R owan's work. Moreover, it could not relieve them of the
!vir. George Livesey, the Chairman of the South paper, with the result that a very much better necessity for a proper inspection of the work.
1\-Ietropolita.n Gas Company, and Chairman of Sec- feeling prevailed between the men and t he fore- Again, profit sharing was satisfactory to the men so
tion VIII. of the Congress, opened the discussion, man in that particular department. At the same long as a profit was being earned, but as soon as
and rem~rked that his business, the manufacture of time there was a iarge increase in the amom1t of depression came and rr0fits diminished , they
with superheated steam having a temperature of
480 deg. to 500 deg , the economy was about
16 to 17 per cen t. in ~;team consumption, and
from 16 to 16 per cent. in coal consumption,
and the.:e results had been confirmed in other
trials. It was importan t. further, to note that
the measure of economy did not take into account
the conde~sation in the pipes, which was, of courl'e,
greater with saturated steam; and if that economy
were included, the advantage in the case of the superheated engioe !flight b? as . high as 20 per cent.
There was no difficulty m usmg superheated steam
of a temperature of 480 deg. Fahr., and the saving
in .coal would certain)y ?e from 12 to 14 per cent.
\~1t~ reference to w1nd1ng and hauling engines for
mmi~g purposes, the system of superheating ~as
apphed 1n some cases on the Continent the average
temperature bein~ from 450 deg. to 4so deg., and
the experience of from 10 to 15 months showed
that when the engine was stopped for a few minutes
the rise in temperature was not great ; t.he economy
in such cases was from 10 to 12 per cent. in coli
consumption. In the c1se of one hauling engine, a
temperatur~ of 660 deg. Fahr. was now applied,
but the engme had not been running long enough
to enable any definite conclusion to be arrived at.
He did not advocate any excess over 700 deg. Fahr.
becauEe the conditions might not be quite satisfactory ; above that temperature the tubes begun to
anneal, and became permeable, so that the superheater was of short life and waq not reliab1e. With
regard to the question raised by Mr. Longridge.
Mr. L enke remarked t hat he purposely refrained
from mentioning constructors or designers, his
aim being only to deal wi th the effect on engines
of a high degree of superheat. It was quite true,
and was indicated in Table I. gi ven in the paper,
that the greatest percentage of economy was ob
tained from the first 100 deg. owing to the drying
and superheat. With r egard to the temperature
desirable for various works, that must be left to the
engineer after consideration of local conditions. As
to the application in marine engines, a superheater
of very large size had quite re cen~-1y been fitted to a
North German Lloyd 's steam Fr. and this would be
put into senrice in the course of a few weeks, when
interesting resul ts will doubtless be obtained. As
to the q uestion of the reduction of leakage consequfnt on superheating the steam, raised by Professor Watkinson, he was making experiments, but
at present was not quite ~ati sfied that there was
less leakage at the valves than with saturated
steam.

352
wanted to ~now where the profit had gone, and
we:~:e not disposed to take less money. H e had
been, n evertheless, g reatly interested in t he success
of Mr. Livesey's scheme, but it should be remembered that special conditions prevailed, because
the commodity supplied was not only a n ecessity
for the great majority of the people, but there was
s uch a~ arrangement for arranging the selling price
according to the cost of production as to enable a
fair profit t o be insured at all times, so that some
measur e of gain must always b e credited to the
m en. He had known many cases where provident
and saving arrangements had been made for the
men, and was surprised and regretted the small
extent to which they were taken advantage of.
A more general education of t he work men to be
more provident was r eally what was wanted. He
was much struck wi!ih the fact that more work was
got wit h the adoption of stronger machines. This
h e had al ~ays contended for, and had always fitted
t ools to g1ve a heavier cut ; but into this question
h e was n ot disposed to enter; h e cordially approved
the consultative armngement described, and cornmended the idea of placing con6dence in the workm en .. It seemed to him that t he principle of the
premium system was somewhat illusory, the price
fixed being more or less fictitious, and t here must
always be a doubt in the worker's mind as to
whether the employer should always get the onehalf of t he economy in the time tak en. With a
piecework price t here was some finality, and the
duty of the employer was to see that the very h ost
applia nces were placed at the disposal of the. men,
and by this means the cost of production was reduced .
Mr. Walker, of Wigan, said that at his works he
experienced no difficulty in extending t he principle
of piecework to general work, and found that the
men were so satisfied with i t that there was some
j ealousy on the part of those n ot on piecework.
Mr. J a mes R owan was then called upon to reply
to the discussion. He said that they had r eceived
many proposals from the men, having for their
object the improvement of the output of the men,
knowing that it was to their interest to do so. I t
was 3- years since they had adopted the system
described in his paper, and the men n ow earned
from 35 to 45 per cent. increase on their wage. He
laid great stress on the fact t hat the premium r ate
should n ot be r educed, and he believed t hat it
was because of this fixit y that t he men so readily
suggested improvements. In reply to Mr. WighamRichardson, he said they had n o knowledge as to
how the trades unionists looked upon the scheme ;
but the workmen viewed it wit h great fa vour, and
any suggestion to revert to the day wage would be
a sad blow to them. Iu his opinion the same
amount of inspeclion was required whether t h e
men were working on the h ourly rate, on the
pre1nium system, or at piecework. As to the
greater output due to h eavier machines, he thought
that was a q uestim1 for Mr. Thomson to deal with;
but they were adopting h eavier machines with t hat
aim in view. He felt that t he criticism of Mr.
Li vesey was partly due to his want of knowledge as to
t h e class of men with wh orn t hey were dealing in
the Clyde district. Like Mr. Livesey, his aim was
to enable t he men to h elp themselves, and h e felt
that the workmen in q uestion were as able t o benefit
by the increase in their earnings as any gentleman
in the meeting.
Mr. \Villiam Thomson, in r eplying t o t he question raised by l\1:r. Riches, pointed to the Table in
the paper giving exact information of increased
output due to heavier machines and deeper cuts.
Mr. J . R. Richmond was also called upon to
r eply to t h e discussion. He said that the more
r emote they made the workmen 's reward, t h e less
ad vantage would accrue. When a man recei ved
his premium bonus periodically, he felt he was
getting something tangible for his increased effort ;
and as to the spending of t his money rationally, h e
might mention t he fact t hat while the bonus was
generally paid every four weeks, t h e men desired
t hat t he payment should be deferr ed, so t hat they
would have an eight-week bonus to lift before the
holiday seasons- at midsummer and at Christmas.
M or eover, the number of cycl es used by the men in
travelling to and from their work suggested that the
cycle trade must have benefited consider ably from
the bonus system. Mr. Alien had p ointed to a
possibility of relaxed interest, and in r eply to that
h e would only say that it was absolutely n ecessary
t hat the principals in the business should give t h eir
attention to all such sch emes. U nless that was

E N G I N E E R I N G.
done, any scheme would flag, and the men become
listlet:~s. Their experien ce was that the men who
1uade suggestions turned up 1nont h after mont h,
displaying brain power and ingenuity, and thus the
scheme was an indirect means of enabling them to
choose workers for promotion.
T HE M ETRI C SYSTE~1.

Mr. Arthur G reenwood r ead the n ext paper,

which was a very c0mprehensive view of the advantages which accrue from the application of the
metric system to workshops, but as the time for
adjo urnmen t had arrived, and the members were
anxious to p roceed on one or other of t he impor tant
visits arranged to differen t works, it was agreed
that the discussion should be deferred until t he
meeliing on t he following day.

SECTION IV. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE

ENGINEERING.
On the second day of the Confer ence, W ednesday, September 4, the members of this Section
ags.in assembled in the Humanity Theatre of the
U niversity, the President of the Institution of
Naval Architects, the Right Honourable Earl of
Glasgow, again occupying t he chair.
SHIPYARD EQUIPMENT.

The first business taken was the r eading and discussion of two papers. The first by Professor
J. H. Bil es, on "~hipyard Equipment," and the
second by Mr. Robert Robertson, on "Electrical
Power Supply in Shipbuilding Yards and Marine
Engine Work~." These t wo papers were read consecutively, a joint discussion being taken on t hem.
We print Mr. R obertson 's paper on page 384.
Professor Biles pointed out in his paper the
n ecessity for constant improvement in labour- saving
tools, and discussed t he division of the work of a
shipyard into iron and wood work sections, after
which further consideration was given to some
iron-working tools. The struct ure of a ship, and
the method of shaping the different parts, was
described. D escriptions, accompanied by illustrations thrown by t he lantern on the screen, were
given of each of the following machines and tools :
Punching, shearing, countersinking, and planing
machines ; plate-bending rolls and straightening
rolls ; plate-edge planing, beam bending, joggling,
and bevelling machines ; hydraulic p unching, shearing, flanging, and riveting machines ; pneumatic
tools for riveting and boring, and a few electricdriven tools. The gen eral subject of cost of production, and t h e relation between design of structure
and shipyard plant, was n ext treated of. The
general arrangement of plant in a shipyard was
described, tog~ther with the principal consideration s determining the relative positions of, numbers,
and power of differen t machines, and the general
transportation plant of a shipyard.
Mr. H. M . Napier was the first speaker. He said
that Professor Biles deserved great credit for presenting so simple a paper, more especially when it
was remembered how he r evelled in mathematical
formula. Referring to the machinery for dealing
with plates described in the paper, the speaker said
that shipbuilders would remember how, in early
day~, only s mall plates were used. The machinetool maker then came into the field, and produced
machines of larger size and greater power, capable
of dealing with heavier plates. The steel maker,
who might have t hought himself wise in his generation, charged higher prices for t h ese larger plates,
and the consequence was that their use for a time
was checked. This condition of affairs righted
itself ultimately, so t hat ship plates have gone on
increasing until they have arrived at their presen t
di1nensions. Referring to Mr. Robertson's paper,
he said that ther e could b e no doubt but t hat the
electrical t ran nmission of p ower had a great future
before i t. His own firm had started, two years ago,
with an installation of 60 horse-power, which was
tho ught to be ample at t he time. They speedily
found it altoget her too s mall. He agreed with the
author that small electric motors did not give
efficient results. In one machine h e had seen the
power required go up 100 amperes at a single
squeeze of t he press. They h ad t ried machines
first of five h orse-power, t hen of ten, and had now
increased that to 15 h orse-power with advantage.
What was needed was an ample margin. In conclusion he would say t hat in aH n ew plants the
shipb uilder should look on el ectricity as his best
friend.
Mr. de Rusett s1id tlu.t in the yard of his firm,

[ SEPT.

13,

1901.

Messrs . Swan and Hunter, of Wallsend, they used

all t hree systems of power transmission-electric,
pneumatic, and hydraulic. They had n ot found
pneumatic riveting less costly, but it was undoubtedly useful, especially in confined spaces,
such as intercostals. For pneumatic riveting, however, the work had to be closely screwed together,
a<J the air-driven machines were not like hydraulic
riveters, which held t he plates closely t ogeth er as
the operation proceeded. In chipping, caulking,
and drilling there was considerable economy in the
use of the pneumatic system. The speaker r eferred
to the cantilever crane which had been erected for
ship construction at t he Wallsend W orks of his
firm, and to the overhead cran es in the sheds
over the shipbuilding slips ; the very great advantage of dropping materials down from the top could
hardly be exaggerated. It enabled the work to be
carried on continuously in any part, for gaps could
be filled up a fterwards. Mr. H unter had been t h e
first to establish at Wallsend this system of overhead cranes, but the Americans had since taken
the matter up, and had considerably enlarged on
what had been done, introducing machinery of
incr eased dimensions. When the cranes were first
installed, they had had, as a matter of course, some
tr.ouble with the workmen. That was no more than
was expected: The men wanted all the advantages
accruing from the outlay of capital necessary for
the installation for the new appliances. The firm
t herefore discontinued t he use of the plant, returning to the old methods, and in a short time t he
men were glad to modify t h eir terms, and allow
the owners some shar e of the profit due to t he
advances made. In the building of the I vernia
50 ft. of the ship had to be outside the shed, and
i t was a striking o bject lesson of the great difference
between the old and t h e new methods. His firm
owned their own electric supply s tation, but
Mr. de Rusett considered that t he country wanted
an extension of t he electric s upply companies with
large central stations scatter ed t hroughout the
centres of industl'y, so that power might be produced in bulk. Pcobably it would be advisable for
the works of t hese corn panies to be placed n ear the
coal supply. I n conclusion, he would say t hat, as
a general principle, whatever can be done by a
machine should n ot be given to a man to perform.
The man should do the t hinking, and the machine
the labour. If that principle were ca rried to
t he fullest exten t economica1ly possible, the minimum cost of production would be reached.
Professor Biles said, in reply to t he discussion,
that t here was nothing more for him to do than to
thank the speakers for t heir friendly remarks.
Mr. Robertson, in r eply, desired only to say how
pleased he was to hear Mr. De Rusett inform t he
meeting that the covered shed system was introduced by Mr. Hunter, on t he Tyne. I ts use was
spreading, especially in Continental shipyards. One
disadvantage of the system was that with increased
size of ships the sheds were apt to become t o::>
s mall.
F LOATING DocKS.
The next paper taken was by Mr. T. Gibson
Bowles, M .P ., and was entitled "A M emorandum
on Floating D ocks," of which we subjoin an
abstract.
Mr. Bowles in his paper p ointed out t hat the
floating dock had developed greatly and rapidly.
It had passed through the same phases as ships ;
growing from wood to iron, and from iron to steel ;
increasing in size, altering in form, and having been
as much improved in design and d etails as ships
themselves. The older types, s uch as t he old
Bermuda Dock, shaped like a capital U, with
double sides and bottom, wer e even more obsolete
than a battleship of t hat date (1868) would now be;
nor could that dock be t hought of to- day as an
adequate provision for to-day's warships. The
original floating docks \"\'ere long iron vessels, with
gates at each end; the whole floated on the wate r.
'he ship entered t he dock at one end; the gate
was swung to behind her ; sh e was shored up inside, and t he water inside the dock pumped away
from around her. This was a dock differing from
the graving dock only in that it floated on t he
water instead of being hollowed out of the ground.
Then came t he lifting dock with open ends, which
first sank in the water, was then pumped out, and
raised the ship as it r ose. Its typical form to-day
is that of the large and powerful n ew Bermuda
Dock, which is the type probably best adapted for
general use.
Ther e are also the L -shaped docks, which are of
0

EPT.

13, 1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

353

thre.e kinds : 1. ff shor e docks connected by booms Ilis own firm at the p resen t time had in hand de
SECTION V. IRON AND STEEL.
to pt.les n.qhore. 2. D epositing d ocks with a floating signs for floating d ocks having 100,000 tons l ifting
outrtgg~r. 3. Off-shore docks wit h a fioatina
out - capacity.
During the second day of t he meeting of t his
0
rigger. The two latter are ent irely fioatin a and
Admiral Sir Gerald N oel remarked that there waq Section t he chair was again occupied by the P rewholly free from all con nection with t he sho;~.
little doubt but that tho au thor had said all t her e siden t, Mr . W. Whitwell, and the proceedings
T he British Governmen t has recen tly order ed was to say on floating docks. U ndoubtedly t he wer e opened by Mr. C. H . Ridsdale, who read in
a ~e w and larger floating d ock, costing 195, OOOl. , Ad miralty preferred g raving d ocks to floating abstract and commented on his paper on
d ehvered on the Tyne, or 230,000l. in all de- docks ; that was their decision . But that did not
live red at B erm uda. F or it is t o be tow~d to mean that floating docks had not a sphere of ut ility
THE CORRECT T REATMENT OF S TEEL.
B e:muda t o. take the pl.ace of the one already ther e. in positions where graving docks were not possible.
In t his paper the au thor describes what is k nown,
Thts dock IS self-d ookmg, and is 545 ft. over keel H e was at t he Admiralty at the t ime that the n ew and form ulates cer tain views, asking for informablocks, en t rance 100 ft. , capa ble of taking vessels dock for B ermuda was projected. 'J.1hey tried tion and discussing the con trol exercised by t he
drawing 33ft ., with a lift ing power of 15,500 tons. everything possible t o get a g raving dock . They maker and user , thoir responsibilities, t ests, and
W e also find that t he United States Governmen t made borings everywher e, b ut could fi nd no suit- p rocesses. As we shall publish t his paper in extenso
has r ecen tly ordered one 525 f t . over blocks able place, and so had to fall back on the floating in an early issue, and as it was a communication
entrance 100ft ., with l ifting power u p to 18,000 dock . In regard to the old B ermuda floating dock, to which it would be impossible to do j ustice in a
t ons, for New OrleanEZ, where t hese docks have been he did not know that it had been quite so badly brief abstract , we may me rely r emark her e t hat
t ried since 1866.
treated as the author had stated ; but he did know the author exhibited a large number of samples of
'rhe q ualities of importance t o be considered in that t hey had had a great deal of t rou ble in clean- steel t o illustrate the points that he endeavoured
a comparison of docks were said to be seven in ing it . He had made a suggestion at the time in to prove.
nu mber : 1. Advan tages and disadvantages of t he regard to t his mat ter, which had come out of the
Mr. J. E . Stead opened the discussion by r egeneral mechanical principle employed. 2. Cost experience he had gained when in command of a marking t hat t he author's obser vations on t he
io which is included original cost, cost of up-keep: vessel that was zinc sheathed . That shi p had been brittleness i nduced by a blue ho1t wer e of
and cost of working. 3. Time required for the con- l'ammed, not badly, but sufficien t to make it neces- g reat importance, and the restoration 0f good
struction of t he d ock. 4. M obility of t he dock. sary for it to go into dock. When t hey had stripped qualities by reheating we re worthy of note.
5. Adaptability of t he d ock for its work under all off the zinc sheathing they found the steel plating The size of t he crystal gr ain appeared to have n o
condit ions. 6. Certainty in construction of the of t he vessel in an admirable state of preser\'ation. in fiuence on the t ensile strength ; but large grain
dock, both as t o time and cost. 7. L ength of t ime H e though t, ther efore, t hat it migh t be worth while induced great weakness under shock, owing to t he
r equired to ber th and safely d ock an ordinary vessel zinc sheathing a floating dock. No doubt t he clea"age planes, which were lines of weakness. If
under ordinary circumstances. E ach of the abovo sheathing would have t o be renewed, perhaps every blisters were produced by t he liq uid p en etrating
qualit ies was discussed in detail by the au thor.
fifteen years, but the dock itself would be kept in the metal, it was not very clear why the gas did
Discussion on this paper was opened by Mr. a perfect state of preservation. Th e gallant Ad- not escape by the same passage ; but t he a uthor 's
Clark, who said that in the main he could con firm miral did not think t he suggestion of M r. Bowles explanations were ingenious, and based on practice,
the statemen ts made by the author in the paper . - that a dock would go out and b ring in derelict and throughout his work was of a very valuable
He (the speaker) was much surprised t o hear, a vessels- was practicable ; for such a service a float- character.
shor t time ago, t he official mouthpiece of the Ad- ing dock of special stability would be needed.
Mr. .A. Me Willia.m t hought that t he chemical
miralty say, in his place in t he House of Commons, F or his own part he would much sooner get composit ion was t hrust too much into t he backt hat no engineer would use a floating dock in any his wounded ship into a graving dock .
In ground. In reality the composition was merely
posit ion where he CO'lld place a g raving dock. Mr. r egard to t he details t hat had been given of t he the foundation for all kinds of treatmen t, and proClark t hough t that no engineer would be inclined experience of float ing docks at H amburg, there was bably t he au thor was inclined to regard t he mat ter
to make so s weeping a statemen t. The graving no doubt it pointed t o t he enormous u tility of t oo much from t he standpoint of the manufacturer.
d ocks of t his country had t heir origin in t idal these structures for the purposes for which t hey
Mr. T. Vaughan Hughes ad vocated a more excreeks : when t he under-water parts of a. vessel had were used at t hat p or t. The author had made t ensive use of the pyrometer. M en wit h fifteen
t o be examined in old days, t he ship was drawn up some comparisons as to the expense of the two y~ars' training might be able to t ell t e mperatures
a creek, and t he water was dammed off after it had forms respectively. He thought, ho wever, it would by the colour ; but, after a holiday, even t heir judgebbed away. On t he Con tinent, wher e there was have been fairer had Mr. Bowles taken some other men t was at fault. I t was doubtful whet her makers
little or no tide in places, vessels were pulled out place than Gibraltar as a basis of comparison, for should continue to rely on chemical analysis or on
of water, and that led to slipways being int roduced. there the cutting was exceptionally expensive, owing the micrographical investigation. Both were still
In H amburg the river was slightly t idal, and there, to the nat ure of the r ock. If H ong K ong had been sub judice, and there was likely to be more delay
in 1848, a wooden floating dock was established. selected, the figures would have come out differen tly, while Mr. Stead's proposed committee was investigating chemical analysis.
In the year 1859 another was added. Since then the as the soil was more favourable to excavation.
Mr. Ridsdale, in reply, stated t hat r eheating in
number of floating docks had increased enormouely,
Mr. E . Tennyson d 'Eyncourt said t her e was one
and t heir individual capacity had gone up also in a d etail in favour of the floaGing dock t o which itself was not always sufficient to reproduce such
surprising manner. In t he mean time only t wo small reference had not been made, although it migh t good qualilies as were desirable. To remove exgraving d ocks had been constructed. At t he yard not., perhaps, be of great impo~tance. In t he cessive brittlen ess, for example, some working
of M essrs. Blohm and V oss at H amburg t hey were graving dock the smaller t he shiR t he mor e pumping would be requisite. Chemical composition was a
n o w building a float ing dock of 17,000 tons capa- had t o be d one in order to empty the dock. On proper foundation if t he treatment were n ormal,
city, and the plans were being prepared for another t he other hand, with the floating d ock less p ump- but sl ight variations in t reatment cause great d iffloating dock of 500 tons more. That the floating ing was required to raise a s mall ship t han a larger fer ences in r esult. The errors in several p yrodock was cheaper t han t he graving dock in first one. I t had been p ointed out t hat during t he meters working side by side were enough t o disgust
cost was a matter beyond q uestion. There came, life of a dock the length t o which ships wer e built t he workm'in and the manufacturer, so t hat on the
however, t he problem of upkeep. The advocates might increase. If ships ou t-grew d ocks, it would whol e he preferred colour as a temperature indiof the g raving docks said they would last for ever . be easier to lengthen the floating struct ure than t he cator . A fter all, t he composit ion mattered but
E ven if t hat were true, it was a quest ion whether g raving dock. Speaking as a shipbuilder, he would little, if the correct results were obtained .
The President though t that the information consuch structures migh t n ot be made t o last t oo long. naturally advocate the floating clock, as it was a
F or instance, a d ock t hat would take a first-class naval architect's and mechanical engineer 's con- t ained in the paper would have been of great value
lino of bat tle ship of the end of the last cen t ury, struction, whereas the graving dock was more the to him when he was engaged in manufacturi ng
bars, as so many had t'J be r ej ected on account of
such as t he Victory, would n ot no w accommodat e business of t he excavator and the mason.
a destroyer. Under t hese circumstances, was it n ot
Mr. Napier said that undoubtedly from the point V!irious defects. H e t hen called upon Mr. J. E .
better t o b uild something t hat was cheap, b ut of view just enunciated by t he last speaker floating Stc 1.d t o give an abstract of t he papers cont ribu ted
effective, and would last its t ime 1 I t had been docks were preferable to graving docks, but t here by him alone and in conjunction with Mr. F. H.
proved that floating docks would work for fifty were other considerat ions. F or instance, in lengthen- Wig ham.
years, and even t hen would be worth something to ing a ship weigh ts could be moved on t he solid bottom
CoPPER, Ino~, A"ND STEEL.
break up. In r egard to upkeep, it had been found of a g raving dock without thinking a bout t he laws
that t he cost averaged between ! p er cen t. a nd 1.5 of st ability. Those who had had tu shift t he posiAs we intend to p ublish Mr. Stead 's paper on
p~r cen t. per annu ~ , the latter being t he hi&host tion of such a t hing as a heavy stern frame on a " I ron and Cop per Alloys" in full at an early date,
figure known. Thts was b1sed on t he earn!ngs, floating dock knew that some care was r equired. we need only say that it contains a '\"ery sat is fn.~tory
with the lifting power as a means of comparison. Another consider:\tion of a commer cial nature arose. explanation of the very varying statemen ts preIn r eg ud to working, t here was n o differen ce A floating d ock, if lying off afloat, must be insured, viously made as to the possibility of alloying iron
of any importance between the two types ; the b ut t here was no need t o g0 to t his expense on and copper. The pure met als will alloy in any prolabour and attendance in a graving dock being behalf of the gr aving dock. Both systems had, p or tions, but t he presence of carbon r estricts t he
as nearly as poseible t he same thing as in a floating however, their positions and uses. Sometime ago power of combination and causes the molten mass
dock. Generally speaking, he wished to bear out the Clyde Trustees had p ut down a graving dock; t o separate into layers of iron and copper, containwhat the au thor had said in his paper. That, he concluded t hey had adopted the tight course, as ing cer tain propor tions of each other. Copper does
perhaps, was nat ural, as t he remarks of Mr. Bowles he had heard no adverse crit icisms on t heir d ecision. not seem t o have a pernicious effect on cast-iron.
had been all favoura ble t o the floating d ock. H e About t he same time t he Bristol au t horities had Its behaviour in t he case of steel has previously
,
would t hank him, however, for g iving t he facts erected a fl oating dock, and t his also migh t be been shown to b e good by the author.
wider publicity by bringing them before the Con- t a,ken as a wise course under the circumstances.
According to t he second paper by Mr. Stead and
g ress. In con clusion, he would point out tha:t t he H e had, however, great sympathy wi th tho Ad- Mr. F. H. Wjgham, it has been r epeatedly shown
floating dock was the work of t he naval ar~lutect, miralty in t heir desire to secure a solid foundation that copper in small q uan tities does not materially
whilst graving docks came within the prov1nc? of for t he heavy ironclads as soon as t hey cease t o be affect the mechanical properties of steel rails and
plates, b ut it was not cer tain whether it would
t he civil engineer. I t was a notable fact t hat s1.nce water-borne.
After a vote of t hanks had been proposed t o t he affect wire made by cold wire-drawing. Pieces of
his late uncle had r ead a paper before the Instit ut ion of Civil Engineers, man y years ago, n othing au thor of t he paper by L ord Gla~gow, the Section steel rails previously tested by Messrs . S tead and
Evans, and also two crucible steels were therefore
had appeared before t he Instit ution on this subject. adjourned until the next day.

[S EPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

354

j,

90 r.

FRANCE.
OF
LOCOMOTIVE RUNNING SHEDS FOR THE EASTERN RAIL\V Ay
(F01 Description, see Page 364 )
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fully t ested. The samples were made by dividing

the fluid steel into two halves, and adding copper
t o one, EO that the ingots were identical in composition, except for the copper, which ranged from
0.46 up to 2 per cent. Each sample was reduced
to wire rod and drawn down in the usual way, with
frequent annealings, to wire about 0.0! in. in diameter. At each operation the wire was tested for
the number of twists in 8 in., and of bends t o
180 d eg. over a radius of a centimetre. The breaking strain and elongation in t ensile tests were also
determined. In practically all the cases the strength
deteriorated in the copper steels, as compared with
the ordinary steels, as t he drawing progressed.
This was especially noticeable in the high carbon
crucible steel samples, and part icularly in the bending tests, which are very poor . After five draughts,
the breaking stress was 98.1 and 114.4 tons per
square inch for the cupreous and non-cupreous steel
respectively. Possibly copper under 0.46 per cent.
might have but little effect. on mild steel wire, but
this point remains to be determined.
Mr. Stead also referred to some of the matters
which bad arisen out of the discussion on the
papers on copper and iron, which had been read
at previous meetings, and he showed a small
testing machine on Brinell's principle. A small
sapphire ball, 0.6 millimetre in diameter, and
loaded with 1 kilogramme, was pressed on to the
sample, and the diamete.r of the inden tation produced was measured under a magnificat ion of
250 diameters. This measurement indicated the
hardneRs.
In opening the discussion, Mr. S. Lloyd, of
Birmingham, mentioned the condemnation of a
large consignment of pig i~on made from cupriferous ores. This was explamed by Mr. T. Turner
as probably being due to the sulphur, and not to
the copper, derived from the mundio in the ore.

F ig.J
I

The hardness and brittleness of the iron copper t o obtain individuil tests from a large number of
alloys were comparable with those observed in the points on a small sample, and not, like Brinell's
copper-tin alloys. But in determining t he hard- machine, to get the average hardness of the metal.
ness, it was always doubtful what they were The eff~ct of copper in tool steel had not yet been
measuring. Indentation methods showed duct ility determined, but an old French t ool steel containing
and tenacity combined, and that was not the 0.25 of copper gave good r esults, though it was
abrasion hardness of the mineralogist.. The inden - very liable to be brittle.
tation test fairly followed the tensile strength,. and
CALO lUM IN F ERRO-SILIOON .
might be substituted. Mr. T. V. Hughes thought
that scratching tests were not so useful as the
Mr. C. Watson Gray, in the next paper r c:ad, gave
indentation method to the metallurgist.
full analyses of six samples of high-grade ferro-silicon
Mr. A. Wahlberg thought that the Brinell'd containing cabium. One of them sho wed n o less
machine was better suited to works use, and t han 14.40 per cent. of calcium with 68.65 of silicon,
Stead's small machine was well adapted for scien- and only 9. 91 of iron. Two others contained about
tific investigations. At one Swedish works every 7 p er cent. of calcium. F erro-silicon might easily
charge was tested in a Brinell machine, and that be produced free from that element in the electric
was the easiest way, because the expensive prepa- furnace, but very possibly the calcium might be
ration of test pieces was avoided. The tensile and beneficial in steel manufacture, aud in t hat case of
pressure methods did not follow quite uninterrup- course, no precautions would need be tak en . S~me
tedly, as there was a break at the hardness point notfs on t he analyses of these materials were aprepresented by 0.55 per cent. of carbon.
pended, but they are practically a repetition of
Mr. A. J. Atkinson q uestioned whether surface t hose r ecen tly published in the J otwnal of the
tension had any effect, and Mr. A. MeWilliam Societv of Ohem.1'cal I nd1tst?'IJ In r eply to Mr.
noted that cutlery made with cupriferous steel kept Hughes, the author stated t hat all materials were
its edge well.
tested for purity.
In reply, Mr. Ste1d pointed out that copper was
B L AST-F URNACE GA .
not oxidised before iron, and the effect of long heating o1 burning was d ue to the oxidation of iron,
Mr. B. H. Thwaite then r ead an abs~ract of hie
and not of copper. His small machine was d esigned paper on the profitable u tilisation of p ower from

SEPT.

r J, rgo 1.]

E N G I N E E RI N G.

355

LOCOMOTIVE . RUNNING SHEDS FOR THE EASTERN RAILWAY OF FRANCE.

(For Description, see Page 364)

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E N G I N E E R I N G.
blast-furnace gas. Mainly he d ealt with t h e advantages of using blast-furnace gas to d rive gas
engines at the electric gener ating station, and
pointed ou t some of the industries t o which this
cheap electric power may be ap plied. All t h e gas
from t hese furnaces should b e used in this way,
t he b last.furnace being r egarded as the equivalent
of a waterfall, and all the p ower for running t he
blast-furnaces and the gas for heating the h ot blast
stoves must be d erived from other sources.
The discussion turned m ainly on the problem of
removing the dust fron1 the gas. Mr. E. Theissen
mentioned that his apparatus for washing gas waC)
being adopted by Messrs. B olckow, Vaughan, and
Co., and this statement was confirmed by .Mr.
Richards, who stated that it was to be used for
cleaning the very dusty gas from a spiegel furnace.
Mr. A. Greiner gave d etails of a number of
plants using t his machine. In one case a 2-metre
fan, driven at 700 r evolutions by a 120 horse-power
engine, passed 70,000 cubic metres of gas per hour,
and used 140 cubic metres of washing water. The
gas was cooled from 200 d eg. or 300 deg. d own to
20 d eg. or 30 deg., and the dust was r educed from
2i down to 0. 2 or 0. 25 g rammes p er cubic metre. The
nat ure of the dust r cquu:ei investigation to determine t he method of t h e treatment to be adopted.
Mr. Th waite, in r eply to a request from t h e Presiden t for practical d etails , stated that all met hods
which did no t utilise t he sensible heat of the gases
were wrong. His arrangement was pract ically a
tubular h eat economiser, provided with scrapers to
deal wit h the dust.
The President t hen announced t hat there were
three other papers, but t h ey would have to take
t hem as read .

Suffice it to say that the value of annealing is

strongly indicated for all wrought work.
Even
annealing from 350 deg. Cent. produces a 1narked
improvement in the elasticity and tenacity without
affecting t he absolute str ength, and high er temperat ures ar e still more b eneficial.
The n ext series of tests were made with t h e same
materials under impact at temperatures of + 30 deg.
Cen t ., and also at - 24 d eg. t o - 28 deg. Cent.,
wit h n otched and with plain bars . The impact
tests were made wit h a t up falling on to one end
of the bar, which was firmly h eld at the other end
instead of r esting on two supports, as is mor e
us ual in t his count ry and in America. The average
work endured by all the specimens b efore f,racture
at + 30 d eg. Cent. was 145 metre - kilogrammes
(1048 foot-pounds), as compar ed with 95 metrekilogrammes (687 foot-pounds) at the lo wer temp erature, the bars being 30 millimetr es ( 1.18 in.)
squar e . As with the te n~lion tests, the effects of
treatment and composition are also fully dealt with.
STRAINS AND FRA.CFURE I N I RON .AND STEEL.

In the third paper, by M r. Arthur Wingham, on

"Internal Strains in Iron, and t heir B earing
upon Fracture," the author contends t hat there
is always existent a poten t ial disruptive force
in metal, due to the relation between the
crystal grains and the eutectic, and that t his is
aided or retarded in its effect by all external causes.
Repeated or vibratory strains are especially potent
in disturbing the connection between the two constituents, starting microscopic flaws or intercrystalline disintegration, thereby leading to fracture.
Annealing is held to produce its effect by breaking
up the crystal g rains and by allowing t he eutectic
to attack and amalgamate with the crys tal faces.
SPECTROSCOPY.
The Iron and S teel Institute did not sit for the
The first of these papers was by Professor W. N.
Hartley, F.R. S ., and Mr. Hugh Ramage. I t was r eading of papers on the third day of the Cong ress,
entitl ed "On the Spectra of Flames at D ifferen t that and the subsequent days of the meeting being
devoted to visits to works, and excuraions.
Periods during the Basic B essemer Blow."
In t his paper the authors g ive an a:!count of their
SECTION VI. - MINING.
investigations on t he spectra of t he basic process to
sup plement t he accounts g iven of similar phenomena
The Institution of Mining Engineers r esumed
connected with t he acid converter flame. The main t heir si ttings on Wednesday, in the G reek L ecture
difference b etween t he acid and basic process is the Theatre of the U niversity, Mr. James S . Dixon
elimination of p hosphorus in t he basic vessel, and presiding.
though the spectroscope sh ows when ot.her elements are eliminated, it unfortunately gives n o lMPERli'ECT P u LVERISATION OF R ocK BY MEANS OF
S TAMPING.
clue to t he behaviour of the most impor tan t. The
authors limit their statement by the words '' up
M1. E. D. Chester submitted a paper on "The
to the presen t , '' but they do not otherwise offer Imperfect Pulveri s~tion of Rock by means of
any hope that further r esearch will give i nforma- Stamping, and Suggestions for its Improvement."
t ion as to t he behaviour of t he phosphorus. The The following is an abstract of t he paper :
general b ehaviour of t he flame and the spectra obTho author said that in dry crushing it is essentml, as
served differ considerably in the two processes. The soon as the rock enters the rolls and bee;omes crushed, that
b asic flame g ives a continuous spectrum with a it should be sprE>ad out, so that the rolls can come into convery much larger number of lines than in t he acid tact with the whole of the material, and still further
it. This result has been secured to a great extent
process. This is due, in parb, to the multitude of reduce
hy the Wegerif roll, in which the rolls are so mounted,
elemen ts int roduced in t races by the lime additions, the one partially above t he other, that their axes cro~s
but t hey are chiefly caused by the elements which each other, or lie in parallel horizontal planes, b?t m
have n ot been r ecognised hitherto in Bessemer different vertical phtnes, so that the planes of rotat10n of
ores. The manganese bands and lines are less pro- the rolls are oblique to each other; and, consequently,
the particles passing betwee!l the. grind.ing-faces of ~he
minent, but the potassium lines are more intense ; rolls
are subjected to a tearmg, d1srupt1ve, or spreu.dmg
and, in fact, a new potassium line with variable action (in addition to ordinary simple crushing or
inten si ty wa.s discovered. The continuous nature grinding), whe.reby t~e grinding action is ren~ered more
of t h e spectrum from the brilliant yelloN flame of efficient. Th1s obhqmty of the. roll-axes m vo!ve~ a
the overblow indicate3 th~t the temperature is com- concave hyperboloidal configurat10n of the grmdmg
crushing faces of the rolls, in order that a conp aratively lo w, and t hat t he light emanates from a or
tinuous line of contact or bite may be obtained. As,
torrent of very minute puticles at a yello wish however the direction in which the material enters
white h eat.
between' the rolls more or less approach~s t?e ho~izon.tal,
but should be wholly in a downwardly mclined d1rect10n,
HARDNESS AND OTHJ~ R PROPERTI ES OF
it is essential iu order to insure an even distribution of
I RON .AND STEEL.
the material' alono- the line of bite, that this line of
contact should itself be as nearly horizontal as poss~ble,
The second paper was by Mr. Axel Wahlberg, and so
that the material fed into tho rolls will not gravitate
was entitled "On Brinell's Method of D etermining towards one end of the line of bite. Were the rolls made
Hardness and Other Properties of Iron and Steel." in the form of a complete hyperboloid, either one or both
The 40 paaes of t his paper form t he continuatio n of their axes would necessarily be placed out ~f the
of t he 55 pages contribu ted at the last meet ing by horizontal, and the efficiency of the rolls wpuld m .any
ca.se be seriously impaired. rrhe paper included drawmgs
Mr. A. Wahlberg, and contain a full acco unt ?f t he of
such a mill, and a detailed description.
tensile and impact tests to supplemen t t he InforMr. T. A. L ongden s tated that those gen tlemen
mation g-\ined by Brinell's special method of
measuring t he inden tation produced by a ball under who cared to proceed to R enfrew in t he afternoon
heavy pressur~. The ten~ile tests were m~de to would see the plant in operation at t he works of
determine t h e mfluence of d1fferent modes of anneal- M fssrs. Edwa.rd Chester and Co., Limited. They
ina and hardening, and were performed with 13 would be better able to understand and grasp t he
different d escriptions of sbeel, each subjected to b enefits of t he machine t han by a cursory or even
31 d ifferent m odes of tre:l.tm ent. All the resul ts a careful perusal of the paper. Quite r ecen tly h e
are presented in tabular and g raphic form under had occasion to go to Gate's works at Chicago, and
many arrangements, so as to bring out each ~ar he there had a.n opportunity of inspecting one of
ticular feat ure, and even the effect o f chem1eal t he finest plants he ~ad ever seen.. Howev ~r! he
composition is n ot n eglected. The au thor 's com- had no pr~ctical experience of metalliferous mtntng,
ments occupy several pages and cannot very well and the visit t o Mr. Chester's works would be as
be shortened so reference to t he original paper agreeable to him as to t he other members of the
must be mai~ if th~ general deductions are d esired. Institu ~ion.

l SEPT.

1 3 , 1901.

Mr. Chester stated that t he machine was capable

of breaking any kind of r ock or material.
The President said t h ey were chiefly interested
in the breaking up of oo~l, and i t was rather difficult
to get a perfect machine for such a hard s ubstance.
The best machine he had been privileged to see in
op eration was at Bannockburn Colliery, in S tirlingshire. The m achine described by M r. Chester was,
however, as well suited for the work as any other.

TRANSIT THEODOLITE .

A paper by Mr. H. D . Hoskold was, in his absence,

r ead on " A Civil and Mining Engineer's Transit
Theodolite for Connecting U nderground W orkingFJ
and the Surface, vice versa, and for Genera.l
P urposes." The following is an abstr3Ct :
In 1842, Mr. J. C. Bourns, in driving the Box Tunnel on
the Great Western Railway, transferred his surface lines
down to the level of the tunnel, by sighting with an
ordinary theodolite down shafts of unusually large
diameter. This plan has frequently been followed since,
and special instruments have been designed to facilitate
the work. Most of these are, however1 quite unsuitable
for sighting down the shaft of a deep p1t; and hence the
author has been led to design a speCial transit theodolite
for this purpose, but one which at the same tin1e can be
used for all ordinary survey quite a readily as the
common pattern. The central vert ical axis, which is
screwed to the underside of the horizontal vernier-circle, is
made much larger than usual, and it has a hole 1 in. in
diameter drilled through its entire length, S') that it
resembles a thin c:ylinder with a wide flange at the upper
end, and the oxtenor surface from the flange downward
is turned slightly conical. The outside hollow vertical
axis, the fhtnge of which is screwed to the underside of
the divided horizontal circle, is also enlarged sufficiently
to receive the inner vertical axis ; and with a view of
reducing the friction of the outer rubbing-surface of the
two axes to a minimum, a wide band of metal, at three
places in the length of each, is turned down a little below
the level of the general surface. This is very necessary,
in order to give a free motion when t he vernier-circle
is revolved horizontally. A corresponding hole to that in
the inner vertical axis is made in the central part of the
vernier-circle, so t hat a telescope-sight may be taken
through the centre of the transit-theodolite and continued
to the bottom of shafts of any depth. The transit-theodolite is mounted with a much longer and more powerful
telescope thn:n i~ u~ual when the divided circl~ are. no
more than 6 m. m d1ameter. In order to avOid VIbrat10n,
the standards or Y's are made much lower than is cu tomary ; and to get over the difficulty which would appettr
to be introduced by having a transit telescope, the half
of which is longer than the height of the Y's, and consequently would not revolve vertically, the telescope is
nicely fitted into and made to slide in the long socket of
the horizontal axis by means of a rack-and-pinion screw.
When, therefore, a perpendicular sight is required to be
made through the centre of the instrument and down
a shaft, the milled head of the rack-and-pinion screw
is turned, 1tnd t~1e telescoP.e is slid through th~ .socket
until the object1ve-end will pass the cross sprr1t level
mounted on t he vernier-circle, and then it is focussed for
clear vision in the common way. On the contrary, when
it is necessary to obser~e objects having ~tea~ elevation,
it may be up to the zemth, the telescol?e lS slid through
the axis-socket in the reverse way until1ts eye-end, carrying a long diagonal eye-piece, a~d m_icrometer-appar~t.us,
will pass the top part of the vermer-01rcle, and clear VlSlOn
is obtained by turning the focus scre'': F or gen~ralland
operations, and underground work m large drifts and
tunnels the telescope is slid in the socket half way, or to
its nor~al position, and held firmly by its O\\rn rack-andpinion screw, which acts as a clamp-screw.
Mr. George D. Ridley asked if any information
could be given as to how th e machine could bisect
a point at a depth of 2000 f(i. under the shaft. He
noticed t ha.t the theodolite t here for inspection had
a larger telescope t han was ordinarily used, and he
would be glad to h ~ve some information on t he
point .
Mr. W . Walton Brown, Eecretary, suggested that
the next paper on the list d ealing with a similar
subject should be read, a.nd the discussion taken on
the two papers. This was ag reed t o.
CoNNECTI ON OF THE UNDERGROUND AND S u RFACE
S URVEYS.

The Secretary read a paper , of which we give an

abstract herewith, on ''The Connection of t he
U nderground and Surface S urveys, " by 1VIr. G. R.
Thompson.
In determining boundaries for royalties and the like
in the case of mines, it is necessn.ry to accurately con
nect the underground and the surfn.ce surveys. If the
general survey is correct to 1 ft. in the mile run, tho
direction of the surface base should be trtmsferred below
,vith an anguhu error of not more tlum 40 seconds of arc ;
whilst if the error in the general survey amounts to B ft.
per mile, the transfer need not bo accurate to more than
2 ruinutes of arc.
The followi.n~ are the principal methods of obtaining .a
common mer1d1an for two surveys : (1) By the magnet1c
needle ; (2) by the transit-theodohtE:' 9r transit-in~trument
using one shaft only; (3) by suspendmg plumb-lmes do,~n
one shaft; (4) by suspendmg plumb-lmes down two dtS

. ..

E N G I N E E R I N G.
tan~ shnH , n.1.1d s.ur\'eying between thE'm ; and (5) by sur- assil)tance in a ve1y delicate operation.

veym g down mchne-s from the Rurfaco. l\Ingnetic im~tru

men~s can be constructed to rL't\d to 1 or 2 seconds of arc,
~ut tt may be do~1btfu~ whot.hcr ~hc~1 use is justified, s ince
m rorth Anten cn. churmtl vnnatwns of - G to + 13~
seconds hnve been recorded. 'rho ycnrlv vmjntion i
also not con tan~, so thn,t if precise m~\gnet'ic instruments
ttre to be u ed, ~1mu ltaneous ob crvations should be taken
n:t the s ur fa?e and below ground. Bvon t hen, errors are
hkely to ar_lSe from ~he unsuspected pre once of mn es
of mag netic ~atel'lal.
'I~ he tran it - t heodolite g ives
accun\ te .results 1f tel~scopes of ufficient power are used.
T hu , w1t h ~ mn~1fi~tion of GO diameters we could
expect to adJu t t 11e line of collimation to one-third of
a ~ec~md t\t a. depth. of 1000 ft ... ? r to adjust a, wiro there
w1 thm 0.019 m. ~f 1.ts true pos1t1on: T o obtain a reading
t\Ccurato ~o ~.14 m. m one observation, we should require
the t.m\gmfym g power of tho telescope to be incrct\sed to
90 dtnmeters.
.f\n en or in tho. ndju~ tm en t of the transit-axis to the
1~01'1 7-0ntnl of ~ m.mute would displace the underground
lme nbout 3~ m . m a haft of lOO ft. deep but its effect
'~rould be otherwise negligible unless the' underooround
l~ne wore t n,ken off at a high angle. The axis of c~llima
tu:~n sho';Jld, ~ow~ver, be at right angles to the tran it
ax1 . V1brat wn m all form must be avoided in such a
ea e as this, seeing that the angle of adju tment i about
0.20 ccond.
hould a connection be required at the
bottom of .a . shaft ~00 ft. deep with equal accuracy, t he
other cond1t10ns bemg the same, the magnifying power
of the telesco~e 11eed only be about nine diameters : such
a telescope a I S po~ essed by an ordinary 5-in. theodolite
while in a haft 900 ft. deep, the ~ame m trument could
onJy be expected to give a, resul t accurate to 9 minutes
a. tacheoutet~r. wit~ a telescope m.agnifying 20 or 30
dtametc~-s gn'lng 1t to 3 or. 4~ mmutes.
By tn.king
several mdependent observat iOns, the probable error in
each of these cnse can be reduced.
\ Vith two plum b-bob~ suspended down a shaft good
results can be obtained with sufficient care. Errm!a tend
to arise throu~11 t\ir currents and material dropping down
the haft, wb1ch cause the wires to vibrate about their
mean po~ition. '+"his mean position, howeYer, appears
to .vary .shgh~ly w1 th the ~a.. of the weight suspended.
ttll, wtt h smtablo precautwns, a 6-ft. base line can be
transferred down a shaft in this way with an error of
not mm:e than 2 minutes of arc. The plan of sighting
between bobs uspended do\\'11 different shafts is eldom
available ; but if the shaft.. are 3000 ft. or so apart
precise results can be obtained by making an under~
ground traverse between the two. Surveying down inclines presents no difficulty unless, as in many metalliferous mines, these inclines are very steep, in which case
n theodolite with an eccentric telescope is necessary.

The operation was so delicate t hat he was rather inclined to

object to having an ordinary man d o this special
operation, in addi t ion to the rough er work of
underground sm veyin g. He was inclined to t hink
any manager or mine o wner would be well advised
to get a special s urveyor instead of the 01dinary
man, who, p er haps, once or twice in a lifetime was
called upon to d o th~t work.
Mr. George D . Ridley said that h e had some
experience io this matter of plumb li nes. The shaft
was a. clear one, n early 200 fathoms deep. One
side of tho s haft h ad no openings from top to
bottom, t he other bad five openings on one side.
\Vhen h e came to test these wir es h e found by
immers ing them he got t h em very steady, considering t he d epth ; but h e d id not get them vertical,
and that was wh ere t he difficulty came in. They
had t he air current steady in the mine, but i t was
holding the wires to one side and keeping them in
one position. He had a means of -testing this by
putting single wires down two shafts a considerable
distance apart-three chains- whe re he got one
sig h t between the wires at a. very suitable angle.
By that m ean s he found that one of the wires was
so far out of p erpendic ular that it gave a divergence
of nearly a half degree.
Mr. James Barton, Dundalk, mentioned a n
instance which occurnd in connection with this
kind of operation in Sir D ouglas Fox's dealing
with the M ersey Tunnel. He sen t the wires do wn
through a pipe; t he difficulty in using the pipe was
the probability of touching the sides. The pipe, of
eourse, relieved t he q uestion o f side curren ts of air,
and so on . He managed i t b y pas3ing an electric
current through t he wire, which, by an electrometer,
at once indicated where t h ere was the slightes t
touch of anything which would interfer e with t h e
perfect freedon1 of the wire.
The President said t hat from his experie-nce as a
sur\'eyor some year s ago h e had good r eason to be
fairl y well satisfied in a g reat many instances with
the accur acy of the magnetic needle. It was a
s ubject he had often had befor e him, and h e had
tri ed the differen t systems of plumbing. Very
often he had t o fall back and rely on the needle
after all. If the needle was tested carefully at a
p lace w here th ere was not likely to be any att raction , a good d eal of dependence could be placed
upon it, according to his experience.

357
V2
phically by plotting the curve represented by - h
= constant., V being the discharge t hrough a
g iven passage way in cu bic feet, and h the bead
producing flo w. The . ecretary said h e considered
th is paper of high value, and it was doubly so
because the writer was a working man at the
present moment. The author p ossessed mathemat ical attain ments of a very high character, and
he felt s ure that if an opportunity were given
him of leisure and o f training in mathematics, h e
would become a very clever man, and t h e only
question was as to whether his deductions were
right or wrong, and so far as he had followed and
tried them - and h e h ad tried t hem very carefullyhe had fou nd t hem fairly correct .
A vote 0f t hanks w as awarded the writer.

THE

MAN UFACTU RE OF COI<E.

The Secretary read extract~ from a paper by

Mr. F. C. ICeighley, on "The M~nufacture of Coke
at t he Oliver Coke Works."
The following is a brief abstract of t he pap er :
The Oli ver Coke \Vorks are nt Union T own, Penn.,
U .S.A., and comprise 708 beehive ovens, 12ft. 3 in. in
diameter by 8ft. in height, inside measurements. Until
recently this was the second largest works of the kind in
the world. It is now the third, but it is the intention
of the owners to increase the number of ovens to 1100,
making it the largest plant. A quarter of a million
sterling is invested in it. The output for J900 was
4GG,618 tons, but the full capacity is 500,000 tons. 'l'he
coal is from the celebrated Connelsville seam, and is used
without preparation as it comes from the mine. The
total cost of making coke on the present scale of wages is
not far from 6s. 3d. (1. GO dollars) per ton of 2000 lb. , this
cost being made up about ns follow!'i :
s. d.
D ols.
...
...
...
Coal
...
4 4.1
1.042
Yard expenses .. .
. ..
...
1 5.6 . 0. 352
Repairs, wear and tear
... 0 1.6
0.033
Interost ...
...
. ..
.. . 0 1.6
0.031
Taxes, insurance, &c....
... 0 1.2
0.025
Sinking fund .. .
. ..
... 0 0.9
0.017

Totals
...
.. 6 3.0 1. 500
...
The yield of coke is 67 per cent. The paper gives
specifications for building the ovens, and de cribes the
method of working.

Mr. Longden said i t seemed to him that t his was

one of t he most important things t here was in conThe President said t his was a r ecord of making
coke und er very favourable circumstances.
He
nection with mining engineering, a nd it was a t hing
which, someh ow or other, t hey did not seem to get
did n ot t hink t here was anyt hing particularly
novel in t he paper except t h e r emarkable cheapto the b ottom of. It was the easiest thing imaginMINERAL REs ouRCES IN QuEBEC.
ness of coke. He was in t hat district some years
able to mak e an absolutely accurate underground
A paper on ''Mineral Resou rces of the Province ag(), and t h ey wer e at t hat time selling coke at 1}
sur vey, and the same could be said w it h r egard to
t he surface survey ; but t he difficulty was to of Q ue bee, Canada," by Mr. T. 0 balski, inspector d ols. per ton-about 5s. They did n ot seem to be
making much profit. It showed, however, t he
connect the two.
Mines were being exha us ted of m ines, was, in his absence, h eld as read.
The paper g ives a s hort geological account of advantages th~y ha d in t hese reg ions for the p r o.
in all districts, and were working up to imaginary
barrier-s, which were only, perhaps, 30 yards in the province, and then briefly explains how t he duct ion of coke.
The author was awarded
a vote of thanks.
width. He was of opinion t hat when the time minerals are worked. They are iron, copper, gold,

came these barriers would be f ound not to exist at asbestos, chromite, mica, and apatite. The annual
all. He was, perhaps, p essimistic en oug h to look value o f the crude products at t h e mines is about AnvANTAOEs OF ALTRRNATE Cu1tRENTS FOR USE IN
MINES.
forward to the t ime, not many years hence, when half a million sterling. The industries a re generally
in a great m any of the deep collieries which were prosperous, and return good dividends on t h e inMr. Sydn ey F . Walker read a paper on "Altergetting up to workings le ft a long time ago, they vested capital.
nate Currents and t heir P ossible Application to
would find a lot of water to contend with t h ey never
Mining." He said there were two distinct sets of
a n ticipated, and he t h ought that would be lar gely M TNING AND TttEATMI~NT oF CoPPER ORE IN SouTH advantages : (1) For distribution o f power from a
AUSTRALI A.
due to t he fact of the underground s urveys not being
cPntr e , and (2) for use when driving machines underin a p roper position with those on the s urface. He
In t he absence of Mr. H. Lipson Hancock, a gro und. In this country and A merica it was us ual, he
did not think the connection between t he surveys paper by him on ''Mining and Treatment of Copper remarked, for several collieries t o be owned by one
underground and on the surface s hould be made by Ore at the Wallar oo and Moonta Mines, South firm, often w it h a n ironworks to feed. At present,
any t hing else than plumb-lines. That was a point Australia," was s ubmitted .
b oilerd we1 o fixed at each colliery an d iron works, and
mioiog engineers should give attention to.
The following is an abstract of the paper :
often at different portions of the works. These
The r epresentative of the tate of V ictoria in AusThe Wallaroo and Moon ta copper mines arc 10 miles boilers were us ually worked at 30 lb. to 80 lb.
tralia, r eferrin g t o t heir practice there, said that in apart, and are (3 and 11 ruiles distant respectively from Economy, in his opinion, dict 1ted t he uE e of h ighcurying down the radiant they had found, as t he the port of vVallaroo. They have been in operat10n for steam pressures, and that the generation s h ould be
r esult of t h eir experience, that with two copper wires, 40 years, and have produced ore to the vnJue of t-n done at one central sp ot and dlbtributcd to t he difwith an appropriate mechanica l appliance for lowering millions sterling. Annually, 200,000 tons of vein stuff are ferent collieries, &c. For distributio n by electricity
mised, gi '~g 37,000 tons of dre oed ore. This ore, as
the wires with plumbs, and by taking observations raised, consists chieAy of sulphides of copper, with a high pressures were necessary for econo my, if t he
at different levels, they had been able to establish matrix. This constitutes a low-grade material, the bulk distances were great nnd the pow er large. Economy
a means which gave them a point beneath t h e sur- of which varie~ in copper contents between 2 and 4 per varied roughly as the square of the pressure. High
face almost exactly at rig ht angles to a level on the cent. , and needs a comprehensiYe system of treatment in pressu re above 2000 vol ts could not ba worked consurface. B y that means, and immer sing the end order to afford sntisfactory result>~. The appliances used veniently. with continuous currents owing to in&ula are the result of many years' study and experiment.
of the plumb-line in o il, they ob tained as close an The paper describes them in detail, and illustmtes mttny t ion difficulties ; with alternating c urrents t h ey
accuracy as was possible for practical purposes. of them by drawings, its interest lying in the method might go as high as they liked . American a were using
They had had difficulties, and no slig ht d ifficulties by which the low grade ore is treated successfully, and up to 60,000 volts . Alluding t o its advantages f or
either, with air currents. He would be happy to comparatively inexpensively, to raise it to a point at use underground, h e said that by using the alterwhich it can bo smelted economically. The interest lies nate-current induction m otor two advantages were
contribute a. paper in future on the results of his in
the details of const ruction and working, which need
experience.
He agreed wit h the last s peaker t hat to be explained fully if thoy ttre to be understood. Much obtain ed: t h ey had only a low pressure in the
i t was of the g reatest importance t o min ing engi- of th o appttratus ltppear to be due to the late manager, d efeloping p ortion, where difficulties of insulation
cam e in, and t hey had no commu tator, so that they
neers to have the matter settled on truly scientific 1\Ir. li. R . H ancock.
had no sparking. There was sometimes used a
lines, and it could only be settled by operations
A NEW DIAORAlVI OF " ' ORK.
temporary arrangem ent for switching in resistance
extending to 3000 ft. below t he s urface.
The Secretary submitted a paper b y Mr. H. for starting th e motor against a load; but that need
Professor L ouis, Newcastle , pointed out that
some r ecent German instruments were probably W. G . Hal baum, en titled "A New Diagram of not be done if it was objectionable. The possibility
better than anything yet done in the way of plumb- the Work of Mine Ventilation, " in which h e pro- o f danger of sparking from broken cables was
ing. The theodolite seemed to him to offer great p osed to solve problems in min~-ventilation gra- 1 slightly in favou r o~the alternate current, s ince the

'

358

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[SEPT.

I j, I

90 I.

"'

a~ternate spark did not persist so much as the continuous under similar conditions.

THE " BULL " ELECTRIC MOTOR.

The President remarked that people seemed to
be rather afraid of t his system, but from what he
~athere~ ~rom Mr. Walker it was the coming thing CONSTRUCTED BY THE ANGLIAN ENGINEERING COMPANY, LIMITED, STOWJ\IARK.ET.
In electriClty.
(For Descri;ption, see Page 365.)
Mr. Watt asked what Mr. Walker considared the
dan~erous limit for tension, supposing a man

received a s hock, or any part of t he machine

~appened to be exposed. Did multiphase current
Involve the use of collector rings ~ And if so was

there any sparking under conditions of that ki~d

Mr. George A. Mltchell remarked that he had
FirJ. 2.

heard it said that while a voltage of 1600 or 2000

was very dangerous and fatal to life where the

voltage was much higher- say, 10,000 'or 20,000

there was not the same effect. Mr. Walker might
be able to answer that. Again, was there not some
difficulty in using this alternating current as

regards the starting?

Mr. Walker, in the course of his reply said he
took it that Mr. Watt wanted to k~ow the
d~ngerou.s limit of alternating currents. It was
rather drfficult to answer that, because as with
'
.
'
continuous currents, it depend~d entirely on how

they took the shock. It would be perfectly safe to

say they could kill a man with 100 volts, either

a~ternating or continuous, if they gave it in the
ri~ht way, that was to say, through the brain.
In the cal'e of an overhead conductor, as in America.
a. man, if his bare scalp touched a 600-volt wire:
would probably be killed, but he might not. The
probability was that he would. On the other hq,nd
it was possible to take a. very high pressure ; if, fo~
instance, they had very thick and dry boots, with
horny hands well covered with something which

did not allow the current to pass quickly or very

easily. Pt"rhap3the point Mr. Watt wished to know
~as the diffdrence between alternating and con .
tlnuous. As for shocks, the alternating current
was certainly more dangerous than the continuous.

The multi-phase working did not involve the use of

collector rings. They could have absolutely no
I
\
sparking if they close, bar such as not be caused by
I
I
the bre~king of a wire. Mr. Mitchell a~ked about
I
I
1600 and 2000 volts being dangerous and 10,000 not.
\I

T en thousand or 20.000 or 100,000 volts pressure

was not dangerous if the current was given at an
------+----~,1
enormously rapid rate; that was to say, if it was an
FIG. 1.
alternating current and the oscillations were something like 1000 per second. Apparently the current

had not time to jerk one up in an appropriate way

I
and kill him ; but if they had the 10,000-volt alternating current at the ordinary periodicity, 40 to 50
complete periods per second, 10,000 volts would
FLfJ.4.
kill probably very much more quickly than 1500.
Regarding the difficulty of star ting, he said the
alternating-current induction motor would not start
.Fig.S.
----under a load. There were two ways of getting out
of the difficulty. They might start ih, like a good
Key~ CcUar
many other motors, off the load. There was the
simple way, apart from starting resis tance, of having
Enlarged Vuw
or .Ba:u llearinq
the motor considerably over its power. With a start... B .
ing resistance, they put in a resistance in the rotor

circuit, a.nd, of course, that partially neutralised the

gain which he bad mentioned.
Mr. Mitcbell said that in the United States,
where electricity wa<3 n1uch more employed for
power, it was very largely the alternating system
which was employed. That itself spoke in favour
of this particular system.

This concluded the discussion and also the reading of papers, as the Section did not meet on
Thursday, the 6th inst. Before, however, the proceedings concluded, Mr. Geo. A. Mitchell said he
gallons, but they were in terrible straits, and bad
SECTION
VII.MUNICIPAL.
should like to take the opportunity of thanking
not gone a year too soon to Parliament for powers
The Municipal Section resumed their deliberations to construct these new works. It was a curious
Mr. Dixon for his conduct of the meeting, and
the address he gave in taking the chair. He in the Engineering Lecture Theatre on W ednesda.y, coincidence that thirty years ag0, when he was conth ought they would all agree with him that they the 4th inst., when Mr. E. George Ma.wbey again tractor 's engineer on the Midland Railway, which
had never had an address which showed in such presided.
passed t hrough the district, he spotted this
a practicl\l wRy an interest in the subject of
in
the
Elan
Valley,
situated
between
place
THE BIRIDNGHA?!f wATER wORKS.
mining. Princtpal Story had referred to Mr.
Radnorshire and Breconshire ; and when in 1890
Mr. James Mansergh, F.R.S ., President of the the Corporation asked him to advise them on
Dixon's gifh from the University point of view,
but they could not let the matter pass without ex- Congress, gave an interesting account of the great the whole matter of water supply, it was therefore
pressing their gratification th11t that gift should have works now under construction for providing..Bir- a simple thing to prepare a scheme in time for the
been given by him while he was their President., mingham with an adequate water supply. The city, ensuing session of Parliament the same yf>ar. The
and that he should have intimated it at one of their with the district around it, which the Corporation source of supply was the River Elan, a tributary of
meetings ; while the gift w0uld, to some exter.t, supply, had, he explained, an area of 130 square the Wye. The distance from the reservoir, from
be directly associated with Mr. Dixon, it must also m1les, and the present sources of supply were six which the water was taken, to the centre of Birbe associated to some extent with the Institution wells in the red sandstone and four or five compara- mingham was about 18 miles, and between that
of Mining Engineers and with that Congress. He tively small streams upon which there were re~er reservoir and the ser vice rest-rvoir at Frankley was
voirs, the JargPRt holding 400,000,000 gallons. The a distance of 24 miles, which was chiefly traversed
concluded by proposing a vote thank~.
pre~eot d~mand for watf\r io ordinary times was by tunnelling, cut and cover aqueduct, with iron and
Mr. Jas. T. Forgie seconded.
about 18,000,000 or 19,000,000 gallons a dn.y. steel pipes crossing the valleys. He ~howed on the
The President briefly returned thanks.
This terminated the proceedings of this Section. During the last dry season they supplied 24,000,000 screen a large series of photographic views intended

________,______ J_____________

3,

SEPT. I

E N G l N E E R l N G.

1901.]

CONSTRUCTED BY :MESSRS. FRANK PEARN AND COMPANY,

.

re

se

COMPOUND SINGLE-ACTING RAM PUMP.

359

~--~-----

~J\NCHESTER.

LIMITED, ENGINEERS,

(For Desc'ription, see Page 365.)

__

,_

J?te.9..

. A

..

"\

. ' .

... .

Gl

DIAGRAM OF ANNULAR CYLINDER .

.A:.verael'/~ tz lhs. (}TV 36 .Area;.

e:;Lbs.

80

15313 8)

..

-.

Fig.4 .

THRUST. DOWH STROiiE .

c'

Ilig1vpresoar&50x66 33QO

'10-

'

'

FIG.

3132lbs.

65-

.
'

"' 432

DIAGRAM OF HIGH PRESSURE CYLINDER.

l.:~rwlar 86x1Z

60-

1.

to illustrate the progress of the works from the

watershed down-stream to the outlet, explaining
the ddferent features as he went along. The culvert
in the Caregddu dam was 9 ft. in diameter, with
a large cast-iron mouth to facilitate the inflow of
the water. When he first delivered a lecture on
this subject to the R oyal Institution some years
ago, the question of stone dams was very much to
the front, because the Bouzey dam in France had
given way and done an enormous amount of
damage. He exhibited sections in profile of the
Caban and Bot1zey dams. The Botizey material and
mortar were very poor, but he did not think there
was anything wrong with the Caban one. A sketch
plan showed the way in which the flood water was
dealt with during the construction of the works.
The quantity of water they bad in time of high
flood at the maximum would be 700,000. cubic feet
a minute. They had already measured 550,000 a
minute, and he was sure they had not yet had a
record flood. They had already had 17 ft. head of
water on the inlet of the two cui verts at the dam.
Two houses were shown, the sites of which will
soon be under 100 ft. of water. In one of these
Shelley once lived ; it was a little above the Elan.
The other was the old church of Nantgwillt. A
bit of tho cut and cover aqueduct in course of
construction, sections of the culvert-s, as well as the
culverts, were in turn exhibited and explained.
When they began the first contract for these
culverts the construction was somewhat after this
eort : Every 3 ft. they put in a band of steel ribs
just to hold the feet together, filling in with concrete between the ribs and lining with blue brick
on the face. It was rather a costly construction,
and they had since diminished the price by using
for the side of the culvert 6-in. moulded concrete
slabs, 6 or 7 ft. high and 2 ft. wide, and these

40-

45-

A'

TH RUST. UP STROKS.

8!;

ao-

L uwpreosu.""''?/B6x2Z 18D2

26-

1Il(J1vpreo.s~} 0 . ,

Backt

16-

W-

-5 i2"'- 1100

I otalJ.
UpStroJw.

- -792Tbs.

were fortified _by expanded metal on the outside.

They submitted these slabs at the same bearing
to very severe tests, and they found that the expanded metal was of admirable assistance to the
concrete. H e also illustrated the way in which
they crossed the Worcester Canal. To get lateral
strength they put three pipes over instead of the two
by which the water was elsewhere carried. They
had a length of 400 ft. of pipes simply carried on
piers until they came to the River Severn, which
they crossed with a girder bridge. The service
reservoir at Frankley was in semicircular section,
built with concrete and brick lining. It was 30 ft.
deep, and held 200,000,000 gallons; it was divided
by a central wall. They had to pump for a high level,
up to 800ft. Perhaps 80 per cent. of the water
would be delivered by gravitation, and the rest
would have to be pumped. The River Elan was
shown at the point where a village has been established for the workmen. The village accommodates
about 1200 people, and is furnished with schools,
recreation hall, canteen, baths and washhouses, hospitals, and everything fitted up in first-class style.
Mr. Harpur, of Cardiff, in moving a vote of thanks
to Mr. Mansergh for his able address, remarked
that the district described was undoubtedly one of

the finest watersheds which could possibly be conceived, and the works which were being constructed
were the very best of the kind which up to the present time had been attempted. The provisions
made for the habitation of the workmen were
excellent in the extreme, and particularly the
"doss-house" for the temporary accommodation of
new hands. The arrangement was one to which
sanitary engineers should pay special attention. Mr.
W. 'eaver, Kensington, seconded the motion.
Mr. Mansergh, acknowledging the vote of thanks,
said that all the work in the valley which he had
described was now being done without a contractor
under administration.
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE.

Mr. A. B. M 'Donald, City Engineer, Glasgow,

r ead a paper on " Disposal of Sewage," of which
the following is an abstract :
The aim of the paper is to afford to members information regarding the Glasgow Main Drainage Scheme, which
they will visit. The territory dealt with stretches along
both sides of the River Clyde for a distance of about 15
miles, the superficial extent being 39 square miles. The
first section is about 11 square miles in extent, and the
works are situated at Dalmarnock. The second section is of
14 square miles. The works are now in process of construe

E N G I N E E R I N G.
tion on the river bank at Dalruuir, about 7 miles below
Glasgow. The third section is 14 square miles. The
wor~s for the disposal of the sewage of this area are to
be Situated on the river bank SJt BrSJehead, about 4 miles
n eSJrer Glasgow than Dalmuir. The volume of dryw~the~ sewage w~c~ will ultimately be treated at Dalmutr will b e 49 m1llion gallons, and the corresponding
volume at Braehead will be 45 million gallons.
The system of treatment at D almarnock is chemical
precipitation by means of under-surface continuous flow.
The sewag~ i~ of a complex and most intractable character, consiStmg for the most part of industrial refuse
charged with suspended matters that vary from 20 to 250
grai:ns per gallon. The chemicals employed are hydrate
of hme and sulphate of alumina. It was resol ved to
adopt at Dalmuir and Braehead the same method of
sewage treatment as that which h as for the last seven
years been in use at Dalmarnock, with the exception that
sludge pr~es are to be dispensed with, and the liquid
sludge earned out to sea. The working result of the
sewage treatment at Dalmarnock is that every trace of
SUSJ?ended matter is removed, and that 30 per cent. of
punficatio:n is attained, calculated on the basiS of ox.ygen
a?sorbed m. four h?urs at 27 deg. Cent. The sewage is
d1scharged mto a t1d81l stream of vastly superior volume.
Furtlier down the river, at Braehead and at Dalmuir
the 94,000,000 gallons of purified sewage will come i~
contact with 3,000,000,000 gallons of tidal water.
The precipitation tanks now in course of construction
at D almuir, which are to be worked on under-surface
contiJ;luous flow, are each about 750 ft. in length, thus
allowmg opportunity for more complete precipitSJtion
than is afforded in the shorter tanks at the D almarnock
Works.*
Towards the end of last year the author was instructed
to report to the sewage committee on the extent to which
bacterial methods might be adopted in treating the sewage
at D almuir, with a statement of the relative cost of the
system already in use at Dalmarnock, as con~rasted with
the cost of the works necessary for the bacterial treatment of sewage. In conj unction with the late J\IIr. W.
Santo Crimp, 1-I. Inst. C.E., he found that in capital
expenditure alone the installation of pumps, sedimentation tanks, and filter beds required to dispose of the
sewage at Dalmuir would be a.t least ten times greater
than the estimated outlay for ordinary precip1tation
works, without taking any account of the cost of renewing
the filtering plant. An experimental plant was installed
at Dalmarnock for the bacterial treatment of sewage at
the cost of 1000l., exclusive of the original charge for the
construction of the tanks. The plant consists of one open
se12_tic tank, and four first and four second contact beds.
The capacity of the four first contact beds when empty
- that is, before the fil tering material was put in- wa.-,
72,996 gallons; and the working capacity-thn.t is, after
the filtering material was put in-was estimated at 50
per cent. of this amount, VlZ., 36,498 gallons; but when
the beds were set in operation, tests gave a capacity of
only 32,617 gallons, equal to a capacity of 40.9 gallons per
square yard, or 197,956 gallons per acre for one fillmg
of the beds. In D ecember, 1900, the capacity wa,s
found to be 19,700.64 gallons, which is equal to 24.7
gallons per square yard, or 119,548 gallons per acre for
one filling. In March, 1901, the capacity was 17,492.52
gallons, equal to 21.9 gallons per square yard, or 105,996
gallons per acre for one filling. In lVIay, after n. rest,
the capacity was 21, 412.67 gallons, which IS equal to 26.8
gallons per square yard, or 129,712 gallons per acre for
one fi11ing. In August the capacity was found to be
20,321.949 gallons, which is equal to 25.48 gallons per
square yard, or 123,323 gallons per acre for one filling.
The final result was :
Capacity of beds when matured in relation to empty
beds (that is, before the filtering materi al is put in), 27
p er cent. Gallons per acre for two fillings per 24 hours.
239,096, or 4.18 acres per million gallons for two filling-,
with a double contact. The degree of purification attained
by double filtration was 95 per cent.
The result drawn from the trials was that for the employment of ba{}terial methods at Dalmarnock, a surface
of 75 acres would be absolutely needed for an operation
that is satisfactorily carried on just now in the space of
5~ acres. The space required at Dalmuir for filters, on
the aEsuruption of three fillings a day, would be 133
acres, and the space required for sedimentation tanks
would be 31 acres1 or 164 acres in all for the bacterial
treatment of 49 million gallons of sewage, which, according to the design now being carried out, will be satisfactorily accomplished in the space of 23 acres.
MUNICIPAL SANITATION.

Mr. Wm. Weaver, Kensington, next read a paper

on "Municipal Sanitation," in which he dealt wit h
the duties o f a municipal a uthority, especially those
relating to sewerage and drainage, water s upply,
habitations and their occupants, h ighways, and
refuse.
Mr. G. Midgeley Taylor, Westminster, proposed
a vote of thanks to the authors of the two papers.
The result obtained by the chemical treatment of
the sewage at Dalmarnock was something marvellous. He did not know of any other instance
where by chemical precipitation the effiuent was
made absolutely free from suspended matter. He
noticed that not only was the suspended matter
removed, but there was an average of 30 per cent.
purification attained ; and this amounted to 65 per

* The Dalmarnock ' Vorks were illustrated and de-

!cribed in ENGI~EERING, vol. lx., pages 208 and 250.

cent. purification of the crude liquid.

Under
these circumstances, and viewing the large a mount
of stream and tidal water into which the effluent
had to be discharged, they must all agree t hat the
engineer had been wise in advising the Corporation
of Glasgow not to attempt further purification of
the effluent.
Mr. G. Chatterton, Westminster, in seconding,
remarked t hat the city of Dublin h ad much the
same sort of difficulty as Glasgow, but with this
difference, that the upper part of the Liffey h ad
much less tidal river in flood than the Clyde, and
would beat it at its very worst. In 1891 h e wds
asked to prepare a scheme for Dublin, and he prepared one exactly the same as that of Glasgow,
without knowing what Glasgow was doing at t hat
time, but knowing the value of precipitation. But
h e never went in for sludge-pressing. lie went in
for taking the sludge and dropping it into the sea ;
but the conditions in Dublin Bay were simpler
than those in Glasgow. By another coincidence
Dublin and Glasgow each had had a Royal Commission, and recommendations advising that the sludge
should be taken a good deal out into the open sea.
That was ten or more yeara ago, and neither t o wn
had done so yet . He wished Mr. M 'D onald h ad
g iven a little more description of the met hod of
constructing the large sewers. He had had very
great difficulty in that matte1 in Dublin, and h e
had been using a sewer driven with shields 8 ft .
in diameter. He understood that some such
system was going to be operated on in Glasgow.
Mr. M'Donald, in r eplying , stated that the
delay that had taken place in the construction of
the Glasgow works was not quite so bad as Mr.
Chatterton put it. The Dalmarnock Works, which
were authorised in 1891, h ad been in operation for
about seven years . The main drainage works
were autliorised in 1896 and 1898, and although a
regrettable amount of time had elapsed without
serious action, it was to some degree explained by
the advance in the pdce of monoy consequent on
the outbreak of the war and an edict issued by the
Corporation forbidding, for the t ime being, further
capital expenditure. But for these circumstances,
instead of having four miles of large sewers constructed, they would have h ad at least ten miles,
and the works at D almuir would probably h ave
been in operation . He had since received authority
to resume the work.
Ivlr. Weaver, in ackowledging the vote of thanks,
said there was not the slightest doubt that the
labour question was a leading difficulty for the
future, especially to the municipal engineer, and it
would have to be faced.
The Section then adjourned.

[SEPT. I j, 1901.
that ground s ufficient to sustain that might sustain
a holder of simpler construction.
Mr. Du C hattel, in reply, said that he would be
pleased to answer any criticisms, and to give all
necessary information for publication in the proceedings.
COKE OVENS.

A paper by Dr. F. Schniewind, New York,

U.S.A., was r ead, entitled "The Production of
Illuminating Gas from Coke Ovens," of which the
following is an abstract :
This paper describes the pro~ess made in the United
States and Canada in recovermg illuminating gas from
by-product coke ovens. It discusses its bearing upon the
smoke problem of large cities, and gi ,~es particulars of
various allusions to the subject in past literature. It
deals with the fuel supply of large cities, and ~ves
figures showing the comparative amounts of bitunnnous
coal and anthracite coal used in some American cities for
the year 1900.
It then gives a general description of the combined
coke oven and gas process, compares 1t with ordinary gas
retort practice, and gives a description of a plant of
100 coke ovens of the latest type of the United Coke and
Gas Company ; including the system of coal and coke
handling, the arrangement of gas mains, the condensing
plant, the t reatment of the tar produced, and the methods
adopted for the further enrichment of the rich gas by the
benzole extracted from the poor gM.
I t then proceeds to discuss the principles of the dry
distillation of coal in coke ovens, and gives figures as to
the yields of 8"as, tar, and ammonia, &c., of various
American coals m use. It details the quality of the gas
made during the vt~..rious periods of the coking process,
and gives figures showing that the operating results
approximate very closely to those obtained in the various
tests made. The question of heat balance is then carefully discussed, und comparisons wade of the heat distribution in products of distillation from Otto H offman
ovens, and ordinary gas retorts. The subject of the
enrichin~ of coke oven gas is then carefully discussed, and
tables given showing the distribution of illuminants in
international coal gns. The author then deaJs with . the
application of coke plants to the gns supply of large
01t1es, and gi,Tes fi~ures showing the approximate ga
consumption of a. 01ty of 400,000 inhabitants supplied by
a coke plant. The fluctuation in gas consumption is
again introduced, t\nd the methods of meeting it by
means of auxiliary producer plants, auxiliary water-gas
plants, and combined blue-water gas and producer plants
are discussed.
The author concludes by claiming for the system serious
consideration in the solution of the smoke problem, and
argues that it is Ct\pable of forming a central station for
the supply of light, heat, and power.

Mr. Sydney Stevenson remarked that according

to the paper 9000 cubic feet per ton had been got
by the use of t hese ovens. It would be interesting
to know what the coal referred to would have given
in the ordinary wa y, carbonised in retorts . Of
course, a l~uger value was got out of the residuals .
The Chairman said the idea was to make gas the
re s idual, the main object of the ovens being the

production of coke.
SECTION VIII.-GAS.
Mr. Hunt, Birmingham, said they could all
The second day 's proceedings of this Section were
agree as t o the desirability for a more extended
presided over by Mr. William Foulis, Glasgow.
use of s mokeless fuel. They were all maker s of
s mokeless fuel, and t h e only difference in the
PROPOSED GASH OLDER FOR AMSTERDAM.
Mr. J . Van Rossumdu Chattel, Amsterdam, read processes was a question of corn parati ve cost.
a paper on " The Principles of the Proposed Con- B efore thE' process described in the paper could be
struction of a Modern Gasholder for Amsterdam, " adopted in this country, one of the proble ms to be
solved would be that of heating the oven s by some
of which the following is an abstract:
other means than by a portion of the gas produced.
This paper contains a description of a. modern gasholder
Mr. Barrow, in the course of a. long s peech
(capacity 3~ million cubic feet), to be erected for the city descriptive of the American coke-oven works ,
of Amsterdam. The drawings which accompany it show
the principal details of the construction, and deal more remarked that if h eating gas could be conveyed to
e pecially with the annular or ring type of the tank, made the houses as readily as lighting gas, it would be a,
of steel. On account of the inferior natura of the subsoil, great economy.
and for other reasons, this tank will be erected above
Mr. Herring, Edinburgh, said that in his experiground, so that it w~ll be possible. for a: locomotive ~nd en ce h e had found the introduction of a combustion
train to pass beneath It, no centre pier bemg used. Bemg,
perhaps, th~ . largest ~nnular tank constructed . under chamber for the burning of gas to b e a dissimilar cond1t10ns, speCial care has to be taken w1th the advantage. He should therefore like to have the
foundations and the stability of the structure. On this point cleared up as to whether or not it was really a
account the paper gives an ?ntrc;>ducti?n il_lto the necessary combustion chamber that was described in the paper.
calculations and mathemahcalmvestigatiOns of the forces
Mr. W. W. Hutchinson inquired if it was found
acting on each part of the structure.
necessary to prepare the coke in any way for
The Chairman said he should like to have it made domestic purposes. He a]so said that an idea of
clear that it was necessary to adopt such a peculiar the capital cost per ton of coal carbonised, as com
construction o f tank. Mr. Du Chattel explained p a r ed with the ordinary gasworks practice, would
that the configuration of the ground almost neces- be of interest.
The Chairman r emarked that t h e paper was
sitated the form of tank described in his paper.
Mr. Hunt said he gathered that the method worthy of consideration of all gas engineers.
o f construction described h ad been followed in order Practically, the process was t he distillation of coal
to secure proper rail way access to t he works. He in bulk. The point as t o whether a portion of the
did not notice a description of the framing in the gas sh ould be utilised for heating hhe r etorts, or
paper and asked, was it simply joist irons braced 7 whether the retorts should be heated in some other
and wbat w11s the object of the h~nd railing for each way, was a q uestion of detail, to be d eal t with
lift 1 Mr. vVood, from the United States, said that under each circumstance.
Dr. Revay, replying on the discussion, said than
it occurred to him that the taking of the whole
weight of water, on an annular ring, was a pretty ovens were heated by very poor gas. He could
sure test of unstable ground. I t seemed to him not give a proper comparison between the coke

SEPT.

3, I 901.]

oven and th e ordinary retort, as he had not the

figures by him ; but he should say t hat the results
were much superior. As r egarded a market for
t he coke, t hey had had to create one in the United
States, and he did not see why that should n ot be
done in the United Kingdom. In the vicinity of
Boston, almost every one of the houses used coke
for domestic purposes. The combustion chamber
r eferred to was simply a. fluo about 17 in. wide.
The cost of production, of course, varied very
much, according to local circumstances.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

appeared in this month's issue of TRACTION AND

TRANSMISSION, and we need n ot, t herefore, abstract
the paper here. Mr. Lasche emphasised t he general
arrangement of the car, the weights of different
projected constructions, the suspension and gearing
of the motors, the n ovel electrolytic starters and
regulators, and t he brakes.
The discussion was very cordial and general, very
uncritical, and not particularly instructive; it occupied another hour. Sir William Preece, upon
whom Mr. L angdon called first, expressed his
opinion that the electrical world of both hemiELECl'ROLYSIS OF GAs PIPES.
pheres was indebted to the A. E. G. , and to their
Dr. Leybold, of H amburg, t hen read a paper director-general, Mr. Emil R athenau (who was
on "Electr olysis of Gas Pipes, " of which the present) in particular, for allowing Mr. Lasche to
bring so clear, candid, and exhaustive an account
following is an abstract :
of these experiments before the Conference. A
~he auth9r commences _by detailing the various causes great deal of money had been spent on a magnifiwhiCh have m past years mtiuenced the durability of gas
and water pipe , and then proceeds to deal with electro- cent experiment - that was t he German way; here
lysis. H e. gives pnt:ticula:s of the p:actice prevailing in in this country more money had been spent for the
Germn:ny m connectwn w1th the laymg down of electric purpose of opposing experiments. He referred to
tram hnes, and deul~ with the conditrions existing in gas the Liverpool-Manchester scheme. Twice a Comand water pipe , both when within the influence of the mittee of the H ouse of Commons had declared the
~lectric current, and also when practically outside such
mftuence. He de cribes the electric system in Hambuq~, principle to be sound; but only now had they
and then discusses the action of the electric current m obtained power to carry out experiments; and if
producing the destruction of metals. . He gives particulars members had heard the rubbish which had been
of damage done to service pipes in one of the streets of talked in the Committees, they would blush. In
Hamburg, and shows how such damage was proved to be Germany the experiments had been made at the
caused by electrolytic action. H e gives an analysis of the instigation of the Emperor ; here it looked as if we
substances found at the point of corrosion, and also of the
earth in the vicinity of the pipes. H e describe3 some should have to wait for a German Emperor to find
experiments made on pipes coated and protected in the money. J u~t as the triphase system in general,
various ways, and discusses the question of the value of so this application of it came from Germany.
such protection. H e then deals with the manner in High-speed electric railways were only possible
which the H amburg authorities have endeavoured to with triphase-current distribution. The triphase
minimise the danger. due to electrolysis, and mentions the
steps taken by the German Electrical Technical Associa- system was, in fact, more continuous than contion toward i drawing up in tructions for the protection of tinuous currents; it swept away many complicagas and water pipes. H e concludes by raising the tions, and saved us 30 per cent. in machinery. To
question as to whether the destruction of gas-meter drums, mention one detail, he had found a similar method
go~erno~ bells, &c., is not at times partly due to electro- of car suspension and spring-bearing device to
lyhc act10n.
answer very well on t he Valtelina Railway, now
Mr. Livesey considered t hat the point to be kept under construction, which he had just seen in Italy.
in view was t hat users of electricity, for any pur- But he did n ot wish to enter into details: this was
pose whatever, must keep it to themselves. If t hey not an occasion for any carping criticism.
Mr. E. Rathenau thanked the meeting and Sir
allowed gas to escape, and caused a nuisance of
any kind , t hey were liable, and had to make good William Preece for their kind welcome. This was
the damage. All that they asked was t hat eleo- a new problem in which engineers of all classes
. t ricians should do the same. There was no doubt would have to co-operate. He did n ot wish to
but that t he Board of Trade would take further replace the eteam engine. The electric locomotive
action i n t he matter. They must persevere until was no more to ruin the steam locomotive than the
they got t he protection they n eeded.
electric light had killed the gas light. If this ex~Ir. Carpenter r emarked that what t hey had to periment succeeded, electric r ailways would spread,
do was to be on t he watch. In every n eigh- and electric works would be busy for ever. Sir
bourhood, where there were electric tramways, William Preece had referred to the German
g~s engineers should watch for indications of some- Emperor. They were proud of his sympathy. But
thing different going on to that with which they they looked to England for the practical developwere familiar. They wanted t he co-operation of all ment of high-speed t raction; for in Germany railengineers where electric tramways were running. ways formed practicaiiy a monopoly, and free comIf electricians were to have t heir way, the damage petit ion was necessary for the growt h of industrial
to gas and water mains would be much la rger than enterprise. They were ready to continue their
they could a1low to pass. Mr. Munier, in the experiments, and should b e pleased to report
course of a few remarks, suggested that what t hey progress again; yet England might, possibly,
be the first country to adopt high-speed electric
r eally wan ted was evidence.
Mr. Gisbert Kapp gave an interesting description railways.
Professor Silvanus P. Thompson congratulated
of bonding adopted in Germany (and Glasgow),
to which he attributed the fact that little damage Mr. L asche on his epoch-making paper. With
was done in Germany to .either gas or water mains. r egard to Sir William Preece's two ways of spending
The Board of Trade limit of 7 volts had been money on experiments, he should like to repeat
adopted because at the time t hey knew no better. what he had said two years ago, when President
They now knew that a pipe could be eaten up by of t he Institution of Electrical Engineers, that
t here was a third way of spending money, viz., on
2 volts.
Dr. L eybold having returned thanks, the proceed- wrong experiments. They had had a sad example
when an experiment in elect rical traction was
ings were adjourned.
made at E arl's Court, from which nothing could
--be learned, because everything concerning the conSECTION IX.-ELE0TRIOAL.
ditions was known; whilst everybody was anxious
HIGH - SPEED R AILWAY CAR OF T HE A.LLGEl\lEI NE to have experiments on triphase motor propul8ion.
Among the experts who had recommended that
ELEKTRICITATS-GESELLSCHA..FT, B .EBLlN.
At the second day's meeting Mr. W . E. Langdon experiment was Sir William Preece. Two points,
again occupied the chair, and at his request Mr. 0 . he thought, would strike members. Firstly, that
L asche, chief engineer to the A. E . G. , communicated the days of the commutator were gone for such
work, though the sections had two papers on comin abst.ract his paper on "High-Speed Railways. "
Mr. Lasche had very much to say which was of mutator prol)lems .o n the list ; and, secondly, the
great interest, and the chief value of his paper ad vantage of liquid variable r esistances over solid
lies, perhaps, not so much in the description of step-by-step resistances. The problem was of the
t he apparatus and machinery as actually adopted highest importance. But where was t he British
- for, after all, the experiments described have so firm that would spend time, brains, and money like
far been confined to t he works, and t he real trials the A. E. G. had done ? and t hat company stood
have not begun yet-as in the clear expositions of not alon e in this respect among German firms.
As leader of the party of the Institution members
t he scientific deduct ions and experiments which led
to t he particular constructions. I t is the old story, who visited Germany in June last, Mr. Alexander
that we learn a great deal from unsuccessful Siemens said he was glad t.o have t his opportunity
attempts ; and if the experimental car should prove of thanking Mr. Rathenau for the splendid and
not to be t he high-speed motor car of t he near hospitable r eception t hey had met with in Berlin.
fu t ure, Mr. Lasche's r esear ches will not b e less These remarks were afterwards fully endorsed by
valuable. A full account of the car has mean while the Chairman. Mr. Siemens also informed the

...

Section that one of the chiefs of Messrs. Siemens

and H alske had, at the last moment, to his regret,
been preven ted from a ttending the Congress ; for
he would have told them what Messrs . Siemens
and H alske had done in the high-speed traction
problem. We should bear in mind that the motor
car of the A. E. G. had still to stand t he actual tests;
and if we were to have high-speed electric rail ways
in England, the permanent way, amon~ other t hings,
would have to be seen to. Professor Thompson
had condemned the continuous - current motor.
That question had been fully discussed at the Paris
meeting last year, and they had agreed that the
direct-current motor held the field for great and
frequent speed variations. Mr. Lasche had said in
his introduction t hat cost was not the deciding
factor, and that we used t he electric light although
it often remained much mor e expensive than ga3
light. Mr. Siemens would rather put it t hat the
electric light would not have been introduced if it
had not proved to be indirectly cheaper.
Mr. Zipernowsky, of Budapest, contented himself wit h congratulating Mr. L asche on his success
in a q uestion which he first brought before the
Frankfort Congress ten years ago.
Mr. Kolben referred to the ingenious liquid
starter and current regulator of Mr. Lasche, con sisting, it will be seen, of a centrifugal pump
provided with a valve and such an electrode
arrangement that the liquid r emains cool, and that
both the speed and the starting period can be
varied. This device was yet a weak point, for we
wasted current, and we had to remember that real
progress had not been made in electric traction
befor e the series parallel controllers had helped .
us over this speed regulation difficulty. It was,
however, also possible wit h t riphase - current
motors to reduce t he speed to a half and even a
quarter simply by altering the connection s.
Mr. Gisbert Kapp, the Secretary-General of the
V erpand of German Electricians, conveyed to
t he Section, with admirable tact, the fact that
the A. E. G. was not alone in these experiments.
Mr. Alexander Siemens' remarks had
not -rendered it clear whether Messrd. Siemens
and H alske had really constructed a car. Eighteen
months ago, Mr. Kapp stated, he had ridden
on the first high-speed car of Messrs. Siemens
and Halske, and what had impressed him most
was a feature upon which Mr. Lasche had n ot
toucbed, n amely, the safety of the arrangements.
Instead of findin g danger n otices, '' Not to be
touched," everywhere, he saw that everything was
earthed, t hat everything might be touched, and t he
feeling of discomfort quickly gave way to perfect
ease. As regards the liquid resistances and waste
on them, he would point out that they would rarely
be wanted, for we did n ot want to crawl on a highspeed track; the liquid resistance was certainly
superior to the metallic rheostats of the J ungfrau
Rail way, which soon got hot though careful arrangements were made for cooling.
Professor Carhart, of Michigan U niversity, spoke
next. He granted thau they had had no actual
experiments in high-speed traction, so far. in the
United States. But h e 8tated t hat experiments would
soon be commenced in Michigan-he would not men
tion apy names-and that 10,000 volts would be introduced directly into the car ; it would be mono
phase currents, and t he motor would be kept
at constant speed. They would some day get back
with interest in the United States what they had
contributed to the electric locomotion problem.
But that locomotion was still in a transition
stf\ge ; standardisation had not been possible so
far, and when he mentioned t hat in Detroit ,
e.g. , a 40-mile tramway network had soon had
to be extended. to 80 miles, the fact would not
be wondered at.
Professor Oarus- Wilson, the ]ast speaker upon
whom the Chairman called, dwelt particularly upon
the t horoughness with which so many problems
had been worked out, and all within a space of
nine months. In connection with Mr. Siemens'
remarks, he referred to t he vital point that the
Berlin- Zossen military railway is practically a
straight line ; on the Liverpool-Manchester line we
should have curves. We should therefore do well
to follo w the German example, and thoroughly investigate every point experimentally befor e starting on building a line. That was the chief lesson
which the paper conveyed to him. In closing
the discussion, the Chairman, Mr. Langdon, briefly
expressed the hope that the great British firms
and railway companies would soon recognise that

E N G I N E E R I N G.
COMPOUND

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WORKS.

GALLOWAYS, LIMITED, ENGINEERS, ~IANCHESTER.

CONSTRUCTED BY MESSRS.

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similar experiments could not but further their three guard wires for two trolley wires up to 3 ft .
apa.rt, and four guard wires, i .e. , two for each
own interests.
trolley wire, when the distance exceeds 3 ft. If
DANGERS FROM TROLLEY WIRES, AND THEIR
these regulations were faithfully carried out, he
PREVENTION.
thought we should hear little of accidents caused
Professor _t\.ndrew Ja.mieson, M. Inst. C.E., of by broken telephone wires. But the multiplicity
Glasgow, the author of this paper, was requested of these wires was objected to, though they
by the Chairman to be brief. He did not read his had been adopted at Bradford. Passing to causes
paper, but gave a. lecture on the subject; the of breakages of guard and trolley wires, and of
alteration, however, did not secure brevity. After contacts between such wires, he recommended
referring to the series of accidents that occurred in that guard wires and their bindings should be
Liverpool in February last, and mentioning that made of silicon bronze, which would be stronger,
Glasgow had fortunately been spared fatal accidents, have greater conductivity, and withstand atmoProfeseor J a.mieson described and exhibited the spheric corrosion better than the wires now
new guards, since adopted at Liverpool by Mr. applied. Prevention could be effected by placing
C. R. Bella.my. In these a strip of wood, rounded fuses and automatic cut-out switches in the supply
above, is held, not by a. clip with a. T-piece stations, or in each of the half-mile street pillar
in the wood, but by two steel strips, connected boxes, which should contain a. telephone. The
by a bolt. Professor Ja.mieson then alluded to latter practice was unusual, as electricians object to
the Board of Trade regulations on guard wires, multiplying these devices. They would only put
and the Post Office regulations, which prescribe main-feeder hand switches and a. trolley wire section
two guard wires for one or two trolley wires, or hand switch, together with a telephone, in these

boxes, and give keys, moreover, only to the engineering staff, but not to drivers, conductors, or
car inspector&. This was to be regretted. A very
good plan would be to place an earthing switch in
each car. In case of severance or disconnection
of a. trolley wire, the driver or conductor had only
to break the glass of a special switch and turn the
s witch or insert a plug, thus earthing the line
through the trolley pole and car wheels to the
rails. The abnormal current through the feeder
to the section would at once blow the station
fuses. This simple device was being tried at
Leeds. In Glasgow they had three authorities
dealing with these matters : the Postal Engineering
Department ; the National Telephone Company,
which had no power to open streets ; and the
Corporation, which has j ust started a. telephone
exchange, and placed all wires in underground
cast-iron pipes where they approach the tramway
lines. There can be no doubt, the Professor coneluded, that the only sure and safe plan to avoid
trouble is to place all non-tramway electrical con

SEPT. I

3'

190 1.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

AT

ENGINES

BLOWING

COMPOUND

THE

CONSTRUCTED BY MESSRS. GALLOWAYS, LIMITED,

WORKS.

IRON

ASKAM

ENGINEERS, }t1ANCHESTER.

'

(For Description, see Page 365.)

. ..

PLAN OF SECO N D STAG E

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E N G I N E E R I N G.
ductors of whatever kind underground. Thfi'
tables on tests of trolley, span, and guard wires
added . to the paper are due to Mr. John
~oung, general manager of the Glasgow CorporatiOn tramways.
Nobody took up the challenO'e which Professor
Jamieso~ threw out to all non-t~amway men. Mr.
M. B . Fteld, of Glasgow, mentioned, in explanation
of the minor troubles on the GlasO'OW tramways
that the system was still in the ha;ds of the con:
tractors; b~t he had no time to enter upon details.
He was agatnst guard wires, and thought that the
Board of Trade had much better pay attention to
the span of telephone and telegraph wires. They
had, to quote an example, a trolley wire fixed in nine
places under one span of telephone wires. After
calling ~pon Mr. Ernest Gerard, of Bruxelles, who
atated tn a few words that no system of accidentpreventing devices was perfect, Mr. Langdon asked
that further criticisms and remarks should be
oommunicatad in writing.
ELEOTRIOITY SUPPLY METERS OF THE EL'EOTROLYTIO TYPE.

Mr. J. R. Dick, B. Se., M. I. E. E., of Brighton,

oondens~d the substance of his paper-which, being
of a speCial type, rarely discussed in the Insbitution,
might have claimed extended attention-into a few
minutes.
Mr. Gibbinga having brought a paper on unshunted electrolytic meters before the Institution
in 1898, Mr. J. R. Dick devoted his remarks to
shunted electrolytic meters, and especially to such
in which mercury is deposited from mercurous salt.
When a shunt is used in connection with an electrolytic meter which has a back electromotive
force, some compensating electromotive force has
to be inserted in the cell circuit in order to obtain
a. constant linear ratio between the main and shunt
currents. Mr. Arthur Wright, of Brighton, to
whose meter the paper is practically confined, does
this in several ways. The most practical method
is to place a shunt R across the mains and to
interpose a portion r of this resistance R in the
cell circuit, such that with a back electromotive
force in the voltameter of 1. 5 volt, the ratio r : R
is the same as 1.5 to the supply pressure. The
resistance r will then counterbalance the electromotive force of the cell, and no current will flow
through the cell when there is no current in the
mains. It would be preferable, however, if we
could avoid the continuous waste of purrent
in the meter and the complication, by choosing an electrolytic cell without any back electromotive force. The old Edison cell, with its
two equal zinc electrodes immersed in zinc sulphate, should have had no counter electromotive
force ; but it had nevertheless an electromotive
force of 0.0085 volts, which, while negligible with
strong currents, produced an error of 8.5 per cent.
with currents of one ampere. This was, however,
not the reason for abandoning the meter ; it was
more the trouble of having to change and weigh the
electrodes, and refix them, to which objection was
taken. Mercury salt cells, generally mercurous
nitrate, which is very soluble, offer the great advantages that their electromotive force is very low, and
that the mercury liberated need not be weighed by
taking the apparatus to pieces, but can be collected
and measured in graduated vessels. Such meters
were constructed in 1892 by McKenna, and by
Anders and Kottgen. These cells are connected
across a low-resistance shunt R in one of the
supply mains, a comparatively high resistance r being
put in the cell itself, which thus receives only
a small fraction of the main current. Their chief
defect was that crystals would deposit at the
anode surface, and that the consequent increase
in the resistance could not be prevented by
agitation. One of the meters devised by Mr. A.
W right, was, in the author's opinion, free from
those defects. The total resistance of shunt and
cell is 40 ohms, of the platinoid resistance in the
main circuit 0.2 ohms, and the maximum current
about 0.015 ampere for a meter of 5 amperes capacity. The anode is placed above the kathode,
not below, as in the previous type. The anode
mercury is contained in a circular trough, which
is of such a height that the concentrated solution
formed by the electrolytic action, falls off the
curved surface of the mercury by gravity, and
mixes the liquid. This diffusion by gravity would
become ineffective if the mercury in the anode
were to sink b elow the level of the lip of the trough;
but this is prevented by adding an anode feeder,

(SEPT. 13, 1901.

which resembles a " bird fountain " as the anode than those we have to deal with in private
mercury is electrolysed and the le;el lowered, the electric lighting.
flow f:om the anode feeder restores the mercury
level tn _the trough, while a corresponding amount
KELVIN's ELECTRic MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.
of solut10n replaces the mercury thus withdrawn
In calling upon Professor Magnus MacLaan,
from the trough. The kathode is a hollow cone of
D.Sc.., M.I.E.E., to read this paper, Mr. L:mgdon
platinum or carbon, concentric to the anode trouO'h,
0
The circulation of the electrolyte is reinforced by explatned that the Oouncil of the Institution of
the . kathode, as . the lighter liquid produced tends Electrical Engineers had deemed it appropriate and
to rtse and to d tsplace the dense solution at the a matter of general interest to ask Lord Kelvin for a
anode. With this diffusion and the large anode sur- communication on his scientific inventions, and Proface there is no tendency to crystallisation and no fessor MacLean had been good enough to compile
needforagitation. The anode feeder arrange~entfur the paper, copies of which were in hand. Professor
t~er keeps the electrode surface and their respective MacLean at t:>nce declared that he would bear in
d1stances constant, which is, of course necessary mind the well-known eharacter of most of the into render the internal resistance con~tant. The struments and the shortness of the time, and he
mercury deposited falls into a glass funnel and really confined himself to a few remarks on novel
a s~phon V-tube. W~en this syphon tube has features. His paper enumerates the patents which
recetved mercury equtvalent to 100 units the Lord Kelvin has taken out since 1858 on telegraphic
syphon will come into play, and the whole' mer- and on measuring apparatus, and briefly describes
cury be drawn into a receptacle. One division of them under the four headings of electrometers,
this receptacle is equivalent to the whole volume of electro-magnetic instruments for measuring curthe syphon. A 5-ampere meter furnished with these rents and differences of potential, electro-dynamic
two di~ls will register up to 1200 units; and the range instruments, and instruments arranged for recordof ~he Instruments is practically limited only by the ing and integrating electric currents. Specimens
we1ght of mercury which it is advisable to put into of all the instruments were on the table. Of
the anode feeder. When a full record has been recent years Lord Kelvin has reverted to the
obtained on the meter, the instrument is tilted up, syphon-recorder type with a moveable coil in a
so that the mercury flows back into the anode fixed magnetic field. Weber's electro dynamotrough. A consumer with a 5-ampere demand on a meter was the first suspended coil apparatus,
250-volt circuit would not have to reset the meter his fixed coil acting on a moveable coil. The firs t
":lore than once a year. As there is no gas evolu- coil, moving in the tield of a steel magnet, was contlOn, the glass tube can be hermetically sealed up, structed by the Rev. H. High ton, and used by the
and barometric changes do not affect the instru- British and Irish Telegraph Company about 1856.
Lord
Kelvin
improved
this
form
by
introducing,
in
ment; the temperature correction can easily be
made ; freezing has ' to be guarded against, but 1867, a fixed soft-iron core in the syphon recorder,
is not likely to occur. Direct Board of Trade and now there are six different types of these
unit readings can be easily arranged for. The moveable coil instruments. The portable pattern is
counter-electromotive force of the cell is stated applied in the rail test for determining the conductivity
of
tramway
rails.
The
ampere
gauges
for
to be 0. 0001 volt, and the diffusion to be efficient
to prevent any electromotive force due to concen- use on switchboards have recently been perfected
tration differences within the solution, which might in two ways. To obtain a more uniform field, two
give rise to an electromotive force of 0.016 volt. copper tubes are placed within one another, both
The temperature coefficient of the electrolyte is spirally cut ; the one right-handed, the other leftnegative, that of the resistance in series with it handed. Further, the softiron plungers are now
suspended
from
a
sector
which
maintains
the
movepositive ; thus a constant total resistance can be
secured. The paper discusses these points some- ment of the plunger in the same vertical straight
what at length, and proceeds to duration tests of line.
Mr. Chamen, Chief Engineer of the Corporation
the meter extending over five months. There is a
considerable error for the first ten units, because Electricity Depart ment, of Glasgow, mentioned that
he
was
using
more
than
100
of
these
instruments,
some of the deposited mercury adheres to the
and
that
he
found
them
most
valuable
and
conplatinum kathode ; when it falls off, however, the
error corrects itself, and a carbon kathode avoids venient ; the record sheets are preserved, and t here
Professor
this trouble entirely. Of late, a maximum demand is no need for log-book keeping.
indicator has become a necessary adjunct to MacLean deserved the vote of thanks accorded to
him
for
the
able
and
discreet
manner
in
which
he
meters. The electrolytic meter is combined with
discharged
his
task.
a thermal demand indicator, the heating resist(To be continued. )
ance serving as shunting resistance for the electrolytic meter, so that no further loss of pressure
is entailed.
When lamps are grouped on the three-wire LOCOMOTIVE RUNNING SHEDS ; EASTERN
RAILWAY OF FRANCE.
system, two ampere-hour meters are generally
THE la~ing do~n of en~ine houses i~ close proximity
required. Mr. Dick manages with one, by splitting the neutral wire into two equal low resist- to the mam statiOns of Important ratlway systems is
ances, and connecting the meter across the ends always a more or less difficult problem. These buildings
require
to
be
easy
of
access
and
of
sufficiently
of these resistances ; the current through the cell large dimensions to afford every facility, and they
will then always be proportional to the sum of have also to contain all the necessary devices and
the currents C1 and C2 in the two halves of the in- appliances for the rapid cleaning and re-coaling of
stallation. Mr. Dick concluded by saying that after the engines. All these conditions are met in the
eight months of working these meters under con- new locomotive depot which the Eastern Railway
ditions equivalent to five years of ordinary installa- Company of France have built at a short distance
tion practice, the proportion of mercurous nitrate in from their Paris terminus, at Noisy-leSec, at the
the solution was found unaltered, and only traces junction of their main lines with the Grande Ceinture
of mercuric nitrate could be detected, and that the Rail way that surrounds the Metropolis, and in the
lingering objections to electrolytic meters should centre of their sidings and branch lines which serve
for the marshalling of trains.
therefore vanish.
The round-houses are at present two in number, but
The crux of the problem is the diffusion of the
the
necessary
space
is
provided
for
a
third,
which
is
liquid. But as there was no time for discussion, t3 be built as soon as an increase in the traffic renders
the point could not be debated. Reeent researches, it necessary. They are 70 metres (229 ft. ) in diameter,
carried on particularly in France, Germany, and the and are illustrated on pages 354 and 355. From Figs.
United States, have more . and more confirmed the 4 and 5 it will be seen that the main iron framing is
view that voltameters require very careful treatment. independent of the circumferential wall, the arched
Ordinary voltameters, in which water is decomposed ribs reaching down to the floor level, where they are
into oxygen and hydrogen, are unreliable, even made to bear on hinges; at the top the ribs abut on a
when the sulphuric acid is replaced by phosphoric ring 3.2 metres (10ft. 6 in. ) in diameter. Each house
acid, as Mascart proposed, and the ozone for- is built for 32locomotives and their tenders; the loco
mation is prevented. Copper voltameters, though motive fronts face the outside wall, a hood being fitted
much better, are h&rdly regarded as scientific over each chimney for the escape of smoke. A turn
table 17 metres (56 ft.) in diameter is provided in the
instruments by some physicists. The silver volta- centre
of each round-house.
meter is exact and reliable, but not convenient.
The depot, as it now stands, meets the requirements
If mercury voltameters have so many advan- of 92 locomotives, namely, 58 ordinary freight engines,
tages, we may wonder why scientists have not 16 fast freight engines, and 18 shunting locomotives,
used them. But the curves which Mr. Dick but is sufficient for 120 locomotives. When t he third
exhibited certainly show a remarkable accuracy round house is built, the plaut will be sufficient for
of his meters for currents considerably weaker 200 engines, There are ati pre)ent in the dep6t Ill

SEPT.

lJ,

190!.]

enginedrivers, 107 stokers, and 131 workmen and

bbourers.
As shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, the two round-houses
are joined together by a building which CO\'ers the
offices, stores, repair and maintenance shops, and the
necessary accommodation for the engine-drivers and
stokers, such as dormitory, dining-room, and bathroom. . The reference letters in Fig. 2 apply to the
followmg :

E N G I N E E R I N G.

above it t o prevent the oil crefpiog up th 'l Pri odle

towatd.d the armature .
The armature is built of notched plates driven by a
key sunk partially into the spindle, and the plates are
clamped between end castings. The magnet cores
are of bi?.h permeability magnet cast steel, and are
hollow. They are secured t o the frame by external
flanges and screws, and can be readily removed to give
access to the field coils and armature. E~ch magnet
A Engine
face is provided witlt a slot parallel to the armature
P Round h earth
B Turning and screw outting Q Forge fra me
(Fig. 2), extending to the hollow centre of the core, and
lat hes
1t Regulus mel ting hear t h
affording efficient ventilation. The brush holders are
0, E, F Drilling maohines
S Boilermakers' benoh
of cast brass, arranged for radial carbon brushes.
D Grindstones
T S urface plates
G, H, I PlaninJ.r machin('S
U Tables
They slide in a long machined slot , and are pressed
J Foreman's office
V Ventilator
against the cumulator by a light pivoted lever conli Cleansing bath
X Gramme dynamos
trolled by a special spring. The motors are stated to
L Water supply
Y Work benohes
run perfectly sparklessly, even at very considerable
M Double smith-hear t hs
Z Weig hbridJe
N Anvils
W 12-ton lifttng tackle
overload.
0 Vices for hot bending
"Bull " motors are made both in this and the boriOn an ~verage lOO to 125 locomotives are repaired zontd form, and in sizes from ~ to 15 horse-power.
per year 10 these shops ; the general small repairs are They show evidence of very careful design, and
carried out methodically, each freight or shun t ing should give excellent results in working.
engine being taken into the depot for inspection and
repair after it has completed about 19,000 miles, when
the tyres are replaced if necessary, the mechanism C0!\1POUND BLOWING ENGINE AT THE
overhauled, the cylinders re-bored if necessary, and
ASI{A M IRON WORKS.
other work carried out. The engines are sent to the
W E illustrate on our two-page plate, and also on
company's works at Epernay for extensive repairs pages 362 and 363, a compound blowing engine,
only, such as the replacing of tubeplates, fireboxes, built by :Messrs. Galloways, Limited, of :Manchester,
cylinders, &o., and this is done as a rule when the for the Askam Iron Works, and which formed a
engines have completed, say, 200,000 miles.
feature of special interest on the occasion of the
The depot contains about 10,000 tons of patent recent visit of t he Institution of Mechanical Engifuel, small coal, and coke; small coal forms about 77 neers to these works. Messrs. Gallowaya, it may be
per cent. of t he t otal, and the patent fuel about 10 added, have made a speciality of engines for iron and
per cent. About 85,000 tons of fuel are handled steel works, and, in fact, have supplied the blooming
during the year, the loading and unloading being car- mill engines in use at the Lora.in Steel Works, Ohio.
ried out wit h the help of a 1!-ton steam crane, 12 metres The mill in question claims to bold the record for the
(39 ft.) in radius, which works a grab weighing 4~ cwt. production of 4in. billets, having turned out 1260
empty and 10 cwt. when loaded. The cost of handling gross tone in 24 hours, from ingots measuring 18 in. by
the coal amounts to 26d. per ton.
20 in., and weighing about 5500 lb. each.
The freight engines on the Eastern Railway burn
Coming back to the subject of our illustration, we
almost exclusively small coal, of suitable mixture to may recall that until recently the air pressure used in
form a semi-bituminous fuel ; briquettes are only used British blast.furnace practice has ranged from 4 lb .
for lighting - up, and also at those patts wbE\re a to about 6 lb. per square inch; but it has lately
great tractive effort is required of the engines; coke become apparent that, following American examples,
is also used for lighting - up, and forms the higher pressures up to, say, 20 lb. per square inch
fuel of shunting engines. The fuel consumpt ion on are needed. The engine shown has been designed to
fast engines with t endera is 15.84 kilogrammes per fill this want . As indicated in Figs. l, 2, and 3 of our
kilometre (56 lb. per mile), of which 87 per cent. is two-page plate, the engine is of the crosscompound
small co~l, 9 per cent. briquettes, and the remainder inverted type, with the air cylinders placed above the
coke. The coal and coke dust raked out from the steam cylinders. The cranks are set at 90 deg., and
smoke-boxes is coJlected for burning in the apparatus the designed speed is 50 revolutions per minute, the
used for heating the rooms which are placed at the pressure in the high-pressure steam chest being 125 lb.
disposal of the p e1'sonnel, and in the engines that drive per square inch. Each half of the engine stands on
the water-lifting pumps. About 50 tons of this refuse its own bedplate. These bedplates are massive castis collected per day, and when it cannot all be used ings weighing 35 tons each. 'rhey measure 10ft. wide
for t he above purposes, it is mixed up with the small and 18 ft. long, and the height from the bottom
coal for consumption in the locomotives.
to the centre of the crankshaft is 5 ft. 7 in. To
The stores shown on the plan mostly contain the each of these b~dplates is bolted a cast-iron
necessary lubricating oil for the engines; this is standard, constructed in halves suitably jointed
Rnesian mineral oil kept in wrought-iron tanks, served together. As shown in Fig. 7, these standards are
by pumps.
bored to serve as guides to the crosshead blocks.
Fig. 6, reproduced from a photograph, shows t he The weight of each standard is 21! tons. The hightwo round-houses and intermediate building.
pressure cylinder is 42 in. in diameter, and the lowpressure cylindH 60 in. in diameter, the stroke in each
ca~e being 60 in. The weight of the high-pressure
THE ~'BULL, ELECTRIC MOTOR.
cylinder is 13 tons, and of the low-pressure 27 tons.
THE Anglian Engineering Company, Limited, of Corliss valves are used for the steam and exhaust
Stowmarket, Suffolk, make a series of electric motors valves of t he high-pressure cylinder; whilst the lowto which the distinctive name "Bull " is applied. pressure cylinder is fitted with two piston valves, as
One of these, designed for driYing a pump, is illus- indicated in the cross-section (Fig. 4). The lowtrated on page 358. It will be seen (Fig. 1) it is pressure valve casing is provided with movable doors,
provided with a vertical spindle which has a coup- giving ready access to the valves when desired. The
ling attached at the lower end to be joined to a corre- two air cylinders are each 84 in. in diameter by 60 in.
sponding coupling on the upright shaft of the stroke. They are shown in section in Fig. 6. The
pump. The entire weight of the armature and its pistons are 12 in. deep, and are of the box type, with
spindle is carried by a ball bearing at the upper radial strengthening ribs as indicated. The packing
end, where it is perfectly accessible. The details consists of adjustable metallic rings. The air valves
of the bearing are shown in Fig. 4. At the top of are fia.t gridiron valves of the "Southwark " type, and
the spindle are two lock-nuts, and below them is a are mechanically controlled. As indicated in Figs. 1,
collar which is keyed to the spindle, but is ('apable of 2, and 3, they are placed on the covers, so that the
sliding end wise for adjustment. Underneath the collar clearance in the cylinders is reduced to but 1! per
is the upper ball race, while the lower conical race is cent.
The crankshaft is of mild steel, having journals
supported by a sleeve, which is embedded in a bored
21 in. in diamet er by 36 in. long, swelled in the centre
seat in the framing.
Below the ball bearing is a. gun-metal sleeve sup- t o 23 in. in diameter to receive the flywheel. The
porting the spindle sideways. This sleeve, together cranks, which are of the balanced type, are of mild steel,
with the lower race of the ball bearing, is carried in a with pins cast in one with web, and are machined bright
casting which is supported by a flange on the top of all over. The piston-rods are 8 in. in diameter at
the main frame. Consequently after the uuts are upper part, and 10 in. in diameter in the lower porremoved from the end of the spindle, both bearings tion, and are coned into their respective air and steam
The lower portions of the piston-rods are
can be withdrawn together. There is an oil channel pistons.
leading down to an annular space round the bearing, forged solid with the main crosshead, which is fit ted
and boles leading from this space to the spindle. with phosphor-bronze steps, and has attached to it
The oil which leaks out at the bottom of the bearings cast-iron slippers. The connecting-rods are 8~ in. in
cannot run down to the commutators, but is caught diameter at the small e11d, and 11 in. in diameter at
by a cup screwed on to the spindle, and rises up the the large, having a length of 11 ft. 3 in. from centre to
side of this until it finally is t hrown over ita edge into centre. The upper end is of the jaw form, and is fitted
the channel made to receive it (Fig. 5). A pipe from with a steel crosshead-pin, the journal measuring 10 in.
this channel connects to a similar channel at the bear- by 12 in. [!he bottom ends, which connect to the
ing below the armature, while a second pipe leads the crankpins, are of the marine type, and have phosphordirty oil to a tank. The lower bearing is similar in bronze steps 12 in. in diameter a,nd 14 in. long, forming
construction t o the upper one, but has a narrow collar the crankpin bearings. The governor is of the high-

Ppeed centre-weight type, positi Y"eJy driven from the

high pressure crankpin by means of a drag link and
shaft; but gears are used for connecting the same to
the governor spindle. Provision is made to govern
the engine closely at any speed between 20 and 60
revolutions, and the go,~ernor is set to directly control
the cut-off from 0 to 70 per cent. of the stroke, so as to
regulate the output and pressure of the air. The
low - pressure piston valves are actuated by eccentrics from the crankshaft, and are adjustable by hand.
The steam, on its passage from the high to t he low preesure cylinder, is passed through a superheater receiver
20ft. long, fitted with internal coils.
The flywheel, which is in halves, is placed between
the bedplates, and is 24ft. in diameter, and weighs
45 tone; the rim being oast with teeth for the barr
mg
gear.
For giving access to the various parts of the engine,
a series of platforms are conveniently arranged, and
are shown in plan in Figs. 4, 5, and 6. They are
reached by means of steel staircases from the enginehouse floor. The first or main platform is continuous,
and completely envelops both high and low-pressure
engines. It is carried on rigid brackets and entablature beams ; the flooring being of chequered steel
plating, with a deep angle-iron on the pHiphery to
prevent any loose materials from falling below. The
second plat form, which is fixed from side to side of
the engine, gives access to the upper cylinder coverP,
steam pistons, &c., as well as to the gear for the air'
cylinders at the lower end. The two upper platforms
allow of access to the interior and upper parts of the
air cylinders, as well as to the gear wQrking t he air
valves. The construction of the whole of the plat
forms is substantially the same as the lower main
platform.
The lubrication system is of a very complete and
extensive character, being provided with oil pumps,
pipes, distri buting boxes, leads, &c., with tell-tale
and sight-feed drops: so t hat the engine is selflubricating, and can be run continuously for long
periods.
For purposes of starting, a double-cylinder barring
engine is provided, being arranged on the maker's
patented design. The barring ~haft is fitted with two
helical feathers, and carries a pimon rifled so as to
slide on these feathers, and gearing into t he spurrim cast with the flywheel; when put into operat ion the pinion bears against the collar on the end
of the shaft, and is thus compelled to turn with the
shaft, forcin g the fly wheel round; but when the eugine
receives steam, and the periphery speed of the flywheel exceeds that of the barring pinion, the latter
instantly and automatically disengages iteelf and
slides out of gear.

PEARN'S COMPOUND SINGLE-ACTING

RAM PUMP.
WE illustrate on page 359 a. single-acting airpump
of novel design now being introduced oy Messrs.
Frank Pearn and Co., Limited, of West Gorton,
Manchester. As shown, two pumps are mounted
side by side on a single bedplate, on which is supported the crankshaft and flywheel. By a peculiarity
of construction practically the whole work of each pump
is done on the down-stroke of its corresponding steam
piston, with a nearly uniform efleotive pressure, and
hence but very little power passes through the connecting-rods and crankshaft, which eau, therefore, be of
light construction. The means by wbioh this end
is attained will readily be understood on reference
to Figs. 2 and 3, which show the relative positions of
the piston and valves at the middle of the down and
up strokes respectively. As these diagrams show,
the engine is a compound one. The high-pressure
cylinder, howeyer, being single acting; whilst the
low-pressure is double acting. The effective areas of
the upper and lower sides of the low-pressure piston
are, however, very different; since that on the upper
is, as shown, a mere annulus, having an area of but
36 square inches; whilst the area of the lower face
is 80 square inches. In the down-stroke position,
represented in :Fig. 2, the steam entering the engine
flows round the valve J into the high-pressure cylinder
A, and at the same time steam also flows from the
receiver H past the slide K into the low-pressure annulus C. At the same time the bottom of the low-pressure cylinder is open to exhaust, as shown. The character of the diagrams obtained is represented in Fig. 4.
On the up-stroke the relative position of the valves is
as shown in F ig. 3, in which it will be seen that the
high-pressure cylinder and the lower end of the lowpressure cylinder are in equilibrium, whilst the annulus
at the top of the low-pressure piston is open to exhaust.
Referring to Fig. 4, it will be seen that during the
down-stroke the effective pressure tran~mitted to the
pump ram G is 3732 lb., while on the up-stroke, the
pressure on the high pressure piston beiDg in opposition to that on the low, the effective upward pressure
is but 792 lb., so that the work done on the up or
suction stroke of the pump is but 21 per cent. of that
done on the down or delivery stroke.

....

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ENGI NEERING,

SEPTEMBER

13, 1901.

COMPOUND

BLOW ING

ENGINES .~

AT

THE

AS I< AM

IRON

WORKS.

CONSTRUCTED BY MESSRS. GA.LLOWAY~LL\"s, LIMITED, ENGmEERS, MANCHESTER.

(For Descriptios.ll ~. see Page 365.)

Fig.t.

SECTION A .B .

r-r --~---- --- --~------- -------- ~- -- l +

_____ _

-:r-Fig .~

NIDER
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Fig.3.

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AIR CYLINDER
84-.DIA . s 'o"sTROH.

l. P. ENGINE

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n cJc

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E N G I N E E R I N G.

SEPT. 13, 1901.]

TRACTION and TRANSMISSION.

AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING."

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Oftioes for Publication and Advertisements, Nos. 35

and 36, Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.C.
TBLBGR.APB10 ADDR.BSB-ENGINEERING. LONDON.
TELBPRONB NUMBBR-3663 Gertrard.

CONTENTS,
PAOB
The International Engi
neering
Congress
at
Glasgow .. ......... .... 347
Locomotive Running Sheds;
Eastern Railway of F rance
(l1l3trated) ............ 364
Tbe .. Bull " Eleotric Motor
(Illustrated} . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Compound Blowing Engine
at the Aekam Iron Works
(Illust rated) . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Pearn'ct Compound Single
Actint:r Ram Pump ( l llus.) 365
The Trades Union Congress 367
Pictet'ct Oxygen Separation
Process (illu,s trated) . . . . 368
Tbe Disposal of Waste
Liquors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
High-Speed Eleotrio Trao
tion in Germany . . . . . . . . 869
The New German Atlantic
Liner u Kronprinz Wil
helm " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Quadruple Rxpansion Engines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sil
Water-Tube Boiler Trials .. 871
HighPressure v. Low Pres
sure Steam in the Sugar
Refinery .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Sil
Tbe New Laboratories at the
Glasgow University ..... 371

PAGE
Notes from the North .... 372
Notes from South York

shire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872

Notes from Cleveland and

the Northern Counties ..
Notes from the South-West
Miscellanea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notes from the United
States ......... ... .....
Heavy Horizontal Turninl(
and Boring Machine (ll
lust1'ated) .. ............
Diag rams of Three Month's
F tuotuations in P rices of
.Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Industrial Notes .........
Workshop Methods . . . . . .
The Dortmund aod Ems
Canal (I llustrated) .. . ...
The Manufacture of .Marine
En~ines .. ... ... ....
The Improvement of the
Lower Mississippi Rher
Improvement Works on the
Clyde Estuary .. .. .. .. ..
A Premium System of Remunerating Labour . . . .
Electrical Power Supply .. . .
Sudan Government Military
Railways (lllustrated) . .
Australian Railways ......

372
372
S73
374
874
374
876
876
377
879
881
382
883
884
386
386

With a Ttoo-Pagt E'nf}raving oJ the COMPOUND BLOWING

ENGINES AT TBB .4SKAM IRON WORKS.

(Publt~hed

on the first T uesday i1l ea.oh month. )

PART VI. NOW READY.
PluOB 28., Net; POST FB.BB 2s. 4d.
Publlahed at the Offices of ENOimRRING, 86 and 86, Bedford Street,
Strand, London, W.C.
CONTENTS OF No. 6.
PJ.OK

PJ.Oit

The Law of Elect.rolysls. By W.

'rhe llurgdorf-Timn Elect.rlo Rn ll
YL\Ientlue Ball........ . . . . . . . . .
l
,way (PlAtes V. 1\nd V I . and lllu&The .Educl\t.lon of t.he Elect.rlcal
t.n\tloua In Text.) . . . . . . . . .
Engineer. By Dr. J. A. Floro lng,
Ulg h S peed Eleohlo Tract.lon In
Uormrmy. ll) 0 . I~oho (Pln.t.es
F.ll..S. (Plat.e!4 l . to I V. and Illus
t rutlQna In Text.)................ 7
VlJ. to XVI . nnd lllus tmtlooa
Elootr orool>lles In Public Se.rvlco.. 10
In Text.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Muulclpal Trud lng :
J>neu rontlo 'f y r03 for
H oovy
(d) By the H on. Robert P.
Vohlolll!l. lly 1' h . .Qum1 .. .'.. .
1
Porter .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Elect.rl clt.y nt. t.ho Tangorm Undo
(e) By n Borough Engineer.... 21S
Sugar \Vorka .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
(I) By Ocorge R. Du n oli . . . . ~ .

32

42

60

63

NOTICE TO CONTINENTAL' ADVERTISERS.

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ENGINEERING.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13, 1901.

THE TRADES UNION CONGRESS.

THE thirty-fourth Trades Union Congress has
completed its sittings, and its proceedings and
resolves are now matters of history. The Mayor
and Corporation of Swansea attended on the first
day, and welcomed the delegates, several Members
of Parliament being P!-"esent. Mr. Lewis Morris
wrote a poetic welcome, which was read to the
audience, the poet being called upon for a speech.
The inhabitants generally gave a welcome to the
Labour Parliament ; indeed, so profuse was it that
a Scotch delegate rose to protest, but was ruled out
of order. All the hours not required to be spent
in Congrees were fully occupied by meetings,
banquets, garden parties, trips, and other festivities. The new rule, which provides that the
chairman of the Parliamentary Committee shall
preside over the sittings of Congress, came into
force for the first. time, Mr. C. W. Bowerman,
Secretary of the London Society of Compositors,
occupying that position. The A_.qsociated ' Blacksmiths of Scotland were no longer represent~d at
the Congress. Two of the oldest bod!es- the .e~gi
neers and smiths-have severed their connectiOn
with the Congress, after being among the first to
institute these annual gatherings.
The report of the Parliamentary Committee dealt
with the various measures before Parliament during
the past session, with deputations to Ministers
respecting those measures and other matters ;
with some labour :disputes, ~specially the Penrhyn
quarrymen's d ispute ; and with the recent decisions
in t he House of Lords. Naturally, the interest of
the Congress was centred in that part of the report
which dealt with the Lords' decisions in the two
recent cases relating to trade unions-the right to
sue and the liability to be sued. So far, however,
the right to sue is not at issue, whereas the liability
to be sued is. The paragraphs in t he report dealing
with this subject were drafted by the counsel to
the Committee, and were at once professional and
popular in treatment. The report says that the
decision in the Taff Vale case "put in the shade
every other in the trade union movement." It is
called" remarkable," and quotations are given from
the writings of .men who had to do with trade union
legislation, in order to show that the power to sue
and to be sued was intentionally left out of the
Trade Union Acts, 1871 and 1876, though the
question was raised at t he time by some who took
part in the movement, and supported legislation.
The Presidential address had not the discursiveness which characterised former utterances from
the chair ; its salient f~ature was its closeness of
touch with matters pertaining to practical issues.
It was a kind of revised edition of the Parliamentary Committee's Report, condensed for the occasion. It was in the nature of a manifesto, for it had
been submitted, in proof, to the Committee before

delivery. It left socialism severely alone. It indulged in no flights of fancy respecting the fut':lre
of labour, and gave no countenance to Utopian
schemes or drean1s. It was the sober declaration
of a respected official of an old.' well cond?ct~d,
and powerful union, representing the pr1ntmg
trades, one of the most important industries in the
country. The address claimed that much of the
progress of the working classes was due to trade
unionism, and it appealed to the delegates assembled
to carry on the work by combination, by united
effort, and desire. The special practical matter
before them at present was the difficult position of
trade unions, resulting from the recent legal
decisions in the House of Lords. To that their
energies 'should be directed, so as to avert the
disaster which was threatening them by litigation.
The resolution submitted to, and adopted by, the
Congress as to the legal position of trade unions
was drafted by the Parliamentary Committee, with
the assistance of their "standing counsel;" it was
approved by the Standing Orders Committee, and
amended on the motion of Mr. R. Bell, M.P.,
Secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Rail way
Ser vants, one of those involved in the Taff Vale
case. Th~ points in the elaborately-worded resolution briefly were : (1) That a test case of picketing
taken up and carried through to the House
should
of .Lords. , (2) That a general fund be established
to fight out in the courts all such oases. (3) That
trade unions should so amend their rules as to
avert, if possible, such actions at law as that of the
Taff V ale case. (4) That an alteration in the law
be sought by legislation. 1Vith respect to the
proposed revision of rules, the P arliamentary Committee, with the aid of counsel, will prepare draft
rules and submit them to all the organised trades of
the country. The suggest ion as to an alteration of
rules will scarcely meet the case: The rules of the
union were not attacked ; it was the action of members of the union for which the society was held to
be responsible. The debate on the question was,
as a rule, judicious ; but naturally some political
heat was engendered, as t he Court of Appellate
Jurisdiction was bJZ. . some confounded with t he
House of Lords as a legislative body.
The proposal in favour of compulsory arbitration
was rejected by 676,000.votes, by card, to 366,000 ;
majority against, 310,000. It seems strange that
so many delegates supported any such proposal. It
would seem that some of the labour leaders desire a
court something after the Irish Land Courts, with
power to fix the rates of wages and hours of labour,
as_the latter do'' fair rents.'' The power is to extend
to coercion ; to force men into the unions. It is a
foolish dre!}m in any case. The men, as a rule, who
ask for more law, complain most .bitterly of existing
law. But, then, they themselves want to frame the
law _and enforce it; all others would have to obey.
Britain .has not yet arrived at such a conclusion, in
spite of the votes of Congress delegates. In the discus'sion on the proposal to amend the law so that
foreign shipowners should be compelled to pay compensation in case of injury, it was stated that the new
Factory Act had put foreign owners in the same
position as English owners, but a further amendment of the law was needed. Congress passed a
series of resolutions on the subject of education,
in which it was proposed to raise the age limit of
children to 15 years. This was opposed by several
delegates, and one said in reply that the Factory
Act had , been forced down the throats of the
operatives; a statement quite the opposite of truth.
What they have done is to oppose any too speedy
incre!\Se of age limit.

The Congress was less socialistic than any for the

last ten years. An amendment moved to a resolut ion, reviving the proposal of the nation taking over
all the means of production, distribution, and exchange, was defeated by a show of hands, and,
upon being challenged, by 685,000 to 264,000 votes .
A resolution to suspend the standing orders, with
the view of discussing the South African war, was
defeated by 138 to 115, and then by voting cards
by 724,000 to 333,000. A resolution in support of
the Mines Eight Hours' Bill was carried. The
resolution for .an eight hours' day for all trades
and occupations was also carried.
. On the whole the proceedings of the Congress
were orderly and businesslike. They were more
after the lines of the Congresses from 1871 to 1889.
The recent law cases necessitated a definite programme. In view of the attitude of some employers
to appeal to the Courts, tpe delegates could not
afford to waste much time upon questions of the

be

E N G I N E E R I N G.
far-off future ; dreams of Utopias and milleniums.
Work nearer at home engrossed their attention.
The reputation of Congress will not suffer in consequence of this change of position. If it is to have
weight, its decisions must be of a practical character,
within the purview of possible early realisation by
legislation. London is chosen for the next Congress. Several great public meetings were held
during the week, ending in a monster demonstration of the local trades on Saturday.

PIOTET'S OXYGEN SEPARATION

PROCESS.
M. RA.OUL PIOTET, the well-known Geneva
physicist, has recently brought forward a plan
for separating oxygen from the air, on a commercial
scale, by means of a process of fractional distillation. If liquid air is allowed to evaporate, the gas
which first comes off is almost pure nitrogen, whilst
after nine-tenths of t he liquid have evaporated,
the remaining tenth is nearly pure oxygen, which
can be collected and stored in any suitable receiver.
The production of liquid air, in the first place, is,
of course, a somewhat expensive operation, but by
a. system of heat interchanges M. Pictet utilises the
gases evaporating off to lower to the point of
liquefaction the fresh supplies of air passed into
his apparatus ; so that were it possible in practice
to make use of perfect conductors of heat for the
coils of the interchanger, and of absolute heat insulators to prevent the passage of heat in from the
exterior, the apparatus would work indefinitely
without any diminution of t he original charge of
liquid air. In actual pract ice, however, it is impossible to avoid leakages of heat ; and it is therefore necessary to maintain a constant supply of
energy to the apparatus, sufficient to compensate
for the loss of liquid air evaporated by heat flowing
in by conduction, or by heat generated by the
friction of the moving fluids in the interchanger.
This supply of energy is readily afforded by keeping
the air in the inlet pipes under a pressure of 30 lb.
to 40 lb. per square inch, whilst the exhaust takes
place at atmospheric pressure.
M. Pictet'e plant is represented diagrammatically
in the annexed figure. It consists of ten stills, numbered I to X in the diagram. These, it will be seen,
are placed in a pile, one above the other. At starting, each is filled with liquid air to a level fixed by
an overflow pipe, the overflow from each passing
through this pipe into the still below. Immersed in
the liquid in each still is a coil of piping represented
by the series of small circles. Each of these coils
opens at one end into a central vertical pipe passing
through the whole column of stills into a filter
chamber at the top. At the other end, each coil is
continued by an interchanger coil, forming a series
of windings round the central chamber of each
still, and terminating at the inlet main shown to the
left of the diagram. By means of heat insulating
partitions between the successive windings of the
interchanger coils, the gases evaporated from the
liquid in each still flow round these coils as they
pass out from the apparatus. An interchange of
heat therefore takes place between the fresh
supply of air entering the still through the coils,
and the outgoing gases. By using sufficiently long
coils this interchange can be made practically complete, so that on their final escape from the apparatus the gases evaporated are at ordinary atmospheric
temperature, whilst the incoming air on reaching
the central chamber of the still has been reduced
to a temperature corresponding to the boiling
point of the liquid in the still. The latter is,
however, at atmospheric pressure, whilst the incoming air is at a pressure of some 40 lb. per
square inch, and accordingly condenses to a liquid.
The la$ent heat set free in these condensations
passes out through the walls of the submerged
coils, and evaporates a corresponding amount of the
liquid in the still. The liquefied air passes next
from the submerged coil into the vertical pipe, and
is delivered into a filter at the top of t he apparatus,
as already explained. In passing through this
filter, the solidified carbonic acid gas is strained out,
and may be collected for bottling. The liquid
passing through the filter is delivered into No. 1,
the topmost still. Since, however, this still receives the whole amount of the incoming liquid,
and only performs one-tenth of the total evaporation,
nine-tenths of what it receives passes on to No. 2 still
by the overflow pipe, and similarly for the remaining stills of the series. Nitrogen has a boiling
point of about- 195 deg. Cent., whilst oxygen boils

(SEPT. 13, 1901.

at - 183 deg. Cent. This difference of 12 deg. Oent.

at these low temperatures is proportionately as great
as one of 40 deg. Cent. at a temperature of 60 deg.
Cent. Hence, in the top still practically pure
nitrogen is alone evaporated, and as a consequence
the liquid in this still contains more oxygen than
an equivalent weight of common air. A portion of
this liquid passes over into No. 2 still, as already
explained. In t his still, again, next to no oxygen is
evaporated, so that the overflow to No. 3 still contains proportionately even less nitrogen than t hat
from No. 1. This holds throughout the series : the
liquid as it passes down the column through the
overflow cont.aining less and less nitrogen as it
approaches the bottom still, the contents of which
consists of oxygen t o the extent of well over 90 per
cent. The distillate from the five uppermost stills
is 90 per cent. nitrogen. In that from stills numbers 6 and 7, the nitrogen is in about the same
proportion as in common air, while from the remaining three stills the discharge analyses 55 per
cent. of 0. In certain cases it may be convenient
to collect separately the distillate from No. 10, since
this is over 90 per cent. 0 ; but for many industrial uses the gas obtained by combining the discharge from t he three lower stills will serve every
purpose.
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Certain precautions are needed in the purification of the air before it enters the apparatus, as it is
essential that it shall be quite free from moisture,
which would deposit as ice and clog the interchanger
coils. This moisture M. Pictet extracts by cooling
the air well below the freezing point of water by an
auxiliary refrigerating plant. The 1noistur~ in it
can be thus deposited in some readily accessible
chamber, and t he pure dry air passed on to the distilling plant.
The commercial importance of a really cheap
method of preparing oxygen on a large scale can
hardly be overrated, as it would lead to an enormous
saving in fuel, particularly in the case of metallurgical operations. In many of these, the desideratum
is temperature rather than heat units. The specific
heat of nitrogen is high, and as this gas forms threequarters the weight of ordinary air, the temperature attained in t he air furnace is limited, rand is
far below what can be obtained by burning the
same fuel in an atmoaphere of oxygen. Hitherto,
the great cost of oxygen has prevented any attempt
to replace air by this gas in industrial operations;
but M. Pictet hopes that with his new plant the
cost may be reduced sufficiently to render the substitution commercially possible. With a plant
treating some 500 tons of air per day, he estimates
that 110 tons of a distillate containing over 50 per
cent. of oxygen could be obtained. At the same

time about 0. 25 ton of solid CO? would be

collected, which could readily be increased up to
two or three tons if desired, by adding washed furnace
gases to the air supply entering the apparatus. At
one-third of present prices for liquid C02 , this byeproduct would, M. Pictet claims, pay the whole of
the expenses of working. Assuming, however, t hat
no market could be found for this product, the cost
per 1000 cu hie feet of 50 per cent. 0 would, making
due allowance for interest on capital depreciation and
the like, not be more than about lid. per 1000 cubic
feet ; whilst if 90 per cent. oxygen alone were produced, its cost wou]~ be 3id. per 1000 cubic feet.
The power req uired to run such a plant would
amount to a total of nearly 700 horse-power, of
which 100 horse-power would be needed for the
refrigerator used in de-hydrating the air. For
me~allurgical operations in which the final product
is carbon monoxide, the plant in q uestion should
theoretically suffice to burn 110 tons of coke per day.

THE DISPOSAL OF WASTE LIQUORS.

THE disaster which took place at t he end of last
month at Hackney Wick, and whieh was directly
attributable to the exceptional rainfall, has brought
attention forcibly to bear upon the danger which
petroleum at tar-distillation works presents to the
population resident in their vicinity. Although
the rider to the verdict suggested that in the
interests of public safety the storage of inflammable
liquids in underground tanks should cease, we are
not disposed to urge stringent action on this head,
because it was an exceptional climatic disturbance
which caused the trouble at Messrs. Capel, Carless,
and Leonard's works, and there is no evidence
whatever to show that under ordinary circumstances
such methods of storage are attended by any danger,
or, at any rate, by more than the minimum of
danger inseparably associated with such inflammable material. Of course, no mere trouble or
inconvenience should be allowed to stand in the
way of public safeguards, but, at the same time,
it is impossible to insure complete immunity from
disaster resulting from what is vaguely known in
contract clauses as '' the hand of God," as any
accurate forecast of the form which such special
visitations may take is inherently difficult. There
are, however, one or two points arising out of the
evidence given at the inquest which invite attention,
bearing as they do upon matters of every-day procedure in works, such as rubber works, where these
inflammable liquids are in regular use. Not the
least important of such points is the difficulty
surrounding the disposal of waste liquors. Of
course, it is a fact that in rubber works pure and
simple practically the whole of the volatile sol vent
which is used is either condensed for use over
again or is dissipated into the surrounding atmos- phere, where it has never been found to give rise
to ~ny complaints, or, at any rate, not to complaints
wh10h could be substantiated from a hygienic
standpoint. I t is really only where experiments
are being carried out, either on a laboratory or
practical scale, that the necessity for disposing of
waste naphtha arises, and the position in this case
is hardly likely to give any cause for concern.
Still, even where the quantity to be disposed of
is quite small, it cannot be too strongly urged that
the free-and-easy method of emptying into the
adjacent sewer is one fraught with danger, if not
to t~~ immediate surroundings, at any rate to
locahttes somewhat removed. The statement of
Dr. Alexander at the inquest referred to above is
not ~y any means that of an alarmist; it presents
sucCinctly an ever present danger. A sewer in
which the contained atmosphere is surcharged with
petroleum vapour is necessarily a latent source of
danger which needs only t he presence of a lighted
match to develop results of a more or less disastrous
character. We are not here going into t he theory
of explosions, so pointed reference need not be
made ~o the actual conditions requisite to produce
explosiVe effects of a greater or less magnitude.
I t will suffice to state as a fact which cannot be
~isputed that the presence of inflammable vapours
1n enclosed spaces, such as a sewer, is a source of
danger which should be strenuously guarded against.
It is therefore somewhat disquieting to hear that
miles of sewerage in certain districts of London
are in such a condition that the introduction of a
light would probably be attended with danger of
an acute character. Such a condition of affairs
now that forcible attention has been drawn to it'
certainly calls for r~medial measures, tha applica:

SEPT. 13,

rgor.J

tion of which will, of course, be met with the usual

outcry that they will have the effect of driving
away industries which provide a source of employment to the resident population in their vicinity.
But we are not considering here the places where
inflammable liquids are manufactured or dealt in
on the large scale, being concerned rather with
their immediate application, and the danger surrounding which cannot really be said to be of such
magnitude as to call for serious notice. Still, it is
prudent to recognise that even a gallon or two of
such liquids as light petroleum or carbon bisulphide,
if carelessly poured into drains, may prove a source
of danger. The wording of the clauses relating to
sewers in the Public Health Act, 1872, is not very
explicit, as it leaves rather too much to the persons
chiefly concerned as to what may or may not be
considered objectionable. Besides, there is always
the difficulty that chemical reaction of a disagreeable or dangerous nature may take place between
substances put into sewers by difl'erent persons occupying adjoining premises, although such substances
when kept apart may be innocuous. Although
it may seem somewhat of a hardship, we strongly
hold to ihe opinion that no substances which give
off inflammable vapours at temperatures such as
are ordinarily met with in these climes should be
allowed ingress into public sewers, and it should
be impressed upon those possessing private sewers
and drains that they incur great risks by countenancing any such procedure on their own premises.
When the bulk of liquor to be disposed of does
not exceed a few gallons, it may be conveniently
poured on to waste land or a cinder heap, or, with
due precaution, it may be burnt under the boiler
fire. In the case of rubber works, the substance
which presents the greatest difficulty is the waste
cold cure liquor, because, unlike naphtha, it continues to be objectionable long after it has been
poured away on waste land, and it is not at all desirable to use it as fuel for the boiler, owing to the
corrosive nature of the sulphurous fumes given off
on combustion. In some cases where its disposal
has become an acute question, arrangements have
been made for sending it back to the manufacturer,
if he happens to be within a reasonable distance,
the responsibility and danger thus being thrown
on to shoulders n1ore capable of bearing them.
We do not propose to enter further upon the
questions involved on the present oceasion, and
are conscious that what we have said will not do
much to illumine a dark subject, but it is often
useful to draw attention forcibly to matters which,
though of recognised importance, yet often fail to
attract their due share of notice until some catastrophe compels energetic action on the part of those
who have lived in an atmosphere of false security.

NOTES.
EMERY-COATED TooLs.
THE use of emery tools has been limited because
the material does not lend itself readily to shaping ;
we are practically confined to grinding surfaces
of simple forms. The galvanic process invented
by Joseph Rieder, of Leipzig, however, allows us
to make use of any kind of emery powder, and to
arrange it in various shapes, so that we are presented
with a new style of emery tool. Rieder is known as
the inventor of the electro-engraving process, whose
characteristic feature is a machine which returns
the plaster negative to its position with mathematical a(;curacy, so that the galvanic etching, which
has to be interrupted several thnes a minute to
secure uniform electrolytic action, practically remains continuous. In order to fix the emery sand
on the tools referred to above, he first coat~t
the emery with a varnish obtained by dissolving
wax or paraffin in benzine. Graphite will adhere
to the grains when they have been treated thus,
and in this way the emery surface is made
electrically conductive. The tool, e.g. , a disc, is
placed in the sulphate of copper bath, and the
prepared sa.ad dropped on it. Each grain will
become embedded in a coating of copper, and
the grains will thus be fixed just as gems have
been mounted for some time by means of a
galvanop]astic process. The sand can also be
treated with a glycerine paste, which is then
applied to the surface to be covered with emery.
As soon as a thin film of copper has settled on the
steel, the glycerine is washed off with hot water,
and the copper film is afterwards thickened in the
bath, In this way emery tools are obtained 7 which

E N G I N E E R I N G.
are said to wear very well. Their disadvantage is
that they do not cut deeply, because the interstices
are filled up. But such discs can be revolved at a
much higher rate than we could venture to adopt
in the case of an ordinary emery wheel of the same
din1ensions. Another ad vantage is that we can
construct tools of this kinq in almost any shape
- hollow drums, cutters of various profiles,
reamers, convex or concave lenses, knives, engraving tools, and even files. When the electrolytic
file-sharpening process came up about ten years ago,
the invention was ascribed to and claimed by several
inventors. In that case the file is the anode. Here
we have a kathodio process which may also have
occurred to several scientists, though we are not
aware that anybody but Rieder has put emerycoated tools on the market.

MINERAL PRODUCTION OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

THE progress of a country, especially in mining,
is too often measured by stock exchange operations
and so it has been with British Columbia. The
truer proof is the value of the minerals won, and
here it is gratifying to notice a steady adv~nce,
although it is not by any means commensurate with
the ideas of the stock jobber. Last year the total
value was 3,269,000l., as compared with 2,479,000l.
in the previous year, while in ten years the annual
output has multiplied six-fold ; but the progress is
more pronounced in the baser metals, a fact which
carries with it the greater satisfaction, for with
them there is less likelihood of violent fluctuations,
or of the supply giving out. As a result of placer
mining, the production in each of the two past
years has been 260,000l., double of that in any
of the preceding 10 years; but 30 years ago the
value was 700,000l. These figures include the
value of the silver in the gold, which varies from
10 to 25 per cent . The gold won from lode mines
has steadily increased in recent years, and now
reaches nearly 700,000l., while from the silver
mines the total last year was 462, OOOZ., not by any
means the highest level of recent years ; the lead
won is worth 640, OOOl., and the copper 305, OOOl.
It is in coal, however, that t,he most satisfactory progress is being made ; there has been few set-backs
to the steady advance, and last year's ou~put is the
highest in the history of British Columbia, the
quantity being 1,439,595 tons, and the value
864, OOOl. There is, after all, more money to be
made out of coal, sometimes, than from goldmining.
THE BRITISH AssociATION.
The British Association for the advancement
of science is holding its meeting this year, and,
for the fourth time, in the commercial capital
of Scotland ; being attracted chiefly, no doubt, by
the Glasgow Exhibition. Following so quickly
on the Engineering Congress, one might expect
that the proceedings would be a trifle dull in
the section with which we are chiefly interested,
that devoted to "Engineering ;1 ' as the new title
now is, in place of " Mechanical Science,, by which
Section G was formerly known. To judge by the
gathering on Wednesday evening, however, when
t he new president delivered the customary inaugural address, there will be no falling-off in the
importance of the proceedings. The President this
year is Professor Arthur Rucker, M.A., D.Sc.,
LL.D., who has long taken a leading part in the
organisation of the Association, and is well known
in the world of science as Principal of London U niversity and Secretary of the Royal Society. Among
the vice-presidents this year are the Earl of Glasgow,
President of the Institution of Naval Architects,
Lord Kelvin, Sir Andrew Noble, Sir Archibald
Geikie, and Dr. John Inglis. In the sections, Major
P. A. MacMahon will preside in Section A, Mathematical and Physical Science ; Professor Percy
Frankland in Section B, Chemistry ; Mr. John
Horne in Section C, Geology; Sir Robert Giffin
in Section F, Economic Science and Statistics ; in
Section G, Engineering, Colonel R. E. Crompton
will preside ; whilst the new section-L-de~oted
to Educational Science, will have the Right Hon.
Sir John E . Gorst as President. It is now sixtyone years since the British Association first met in
Glasgow, the president on that occasion being the
Marquis of Breadalbane. One does not now
associate his name with any great development of
science ; though in the course of six decades even
a respectable contemporary reputation may be lost
in the galaxy of scientific talent and genius that
has adorned the latter half of the last century.
In t hose days, however, the Aesooiation 7 not so

strong as now, depended a good deal on aristocratic

support. It was not so far removed from the era
of powerful and wealth! patrons, who, .after all,
did so much to foster sCience, art, and h terature,
in a less instructed age. The presidential address
in Section G is likely to be, perhaps, more than
usually interesting, as Colonel Crompton has chosen
for his chief subject a question of ~pecial. impor~
ance in the present day, and one w1th wh10h he IB
especially well able to deal, namely, the probable
future development of passenger and goods transport. We shall, however, in accordance with our
usual custom, print this address in full shortly, and
need, therefore, make no further reference to it
here. There will also be in this section a paper
contributed by Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen on
"Aluminium ;" whilst Professor Wilson will contribute a paper on the '' Commercial Influence of
Aluminum. " Mr. Mark Barr will read what should
be an interesting paper on "Machinery for Engraving ;" and it is arranged that there shall be an exhibition of such machinery in operation. There will
also be papers on" Railway Rolling Stock," by Mr.
Macdonald ; on the ''Transport of Goods by the
Electric Trolley System, " by Mr. Gibbings; on the
"Diesel Engine ;' 1 on "Chain Driving," by Mr.
Garrard; on "Rolled Steel Joists,, by Mr. E. T.
11
Edwards ; on ''Tunnelling through Quicksands, by
M. Gobert; and on ''The Measurement of Hardness
of Materials," by Mr. T. A. Hearson. The latter
should be a most interesting paper; and if the
author can introduce a simple and trustworthy
method of testing and tabulating the degree of
hardness in metals, he will have done a most
useful service to engineers. There will also naturally be the inevitable but no less useful paper, on
the exhibits at the Glasgow Exhibition. In our
next issue we shall commence our usual report of the
meeting.

HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC TRACTION

IN GERMANY.
By 0. LASCHE, Berlin.
SoME time since a scientific committee (Studiengesellschaft ftir Elektrische Schnellbahnen) was
appointed in Berlin for the purpose of studying
the technical and economical requirements of highspeed electric working on long-distance railways.
The maximum speed limit for the trials was at
first decided upon at 200 kilometres (125 miles)
per hour. After caref~l calculations and a consideration of expert opinion on the subject, it was
decided to use a line already existing, the German
War Department having placed such a one at the
disposal of the association. The construction of a
special experimental line would have involved great
loss of time and very heavy extra expense. The
railway on which the trials will be commenced
shortly is the military Berlin-Zossen line. This is
specially suitable for the experiments, as special
trials can be made on it with reference to the
relative merits of different methods of superstructure, permanent way, rail sections and
joints, &c.
It was decided that two cars should be built for
the purpose of experiment, one by the Allgemeine
Elektricitats Gesellschaft, of Berlin, the other by
Messrs. Sietnens and Halske. The car* of the
A. E. G. has now been tried at the testing stand at
the factory, and these trials have answered all expectations so far as the conditions of working can
be determined under stationary tests.
The oar was tested with a peripheral speed of
the wheels of about 66 metres per second corresponding to a car speed of 200 to 210 kil~metres
per hour.
The present article relates exclusively to the
construction and testing of the car, and to the
investigations and experiments in connection
thereto. The second part of the work will shortly
commence-namely, the running tests on the line
which, when concluded, will afford the material fo;
future articles.
THE PROPOSED RUNNING TESTS ON THE LINE.
a. Attavnment of a Speed of 80 to 100 kilomet;res
(60 to 62 miles) pe1 howr.-In the first instance it
is necessary to ascertain what speeds are attainable

* At the International Engineering Congr~s, 1901 at

Glasgow, Mr. 0. Lasohe, the chief engineer of theA.E:G.,

read. a p~per ~efo~e the Electrical Section (Section IX.),
~eahng wtth th1s. h1~hspeed oar, and a detailed and fullylllustrated desortptton of the car appears in TRACTION
AND TRANSMISSION, Part VI., September,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[SEPT. 13, 1901.

wit hout involving alteration or r econ struction of The centre axle of each bogie is only a running
THE NEW GERMAN ATLA.NTIC LINER
existing lines. The question is to find out h o w axle, the outer axles each carrying a motor of
"l{RONPRINZ WILHELM."
much less will be t he wear and tear by electric car 250 horse-power, capable of developing a maximum
ON Tuesday next there will st art on her maiden
on t h e track, and consequently its maintenance, of 750 horse-power. The diameter of the car
when running at the same speeds which have wheels is 1260 millimetres (42.21 in.),!and the speed voyage to New York a new competitor for the "blue
riband, of t he Atlantic, a distinction which carries
already been obtained by steam locomotives on about 960 revolutions per minute.
with
it
popularity
amongst
t
he
more
opulent
of
t
he
some high-class lines. In many cases it may be
Trans-Atlantic voyagers. There can be no question
INVESTIGATIONS
FOR
THE
CONSTRUCTION
OF
THE
t hat electrical working with single motor cars offers
that it is in some measure a reproach to British enterMoTOR
CAR.
t he possibility of handling a r~pidly-increasing
prise that this vessel is German built and Germantraffic on the existing bridges and tracks, wher e
The problem put before the designer was the owned, being the t hird highspeed liner excelling
t h e heavier steam locomotives or longer trains creation of something altogether new, namely, the British built craft sent from t he shipbuilding and engiwould req uire alterations. The attainment of hi<>' h construction of an experimental motor car, outside neering works of the V.ulcan Company at Stettin.
speeds would, to a certain degree, prove generally any existing type of low-speed electric locomotives, At the same t ime it should be stated that t here
~ atisfactory.
Distances would be covered in or of street railway oars. The only aim in view in can be no doubt about the ability of British builders
shor ter t ime, and t he public would not have to making the investigationA was the construction of t o construct such steamships; t his is proved by t he
wait for a small number of long trains in the day. a motor car to run long distances at the highest mere fact t hat we are at t he present t ime building
some twenty armoured cruisers of 23 knots speed, in
The absence of smoke is an additional point in attainable speed.
which t he limitations of weight greatly increase t he
favour of electric t raction.
The weight of the electrical equipment in the difficulties of desigo. As to financial results, we underTo attiain these ends the construction of motor first desig n was not less than 60 tons for the re- stand that the large German ships have yielded a profit
c~rs presents no difficulties, and no special altera- quired output of 3000 horse-power, but by modify- on each separate voyage, even t he winter months securt ions of the t rack, or of the signalling arra.nge- ing the construction of starting apparatus, motors, ing a sufficient number of passengers to pay all charges.
Inents, are necessary, while t he ordinary working and transformers, the weight in subsequen t design~ The new liner, owned by the North German Lloyd,
condit ions r emain unaltered. The trials t o be was reduced to 30 tons. A large proport ion of this and named the Kronprinz Wilhelm, has, as equipped
shortly carried out will provide a further basis for weight was made up by t he transformers, which for service, cost within a few pounds of 650,000l.
t he introduction of an el ect ric system of working, may possibly be dispensed with altogether in the sterling, while her sister ship the Kaiser W ilhelm der
Grosse, completed three years ago, cost 550,000l., the
and will also show the economy of such a system future.
A question of the greatest importance was the difference being due to the greater cost of material,
applied to existing railway lines. It is not necessome
effective
improvements
made
in
the
equipand
mechanical
connection
between
the
motors
and
sary that electrical working should prove more
ment. On this lat ter large capital cost, however, it is
econ omical than steam working ; in many cas~s the wheel axles. It was, of course, understood understood that a profit of 10 per cent. per annum is
it will be s ufficient t o prove that travellin~ by elec- that all intermediate gearing was out of the question obtained, and it seems the more surprising that Brit~h
tricity is more pleasant and convenient to the o wing to its unavoidable wear and tear. Although owners do not enter the lists.
public, and that the management meets modern from the beginning the object was to obtain an
The Kron-prinz W ilhelm is not quite so la~ge as the
elast ic connection between the motor and the axle, Deutschland, t he difference in length being in the
r equirements.
b. .Attainment of a Speed OJ 200 Kilomet?~es various designs and constructions were tried ; in engineroom. P ractically the only change made in
(125 Miles) p er Hour .-The special object of t he some the motors were rigidly coupled to t he wheel the engines as compared with t hose of the Deutschsecond part of the trials is to show the possibility axles, and in others a spring arrangement was pro- land, which we illustrated fully in December last,
of attaining good working conditions for running vided. The solution of t he problem of providing a is in the arrangement of the valve gear for the
at higher speeds, the limits of which can only be spring device, to work at about 1000 revolutions per tandem engines. In t he Deutschland a high-pressure
cylinder is placed over each of the two low-pressure
determined by detailed experiments. For such minut e and 750 horse-power per motor, was, of cylinders, and the piston valve of the high-pressure
high speeds the present system of signalling must course, extremely difficult, and required a most cylinder is actuated by means of a rocking lever
be altered, and the crossings and switches aban- serious and critical examination of t he designs. The pivoted on the co,er of the low-pressure cylinder, and
doned. I t will prove t he absolute necessity of problem has been solved by a special arrangement, operated by separate links and eccentrics. In the
e3tablishing all high-speed service on separate in which the power developed by the motor is trans- new ship, however, the spindle of the high-pressure
tracks, and of constructing special lines, exclusively ferred to the wheel by an elastic and sliding coupling, cylinder, still working on a lever pivoted to the cover
for such a service, in both directions. The local and by an elastic suspension of the motor, which of the low-pressure cylinder, is connected to t he top
from a soft movement in the beginning turns into of the spindle of the slide valves of the low-pressure
and aoods traffic lines must be built separately.
T h: necessary investigations relate t o motor a suspension of increasing rigidity. I t followed cylinder, so that the one pair of eccentrics, with
cars, to construction of t rack, and to the possibility from this arrangement that each motor must have a their gear, suffices for both low-preesure and highpressure cylinders, and t his arrangement we hope
hollow
shaft,
and
the
speed
in
t
he
bearings
is
nearly
of insuring safety.
16 metres (49 ft.) per second. A careful study to illustrate later. The first intermediate cylinder
is at the forward end of the engine, and the
CoNSTRUCTION oF THE MoTOR CAR.
of the friction at t his speed has been made, and second
intermediate at the after end, the four
The motors are arranged directly on the car, and experiments also carried out with speeds up to cranks and the reciprocating parts being balanced
no separate locomotive is used. Each car is capable 20 metres (82 ft.) and 25 metres (98 ft. ), and with on the Schlick system. The two high-pressure cylinders are 870 millimetres (34.2 in. ) in diameter, the
of accomn10dating about 50 persons. The motors great bearing pressures.
Starting resistances for motors of 260 to 750 intermediate cylinders being 1750 millimetres (68.8 in. )
have altogether a normal output of 1000 horse-power
and a maximum output of 3000 horse-power. The horse-power have already been used in practice ; and 2500 millimetres (98.4 in.), while the t wo low-pre3cylinders are 2600 millimetres (102.3 in. ), the
tests will prove whether such a large amount of but the ques tion of starting resistances for four sure
stroke being 1800 millimetres (70.8 in. ). The engines
750
horse-power
motors
enclosed
in
a
very
narrow
power is r equisite or no~, and will show t~e ~on
are to run normally at 80 revolut ions, although 83 or
space,
and
for
t
heir
continual
regulation,
had
neYer
sumption of current at different speeds~ taktng Int o
84 can easily be obtained ; the normal indicated horsebefore
been
contemplated.
The
individual
merits
consideration adverse, head, or cross winds.
power, which has already been developed on t rial with
of
liquid
and
metal
r
esistances
were
considered
at
Having r egard to. the end in v~e w for t~e cona comparatively early cut-off, is 33,000. The speed
length.
The
use
of
t
h
e
former
seemed
to
be
out
struct ion and workmg of long-distance railways,
attained on the trial, of 23.34 knots, gives every
the three-phase alternate-current system could of the question, whereas the latter involve a great promise of an interesting competition with t he
only be considered. As a matter of fact, the gene- number of con tacts, brushes, connecting cables, Deutschla.nd, whose record speed is 23.51 knots. The
r ation of thr ee-phase current of from 40,000 to and resistance material, and were consequently too crankshaft of the Kronprinz Wilhelm is 610 millimetres (24 in. ) in diameter, the t hrust shaft 600 milli50 000 volts and its conveyance to long distances, h eavy and complicat ed.
Four motors, each with three armature circuits, metres (23. 6 in. ), the tunnel shaft 580 mil1imetres
pr~sent no 'difficulties. For t~e line now to ~e give
(22.8 in.), and t he propeller shaft 630 millimetres
a
total
of
12
phases,
in
each
of
which
was
experimented with, only a tenswn of 12,000 vol~ IS
inserted a r esistance divided into 12 steps. Not- (24.8 in.), while the four-b1aded propellers, of bronze,
required, the distance from. ~he central gen eratl!lg withstanding this sub-division of t he resistances, are 6.650 millimetres (21 ft.. 10 in.) in diameter, and
station of t he Berlin Electn01t~ Works to the p~mt
the difference of the currents was still intense from of 10 metres (32 ft. 9 in. ) pitch. To enable the screw
where the line commences being .only 12! k.lo- step to step; and t he r egulation , done by jerks, was shaft to be withdrawn from t he outside of the hull, a.
metres (7 .7 miles), and t he leng ih of the hne
large flat coupling has been fitted to the -propeller
very unsatisfactory. The difficulty was overcome shaft,
the weight of the coupling being about 11 tons.
24: kilometres (15 miles). .
.
by
the
design
of
a
patent
starting
r
esistance,
such
All the pumps are separate from the main engines, as
The transformers, wh10h convert the tension
as can also be used for large winding engines.
well as the condenser, which latter has a length of
from 12,000 down t o 400 volts, a~e lo~a~ed in the
Alt hough the r es.istance m<1terial here. is . a 2604 millimetres (8 ft. 7 in. ), wit h 1910 square metres
motor car but for future constructions It IS an open solution of soda, t his apparatus has nothing In
question ~hether it will not prove better to use common wit h the ordinary liquid starting resist- (20,559 square feet) of surface; thi.s being, of course,
of
both
the
main
condensers,
while
the
measurement
medium-tension motors, of, say, about 30~0 volts, ance-a fact which has been proved by trials made the auxiliary condensers are 1600 millimetres (63 in.)
and t he same voltage on the overhead ~rres. In
long with 60 square metres (646 square metres) of
on
a
large
scale.
.
s uch a case it would be necessary to bu1ld transTaking into consideration the speed of 200 kilo- surface. The air pumps are by Messrs. Weir and
former houses at determined intervals along the metres per hour, it was desirable to provide, Cathcart, who have also supplied the feed pumps and
track, and so convert t he volt.age from 50, 00~ down besides t he W estinghouse air brake of the usual feed heaters. There are twelve double-ended and four
to 3000. Transformers, as IS known, requue no type, an electric brake which may be used bo~h in singleended boilers, and these, unlike those of t he
Doutschland, where Howden's system is in use, are to
attendance in comparison wit h rotary converters.
connection wit h t he source of current and Inde- be worked under natural draught with an open stokeThe car has a driver's platform ~t each en~, from pendently of the latter ; t he braking action may be
hold, as was t he case with the Kaiser Wilhelm der
which control is effected. All parts carrying curmade soft or energetic at will.
Grosse. The boilers, which work to a pressure of
rent are arranged in a central space called the
In addition to t hese main points, many other
213
lb.
per
square
inch,
are
5100
millimetres
(16
ft.

apparatus room, which is separated ~rom the. ~est investigations and exper1ments were necessary m 9 in. ) in diameter, t he length being 6300 millimetree
of t he car by means of a double sheet-Iron partit~on, r egard to the details. Judging by th~ r esults (20 ft. 8 in.) in the case of the double-ended boilera,
so that passengers and attendants cannot come Into obtained from t he factory t est, there 1s every each of which has eight furnaces of 1150 millimetreE
contact wit h dangerous tensions. The to~l length reason to b elieve that the motor car will meet all (45 in. ) in diameter. The weight of the double-ended
f the car is about 22 met res (72 ft. ), and Its other requirements so that we are now enabled to t ak e boilers is 104 t ons. The total heating surface is
~imensions correspond with the standard profiles of in hand the 'ot her aspect of t he q uestion of high- 8720 square met res (93,865 square feet), t he grate
area. being 251.16 square metres (2702 square feet).
the German State rail way carriages: The car body speed railways- viz. , t he running on t he track.
is carried by two bogies, each wit h three axles.

SEPT. I

3,

I 901.

The boilers are arranged in four batteries, each with

a funnel whose height above the firebara is 110ft. ,
the diameter being 4~ metres (14ft. 9 in.}. There are
bunkers on each side of the boiler compartments, but
the principal one is between the second and third
boiler-room, an arrangement which not only precludes
the possibility of more than one hg,lf of the boiler
power being put out of action by a ship colliding at
the point of connection between the bulkhead and
shell-plating, but it confers the still greater advantage
of enabling the central part of the ship to be given up
to dining-room and other passenger accommodation.
As to the other mg,chioery in the ship, it may be
said that there are three electric generating sets, and
two of Linde's refrigerating machines placed at the
forward end of the shaft tunnel, with a fourth dynamo of 800 amperes well above the water-line. An
interesting change has been made in connection with
the steering gear: as in former ships, this gear is of
the Brown type, by Messrs. Brown Brothers, of Edinburgh; but in this case the gear has been entirely
duplicated; thus, whilEl, a~ formerly, thel'e is a steering
installation under th9 water-line, the rudder post
is carried ri ght up to the poop, where duplicate engine
and gea.r are fitted which run idle under norma.l conditions, but will do the work should the under-water ge9.r
become dislocated or injured. Although such gear is
made of grea.t strength, there is always the possibility
of a breakdown; and it s'3ems doubtful if hand wheels,
or the light emergency gear sometimes fitted, is
sufficient for vessels of such high speed and great
displacement. Strength and reliability a"e also the
characteristics of windlass and capstan gear, which,
as in the case of all modern Atlantic boats, is by
Na.pier Brothers, Limited, of Glasgow. The forward
gear consists of two cable holders, suitable for cables
of 74 millimetres (2t~ in.) in diameter, with their
brakes and coupling bosses fitted on the forecastle
deck. Above the cable holders are drums for heavy
warping purposes, and forward of t he windlass on the
foreoa.stle deck a re placed two quick-speed capstans
for lighter work, which can also be worked by hand.
There are two engines of great power, with cylinders
17 in. in diameter by 13 in. stroke, and 15 in. in
diameter by 12 in. stroke, each ca.pable of doing
all the work ; and the wheel gearing is of oast
steel and the wormwheeh of gunmetal. A light
warpin~ capstan is fitted forward in the bow, on the
forecastle head, with engines having cylinders 11 in.
in diameter by 10 in. stroke, and on the promenade
deck aft are fitted three warping capstans, each driven
by one independent steam engine, one having cylinders 15 in. in diameter by 12 in. stroke, and fitted
with a cable wheel for working the stream cable and
s tern anchor; the other two engines having cylinders
11 in. in diameter by 10 in. stroke.
On the occasion of the launch of the ship 've gave
some particulars about the hull (see ENGINEERING,
vol. lxxi, page 486}, and we hope later to more fulJ y
describe the Yessel, so that here we need only give one
or two general particulars. The vessel is 663 ft. long,
66 ft. beam, with a depth (moulded} of 43 ft., but
there are three decks above this, th~ total gross
tonnage being about 15,000 tons, and the normal displacement 2 1,300 tons, including 4400 tons of coal
and 5250 tons of cargo. The total number of pasEengers is 1651, including 650 first and 350 secondclass passengers, while the crew number 520, including 69 deck hands, 241 in the engineroom staff, 51 in
the kitchen department, with 150 stewards and 4
po3tal officials. In the equipment of the ship there
are several interesting developments to which reference should be made as an indication of the conveniences and comfort provided for the present day
travellers. In the first place there is a telephonic
system, including not only the public rooms and official
departments, even to the wine cellare, but also many of
the private rooms; and :t.rrangement9 are provided so
that the ship system may be coupled up to any land
trunk lines-i.e., at ports of o~ll. A messenger-boy
Eervice, with electric call-instruments, is also provided;
the chief steward has an exceptionally large office,
centrally situated, and equipped with all the conveniences of hotel bureaux. Electric punkahs are
provided in the public rooms. The electric call-bells,
as ~ell as the light switches, are arranged in the
?abms, so tha.t the passenger may operate them while
1n bed-~ot a usual convenience. The shi p's clocks
are eleotrwa1ly controlled. The look-out man in the
crow's-nest on the foremast ca.n ascend to his position
by a. ladder inside the mast instead of outside and
there is a speaking-tube down to the navig'ating
' 1 d
I
h
ffi
o cer s ) fl ge.
n t e matter of safety, also, the
ship ?larks pr~gress. Only in the bulkheads in the
~achmery. sect10n are there do~rs below .th~ waterlm~, an? m all oast>s an hydrc\~hc system JS Installed
WhiCh 1s .so con~roll~d el~ctncally that the captain
on ~~e br.tdge or 1~ his cab1?, or officers from various
pos1t10ns m the shtp, .may mstantly close every door.
To combat fire, a spe01al pump of a capacity of 20 tons
per hour is fitted, with a special system of piping
throughout the ship, in which pressure is alwass
Jnaintained, and at ma.ny statiollS throughout the

vessel there are special alarums, with the usual glass

face ; and such alarums not only communicate the fact
of an outbreak to the various officers' and firemen's
quarters, but also set the pump at work. These and many
other ingenious details, combined with the simple yet
highly artistic decoration of the public rooms, all of
which we hope to describe later, mark the Kronprinz
Wilhelm as a great triumph in the shipbuilding art, and
as testifying to the world, as the German Emperor has
put it, " that the energy and enterprise of the German
people never elumber, but rise from generation to
generation to ever higher flights to the blessing of their
Fatherland."

QUADRUPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES.
To 'l HE EniTOR Ol!, ENGINEERING.
Sm,-In your issue of August 16, page 213, there is
the descript10n of a very ingenious high-speed quadrupleexpansion engine, constructed by Messrs. Simpson, Strwkla,nd, and Co., Limited, of Dartmouth, and shown at the
Glasgow Exluhition.
A very analogous engine has been constructed on my
own plans since 1889, when I was connected with the
firm Fratelli Orlando. A view of it was published in
your journal, issue May 29, 1891.
As can be easily ascertained, the arrangement of the
two engines is much similar, the principal difference
consisting in the type of the valve gears.
Instead of plain slide valves pl:l.ced on the axis of the
engine, the firm Simpson- trickland have adopted piston
slide valves laterally situated, which) in my opinion; may
cause inconvenience, owing to the difference of the strain
of the two slide valves connected to the same rod.
I remain, Sir, ~ours truly,
SALVATORE 0RLANDO.
Leghorn, September 3, 1901.
1

WATER-TUBE BOILER TRIALS.

To THE EDITOR 011' ENGINEERING.
SIR, - I read with great interest the report in your las t
week's issue of the H yacinth and lVlinerva tnals, and
your leading nrticle on the same (page 291 ante).
I was struck with the fact that, while the H:yaointh's
boilers showed a better evaporative result than the
Minerva's, the Minerva's engines, except at 8000 indicated
horse-power, showed themselves more economical than t he
H yacinth's. Engines working at a higher pressure and
w~th a greater ~atio of ~xpansion ought to be more economical than engmes destgned to work at a lower pressure
lVlr. Oram, R .N., in some lectures on water-tube boilers'
says, that as compared with a pressure of 150 lb. th~
(theoretical) gain in economy at 250 lb. is about 14 per
cen~.; so this apparent.want of economy in the H yacinth's
e~gJ. nes must b~ du~ e1ther to the engmes being charged
with water which 1s really leaking from the boilers or
else the steam supplied by the boilers must be m~ch
wetter than the M1nerva's
In the trial at 5000 indicated horse-power the lVIinerva
used rather more water for make-up than the Hyacinth,
so t~ere , can~ot have been roue~ leakage from the
H yacmth s boilers; and yet the lVlmerva's engines used
over 10 per cent. less water than the H yacinth's.
. The ~nly concl~sion, it seems to mehi~ that the Bellevilla boiler supplies wet steam, and t
accounts for the
wonderful evaporati ve performances of this boiler in
shore trials.
The des~gn of the Belleville boiler, I think is conducive
to producmg wet steam. The direction of flow of the
water in its passage from the water collector to the steam
drum is reversed nineteen times, a.nd the bends are perfec~ly sharp, so that the water m us~ tend . to get broken
up mto fine spray and thoroughly Jnlxed wtth the steam
a~d the volume of the steam drum is very small compared
With other water-tube boilers. The ratio of volume of
s~eam dr!Jm. t~ grate. area is only about .23 in the Belle~~ille, while 1t lS .92 m the Niclausse, and 1.6 to 1.8 in the
rhornycroft and Yarrow. (Of course, some allowance
~ust be made for the Thornyoroft and Yarrow being deSigned to burn. much more coal per square foot of grate.}
It . may be 5alld that the upper tubes in the Belleville
boiler ~re part of the steam space, but the circulation in
them lS, or ought to be, fairly rapid, so that the water
gets no chance to settle down out of the steam till it
reaches th~ drum, and I believe that in spite of separators
and re~ucmg valves, a la~ge proportion of the water in
suspensiOn reach~ the engmes ttnd produces the apparent
want of economy m them.
I am, yours faithfully,
September 4, 1901.
A. B. C.

mate paragraph I find that Mr. Price Abell is of. opin~o!l

that (1) the exhaustion of 2000 gallons of wash of Its sp1r~t
by 5lb. back-pressure steam (through open worm eVIdently} resulted in as much as 1000 gallons plus very
nearly t he number of gallons .of spirit actually distilled
out of water from condensatiOn of the steam; and (2)
such exhaustion by 5lb. pressure steam, directly reduced
from 100 lb. pressure, resulted in only just about the
number of gallons of spirit actually distilled out, of wa.ter
from the condensation of the steam, so that the conclusiOn
would have to be t hat by his wire-drawing Mr. Price
Abell superheated the steam required for t~e distillation to an extent represented by the heat mnts nearly,
of about 10,000 lb. steam at, or about, 5 lb. pressure, and
I find the order much too large with r eference to the
difference in total heat of 5 lb. , and of 100 lb. steam.
1\llr. Price Abell's fur ther statement that the latter
st~am gave twice the quantity of proof spirit from the
same quantity of wash, I take to mean simply that the
runnings from the still averaging proof strength were
about double the quantity, and not that the total quantity
of spirit won, in terms of proof strength, was double.
Mr. Price A bell says nothing a.s to the degrees of attenua tion fallen through by the two was hes, so that it is inlpossible to attach a value to this statement.
It appears to me that if the 100 lb. steam were expanded
to 5 lb. at the worm, and not in a separate expansion or
distributing vessel, total heat of the 100 lb. steam would
come into play, and that then the 100 lb. steam, for a unit
weight of 1t, would be more efficient than the 5lb. steam;
but such an arrangement, speaking generally, is not one
of the sugar refinery.
In the last pa.rag1aph of my letter of the 23rd ult. there
is a misprint resulting in the unintelligible. The portion
of paragraph in question should read : '' . . . . and as
the co.mparative total heat is alone concerned in the
q_u~stion of boiler power required (for boiling, with reduotwn of the heating steam to water of the same temperature
in the cases compared}, the coml?arative . . . . "
Yours faithfully,
FRANOIS N. G. GILL

THE NEW LABORATORIES AT THE

GLASGOW UNIVERSITY.

To 'rHE EDI'l,OR o~ E NGINEERING.

SIR, - W ould you allow me to correct two ~li_ght mis
takes in your article of last week dealing ' Vlth thes~
laboratories ?
It is stated t hat the circular tanks below the floor of
the hydra!Jlic laboratory are "e;ach capable of holding
10,000 oublC feet of water." T his should be 1000 cubic
feet; and again, the high-level tank holds 1430 cubic feet
not 14,300.
'
I am, Sir, yours truly,
ARea. BARR.
250, Byres-road, Glasgow, September 11, 1901.
OuR ExPORT COAL TRADE.-We have now another
month's experience as to the effects of the imposition by
Parliament of a duty of 1s. per ton upon coal expor ted
from the United Kingdom. This experience is not altotogether fa:vourable ; on .the other hand, the reduction
oh?ervable m the exports IS not very material. The total
shipments of coal, coke, cinders, and patent fuel in
Aug~st were 4,003,009 tons, as compared with 4,173,499
tons m August, 1900, and 3, 758,781 tons in August, 1899.
Coal, properly so called, figured in the 4, 003,009 tons for
3,816, 776 tons. The principal shipments in August compared as follows with the corresponding shipments in
August, 1900, and August, 1899 :
Country.

Aug., 1901.

Russia

..
..
Sweden and Norway
Germany
France
Italy . .

.
..
..

.
..
..

tore
401,548
465.440
601,508
603,5:4
474,416

Aug., 1900. Aug., 1899.

tons
54l.135
406,645
611,011
688,119
616,969

tons
551,368
475,772
638,17-!
620,096
I 396,646

There was an increase last month in the shipments to

De.n~ark, ~ortugal, Turkey, E gypt, Brazil, and
~nt1sh India ; b~t, on the whole, the ba.lan ce was
m an ad ve~e duection. Our aggr~gate exports of
coa.l, coke, omders, and patent fuel 1n the first eight
mon ~hs 'yere .29, 080, 478 tons (coal properly so-called
fis-urmg m th1s tota:l for 27,764,888 t?ns), as compared
with 30,217,7~6 tons .m t he corresponqm g period of 1900,
and 28, ~43,353 tons m the correspondmg period of 1899.
The s!upments made to. the following countries in the
first e1ght months of this year exceeded 1 000 000 tons
each:
'
'

HIGH-PRESSURE V. LO\V-PRESSURE
STEA1Vf IN THE SUGAR REFINERY.

To ~HE EDITOR Ob' ENGINEEltiNG.

Srn,-~Ir. Pnce Abell, in his statement, appearing in
your lssue of th~ 30th ult., that great economy resulted
f~om the adoptwn of lOO lb. of steam instead of 50 lb in
s1x su ar factories 11 w

li~uitsgof the .disou;~o~ {nvit~~ ;~:: gi~sabcei~:~ut~~

faoto~y oruslnng cane by mill, and probably by mul tig le
crushmg, the steam reqUlred by the very powerful engiEes
necessary 'Yould bear .l!' most material proportion to the
~team requrred for boiling, and _it is quite possible, and
mdeed probable, tha~ then t~e ~gher pressure w~mld give
an economy. I adVIsedly limited my observatwns to a
sufar refinery..
any c as~, m th~ absence of figure~, the statement has
v:b ue on Y prloportwnate to tha:t 'Yhioh cn:n b~ attached
o e persona factor concerned m it, and m hlB penulti-

I:

371

E N G I N E E R I N G.

Oountry.
Russia

..

..

Sweden and Norway

Denmark
..

Germany
France

.
..

Spain . .

..

Italy .

..

Egypt..

..

..

1901.

1900.

1899.

tons
1,800,781
2,673,410
1,411,626
3,87i ,4g8
5,196,892
1,809,898
8,734,000
1,899,908

tons
2,308,687
2,871,6i4
1,332,417

tons
2,438,251
2,950,269
1,329,F52
3,326,921
4,601,036
1,526,966
3,786,165
1,889,236

a ~5 t ,sog

6,624,647
1,668,662
1,676,684
1,262,071

These figures, it will be observed, leave matters very

much as they wer e, although as a general result, the progress of the expor ts appear to have been checked this
y_ear. Our coal. e?'ports .fell off to August 31 this year to
Holland and Bnt~h Ind1a ; but they increased to Portugal
Turkey, and Brazil.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
NOTES FROM THE NORTH.
.
GLASGOW, W ednesday.
Glasgow P tg-bon lJ!lwrket.-Business remained quiet but
firm last Thursday forenoon. Somewhere about 6000 tons
change~ hands, .but only a small demand was shown for
Scotch 1ron, wh1ch rose 2d. per ton, and Cleveland made
ld. per ton advance. At the afternoon market about
ot~er 7000 tons were dealt in, and the market finished
fa,l rly firm. Cleveland at the close was ld. up per ton
from the forenoon. The settlement prices were : Scotch,
5~. 7id. ; Cleveland, 44s. 10I. ; and Cumberland hematlte 1ron, 61s. 3d. per ton. The market exhibited
renewed firmness on Friday forenoon when about 5000
tons changed hands ag~in at hard~r prices. Scotch
warrants were .the turn better at 53s. 8d. per ton
cash buyers, while Cleveland was done 2d. per ton up at
45s. ld. cash per ton. About 4000 tons were done in the
afternoo~, the market still keeping firm, and the settlement pnces were: 53s. 9d., 45s., and 61s. per ton. At
the forenoon session of the pig-iron warrant market on
Monday forenoon, when the sal es were limited to some
3000 tons, Scotch lost ~d. and Cleveland. l~d. per ton.
At the aft.ernoon. meeti~g n:bo_ut 4000 tons changed
hands,. dealing bemg agam hnnted to Cleveland iron,
of which only a few lots were sold and the price
fell anot~er ld. Scotch iron was not na~ed. The settlement pnces were: 53s. 6d., 45s., and 60s. 9d. per ton.
At the forenoon session of the pig-iron market on Tuesday
son;te 4000 tons were dealt in, and Scotch fell !d. per ton,
which Cleveland made. At the forenoon market 2000
tons were sold. Scotch was unohan~ed, and Cleveland
lost ld. per ton. The settlement pnces were: 53s. 6d.,
45s.,. and 60s. 71. per ton. At the forenoon session of
the rron ll?a.r ket to-day some 8000 tons of iron changed
hands, entrrely Cleveland, which rose l~d. per ton. In
the afternoon only some 2500 tons were sold. Prices were
firm, an<;l Cleveland closed up 3d. on the day. The settlement J?nCes were: 53s. ?d., 45s. 1~. , and 60s. 6d. The
folloWing are the quotat10ns for No. 1 merchants' pioo iron;
Clyde, 66s. per ton; Gartsherrie and Calder, 66s. 6d.; Langloan, 68s. 6d.; S ummerlee, 70s. 6d.; Coltness, 72s. 6d. per
to~-the foregoing a.U shipped at Glasgow; Glengarnock
(shippe.d at ArdroSSc'tn), 65s. ; Shotts (shipped at L eith), 70s.
Ope~t10ns th~ '~eek :have been mostly confined to Cleveland 1ron, and 1t IS ev1dent that such warmnts must now
be regarded more and more every day as the mainstay
of the tr~e, and the pulse through which the condition
of trade 1s to be judged. Scotch and hematite iron
warrants are but little dealt in; still their prices
are firmly maintained. ~"'rom America the repor ts
as to the strike regard it as practically ended,
and the net result of its occurrence seems to have
been in favour of this country's t rade especially
in South W ales. I ts adverse features may, however,
appear .shortl.Y in fresh offerings of Amer~can pig iron
oompetmg w1th home Rroducts. l\1eanwhlle this oompetiti<?n. is reserved for ' Dominion " iron, of which large
quant1t 1es are already under wBty. From the Continent
reports are flatter than ever, and further forced sales of
pig--iron contracts are advertised, and there is still no
ev1denoe of that aut umn demand upon which the Middles~rough iron district is so dependent. The bright featur e
m t he outlook continues to be the home tra.de situation,
which almost everywhere is of a most satisfactory nature.
The stook of pig iron in :rYlessrs. Connal and Co.'s public
warrant stores stood yesterday afternoon at 58 370 tons,
~against the same quantity yesterday week, thus showmg no change for the pas t week.

F ilnishecl I 1on wncl Steel.- There is a marked activity

reported regarding the finished iron and steel trades.

The mills are generally running five and six days per
week at :Motherwell, and the demand for shipbuildmg
steel is very good. L arge outputs are being reported.
:Makers are at present in a position to meet the keen
?OIDP.etition from America, and they are being helped
m t his by t he fact that some of the foreign plates do not
rigidly stand the tests for shipbuilding purposes. :Many
of t he specifications are now beitlg framed in such a
way as to bar foreign plates. British brands being
preferred. Ship-plates are quoted at rather less than
6l. per ton, boiler-plates are quoted at 6l. 2s. 6d.
per ton net, and for forged shell specifications 5l. 17s. 6d.
net has been taken. In the finished iron trade, bar iron
is in great request at the Clifton W orks (W:ylie's), and at
the W averley and R oohsollooh Iron and Steel W orks,
Coatbridge. The works named have generally about 25
puddling furnaces going, with the usual number of heating
and scrap furnaces.
Sulphate of A WJn<m;ia.- In some quarters there is a brisk
demand for this commodity, ~enerally at about lOl. 10s.

per ton at L eith, where the shtpments last week amounted

to 704 tons.
Steel Company of Scotlamd.-Notwit hstanding the difficulties encountered, th e directors of the Steel Company
of Scotland st ate in their ann ual report that the accoun ts
show a credit bRlanoe. The past year was one of exceptional anxiety? due not only to the high pt'ioP..s of r~tw
materials, which prevailed in the first half of the year,
but also to t he difficulty experienced in securing orders at
remunerative rates. Practically no relief was obtained
from either pig iron or coal till the close of 1900, and
before any reduction had taken place in t he prices of
these commodities, the prices of plates had fallen off 20s.
per ton. Eventually they announce their resolut ion to
recommend a dividend on the company's paid-up shares
at the rate of 3s. per share, and that a balance of
2723l. lls. 2d. be earned forward to this year's accounts.
Ncilston W ater Svpply.-At the meeting of the county

sub-committee on the water supply for the Yillage of

Neilston, held recently, a report was submitted from 1\Ir.

R obert F. Miller, C.E., Glasgow on the cost of the proposed scheme of obtaining a supply from the L ong L och
m the lVIearns. P arish. The total estimate was 1550l.
The sub:oommttee approved of the report, and instructed
the engmeer to proceed with the preparation of the
necessary plans.
The Ooll01pse of the T alla T unnel.-'rhe W orks Committee of the Edinburgh and District W ater Trust had
before ~hem the other day ~n interim report by lVIr. Hill,
consultmg and water engmeer Manchester on the collapse of the Talla Tunnel. H~ made sever~l recommendations, and ~Ir. T~it, the local engineer, has reported to
the W orks Committee that having consulted t he contraot?r, he was of opinion t hat a sum of 4000l. would be
reqmred to do the work specially urged by Mr. Hill, who
h.as sen t a suppleJ?enta.ry report dealing 'vith t he positiOn of the reser vOir and the works at Talla in which he
states t hat the work is being carried out sati~faotorily.

NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE.

SHEl<"' FIELD, W ednesday.
H't~Zl Coal T ntde still D ecZ.tintling.- The official report of
the Hull coal t!ade issued on Saturday shows that there
wer.e sent to this port last mon th 371,644 tons of coal as
agamst 438, 480 tons in the corresponding period of last y~ar
a decrease of 66,836 tons. In the eight completed mont~
of the year 2,099,152 tons had been sent, against 2, 725,360
tons, a decline of 626,208 tons. The exports last month
totalled 171,091 tons, which compa.red with 207,642 tons
forwarded in August, 1900, shows a falling-off of 36 551
tons. The eight months showed a reduction of 425' 548
tons. L ast month's coastwise trade amounted to 30; 780
t(;ms, against 46,352. tons ill August last year, and on the
e1ght months there 1s a decline of 146,718 tons.
Extension of Elect,ric Light aJ1Ul, P ower in L eeds. -Since
taking over the electric light and power undertaking the
L eeds Corporation have spent 90,000l. UJ>On extensions.
In t he time of t he old company the capa01ty of the plant
was 4300 indicated horse-power, or 2400 kilowatts. At
presen t there are installed, or on order, engines and alternators of a total capacity of 8740 kilowatts; and when
the extensions of buildings now in progress are completed, there will be accommodation for plant of an aggregate capacity of 19,940 kilowatts.
Gas v. Eleoflricity.- Speaking at the annual meeting of
the S~1effield U nited Gas Light Company, Sir F . T.
lVIappu~, lVI.P., contrasted gas with electricity, and drew
conclusiOns in favour of the former, both as an illuminant
and as motive power. Incandescent gas lamps, he said
produced better results in street lighting than electric ar~
lamps, and only entailed about one-fifth to one-sixth of
the cost. H e expressed surprise that in a place like
Sheffield, where there were so many small manufacturers
that more gas engines were not used, in view of the~
economical running.
T he A1~matwre. -.After being submerged in the cannl
at Sheffield tluee weeks, the armature which the British
Thomson-H ouston Company has manufactured for the
Sheffield Corporation, was successfully landed at the
wharf-side on Saturday.
L ocal Oorwpcur~y .il 1aettings.- T he general meetinoo of
Kayser, Ellison, n.nd Co., Limited, was held at Sheffield
on Friday. In moving the adoption of t he re12or t, which
has already been published, the chairman (lVIr. C. '~
K ayser) said he was disappointed that the profits had
fallen off so much, and mentioned that the company had
expended about 67,000l. more in fuel than in the preceding year. H e expressed his belief that the bottom
of the bad t rade had not yet been reached. T he report
was adopted, and a resolution carried confirming
the proposed payment of a dividend of 5s. per share,
the placing of 2500l. to the reserve fund, and carrying forward of 658l.- The meeting of the Sheffield United
Gas Company was held on T uesday. The report stated
that the increase in the quan tity of gas sold during
the past half-year was 57,609, 000 cubic feet. Owing to
the inflated price of coal (which in six months cost the
Company 35, OOOl. more than in the corresponding period),
thecf.rofit earned was insufficient to pay the usual clividen , and 15, 639l. was t herefore taken from t.h e balances
previously carried forward to enable this to be done. The
report was adopted, a dividend at the rate of 5 per cent.
for the half-year declared, and the retiring directors reelected.
I ron aJ1Ul, Steel.-There has been very little change in
these branches of trade during the week. The armourplate and gun manufacturers con tinue to be employed to
their full capacity. In general engineering there is a fair
amount of work, but the lighter trades are still depressed.
Work is this week being interfered with to some extent
by the Doncaster races.
South Y o?kshi1e Ooetl T?acle.- This week the output
is restt'ioted in conseq uence of many of the miners
attendi11g Donoaster races, and this will enable owners
to clear their yards of all stooks. The local demand
for hards is well sustained, and the general inland
sale continues to improve. Prices are firm, South
Yorl{shire bards averaging 10s. per ton. All kinds of
small coal are this week slightly dearer, best screened
slack making 5s. 3d. per ton, and good nuts 7s. 9d. per
ton. The demand for house ~alities is increasing, a good
tonnage being despatched to London. The local sale is
also satisfactory. Best samples of Silkstones are quoted
at 13s. to 13s. 6d. per ton; and inferior sorts 11s. tolls. 6d.
per ton. Barnsley house) qualities are listed at 12s. to
12s. 6d. for best sorts, and 10s. Gd. to lls. per ton for
inferior classes. 'r he coke t rade shows a little improvement, and quotations for blast-furnace qualities are this
week sligb tly higher.

[S EPT. 13, 1901.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE
NORTHERN COUNTIES.
MIDDLESBROUGH, W ednesday.
.T he Cleveland I 'r on Tr ade.-Y esterday there was a
fairly large attendance on 'Change; t he inquiries were
more numerous, and t he market more cheerful than of
late, but the amount of business actually t ransacted was
not large. At the same time, it was gratifyin~ to find
buY,ers, ~v~o have bee;n very shy for some time, diSplaying
a diSP.OSltJOn to en ter m to contracts. Notwithstanding the
plentiful supply of Cleveland iron, quotations were strong
and probably the suggestion of changing some furnao~
from Cleveland on to hematite iron had somethinoo to do
with. this. Such an alteration should im_prove ~atters
?ons1derably, for whereas the output of Cleveland iron
JJ:? too large f01: the demand, east coast hematite is practically unob~amable for early delivery. No. 3 g.m.b.
Cleveland p1g was 45s. 3d. for prompt f.o.b. delivery.
Sales were recorded at ~hat price, and sellers, as a
rule, adhered firmly to It, but odd purchases were
made at 45s. No. 1 Cleveland pig was 47s. 3d. ; No. 4
fou;ndry, 44s. ; grey forge, 43 . ; mottled, 42s. 9d. ; and
white,. 42s. 6d., E~t coast hematite pi~ was put at 60s.
for t his month s delivery, but that quotation was nominal.
For October deli very of mixed numbers some business was
done at 59s. 6d. There was no alteration in the S_panish
ore trade, Rubio being still15s. 9d. ex-ship Tees. 'l'o-day
the market was steady. Quotations showed no alteration.
So far this autumn the dem~tnd for pig iron for customers
abroad has been very poor, but it is now picking up a
little. This week inquiries on Continenta,} account have
been fairly numerous, and exports for the remainder of
the shipping season promise to be on a better scale. The
effect of the recent poor foreign olea,r ances has been largely
co~nterbalanced by a good home consumption and large
shipments to Scotland.
~1a!fvu-facf;wrecl I ron a;ncZSteel.-These important branches
of thestaple industry continue in a very healthy state. Most
firms .ar~ well supplied with orders, a.nd quotations for all
descnptwns are strong. Producers are not at all necessitated to press sales on the market. Common iron bars
are Gl. 5s. ; best bars, 6l. 15s.; iron ship-plates, 6l. 17s. 6d.;
steel ship-plates, 6l. 5s. ; steel ship-angles, 6l.; iron sheets,
8l. 10s.; steel sheets, 9l.; and galvanised corrugated sheets,
12t.-allless the usual~ per cent. discount. Hea'ry steel
rails keep at 5l. 10s. ; oast-iron chairs, 3t. 12s. 6d. ; and
steel railway sleepers, Gl. 10s-all net cash at works.
Oocd. cvn,cl Coke.-Gas coke is in very good request, and
quotat10ns are very strong.. Bunker coal is plentiful, but
the l~r&'e demand keeps p~10es pretty firm. 'f he supply of
coke 1s madequate, and priCes are co115equently advanomg.
lVIedium blast-furnace kinds cannot well be bought under
16s. delivered here.
W ea?'Clale Steel (Jiftcl Coke Company.-The annual report
of the W eardale Steel, Coal, and Coke Company Limited
has been issued for the year ending June. ' The net
profit was 175,590l. A dtvidend of 6 per cent. per
annum on the preferred ordinary shares takes 30 OOOl.
and a simila,r dividend on t he deferred shares' tak~
13,500l. The reserve fund receives 50,000l., and is thus
br~ught up to 1001 000l., and the depreciation account
ola1ms 75,000l., while the balance carried forward is increased to 34,242l. The iron works ~tnd collieries have
b.een well ~~Pl<?yed, and there is a fair prospect of con
tmued aot1V1ty m all departments.

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.

Oct11d~ff,-The

demand for large ste~tm coa,l has continue4 sa~isfa~tory, although t~ere has n~t. been a lar~e
o~ ~ct1ye 11?-qUlry for future delivery. T his IS due to tne
dismclinat10n of buyers to book largely ahead, as there is
a growing impr~'lSion that production is likely to increase.
The market for smaU steam coal has been rather dull. The
best steam coal has made 18s. to 19s. per ton, while secondary qualities have brought 17s. to 17s. 6d. ~per ton.
H ousehold coal has shown little change ; No. 3 Rhondda
large has brought 15s. 9d. to 16s. per ton. Coke has
made former terms ; foundry coke has been quoted at 19s.
to 20s. per ton, and furnace ditto at 15s. 6d. to 17s. 6d. per
ton. As regards iron ore, the best Rubio has been quoted
at 14s. 3d. to 14s. 6d. per ton, while Tafna has made
15s. 3d. to 15s. 6d. per ton.
. W ate-r Swppty of W estbwry.-New water works, de
s1gned by 1\ll r. A. H. Stanley, C.E., of Trowbrid~e
~av~ been opened at W estbury. The pumping stat1o~
1s situated on the Bratton-road, about a mile from
the town. The well is 50 ft. in depth. 'l 'wo
of Tangye's gas engines, which a.r e duplicated, supply
the motive power, and the water is lifted through a
7-in. main a height of 222 ft. to a reser voir situated
at the bottom of Long Ri,rer, which will contain
two days' su pply, t he storage capacity bein~ about
170,000 gallons, while that of t he well and adits 1s 47,000
gallons. From the reservoir the water flows through
7! miles of cnst-iron pipe mains, not only to vVestbury
,
but also to vVe~tbury L eigh and Ditton Marsh.
P lym,outh SoU?ul. - Staff-Commander Haslewood and a
surveying party returned to Plymouth on Saturday on
the completion of the survey of Salcombe Harbour: to
examine an area recently dredged in the vicinity of Bull
P oint jetty.
W ates (JfiU], l 'relwnd.-At the half-yearly meeting of the
Great Southern and W estern Railway Company of Ireland, Mr. W. J. Goulding, who presided, referred to the
Fishguard and Rosslare route, and said that work on the
line from W SJterford to Rosslare was gettin~ on well,
while at R osslare H arbour plans for an extension of the
pier had been prepared. A favourt\.ble report on the bar
bour harl been received from Captain J arratt, who had

SEPT. 13, 1901.]

done good work for the Admiralty in surveying the coasts
of Ireland, and who had also advised the Great W estern
R ailway Compn.ny on their harbour works at Milford and
Fishguard.
Armowr-P latc 1.'csts.- A sample armour-plate selected
at random from tl. number of plates, manufttetured by
~Ie rs. Charles Cammell and Co., Limited, heffield, for
the Bulwark, line-of-battleshiJ?, has been tested a t "\Vhale
I land under the usua.l condit1ons. The plate was nominally of 9 in. thickness, but the exact mea urement was
8.8 m., and length and breadth were 14 ft. by 6 ft. 10 in.,
and the weight of metal was 360 lb. to the square foot.
Three H oltzer armour-piercing shot each weighmg 380 lb.
were fired a t the plate from a 9.2 in. breechloll.ding gun,
and the plate res1sted the attack in such a manner as to
sati fy the conditions imposed by t he Admiralty. Each
shell was broken into fragments, the penetra t10n being
almost nil. Although t here were no cracks, there was a
light flaking of the plate at the point of impact. The
no e of one projectile became embedded in the plate,
but did not travel beyond the hardened surface. The
velocity of the projectiles was about 1900 ft. per second.
E a;ete1 T rannways.-The British Electric Traction Compa.n y proposes to introduce electric traction upon the
present Exeter tramways. The company also contempla tes an extension of the lines.
OuR L ocoi\rOTlVF. ExPORTs .- There is now little doubt
that 1901 will be a progressive period in the history of our
locomotive exports. The value of the engines shipped in
August was 1-!3,707l. as compared with107,059t. in August,
1900, and 125, 564t. in August, 1899. 'fhe great increase
in the Au~ust shipmen ts occurred in the deliveries made
to Australia and to :rew Zealand. The aggregate value
of the locomotives sent abroad to August 31, this year,
was 1,145,247l. as compared with 956,590t. in the corresponding period of 1900, and 912, 992t. in the corresponding
period of 1899. These figures are prim4 facie extremely
satisfactory, but accoun t should be taken of the fact that the
cost of locomotives has been augmented this year by the
dearness of the materials used in their construction. The
principal exports mnde in the first eight months of this
year compared as follows with the corresponding exports
made in the corresponding period~ of 1900 and 1899 respectively :
Country.

1901.

1900.

1899.

- - - - - - -- - ------1---- - 1- - - South America

British S'luth

..

Afric~

Brit ish I ndia

Australasia . .

..
..

170,338
127,507
297,522
233,780

. 13t,715

15f\,Q8 l
69.366
310,64!
108,698

30,044
455,606
67,976

I t will be seen thn,t there has been a gre~"t.t increase in the

demand for British locomotives in Australasia, and also
in British South Africa, but that the Indian demand has
been falling off.

OuR R..m.s ABROaD.-The exports of rails from the

United Kingdom in August amounted to 36,283 tons,
as cpmpa,r ed with 33,989 tons in August, 1900, and 39,420
tons in August, 1899; and it appears probable that the
shipmen ts will be maintained pretty well for the whole
of 1901. The actua.l shipmen ts to A ugust 31 were 300,328
tons, as compared with 247,504 tons in the corresponding
period of 1900 and 307,660 tons in the corres:Qonding
period of 1899. The exports mad e in August to Sweden
and Norway, Argentina, British India, British South
Africa, Australasia, and Canada compared as follows with
the corresponding exports in August, 1900, and August,
1899:
Country.
Sweden and Nor way
Argentina . .
..
British South Afr ica
British India
..
Australasia . .
..

Canada

..

..

Aug., 1901.

Aug., 1900.

Aug., 1899.

tons

tons

tons

8836
4596
85 l
6770
6918
6208

7,0!&4
6,549
667
10,380
8 ,837

8915
2073
1303
6877
6477
297

11

I t will be observed that the exports to Sweden and Norway kept up well last month, but that Canada made the
best showing. The aggregate exp orts in the same directions for the fi rst eight months of this year compared as
follows with the con esponding exports in the first eight
months of 1900 and the first eight months of 1899 :
-------------------:------Couotry.
1901.
1900.
1899.

I- - - -1- - --

- - -- - - - - - - 1

Sweden and Norway

Argenlira ..
..
British fou ~h Afr ica

British Jnd a

..

Australasia . .
Canada

..
..

"I

373

E N G I N E E R I N G.

tons

tons

43,684
48, 46l

29, 744
29,670

49,397
28,894

41,894
7,826

1~~:~~~

~~:~~~

---tons

63,924
14,329

~~:~n
135,485
13,082

It will be observed that there has been a general increase

in the exports all alon~ the line, at any rate, so far as
1900 is concerned. RuSSla took 11,029 tons of British rails
to August 31 this year, as compared with 1691 tons and
14,675 tons in the correspondinli periods of 1900 and 1899
respe~tively. The exports to Chili in the first ~ight months
of th1s year were 9846 tons, as compared w1th 934 tons
and 2266 ~ons. 1\IIuch h~gher prices have been also made
for the rails export~d this year, the 300,328 tons e~ported
to August 31 bemg .valued at 1,,835,554l., while the
307,660 tons exported m the first e1ght months of 1899
were pr~ced at 1,473,2311. On t he other .hand, the cost of
product10n has, no doubt, been larger this year.

MISCELLANEA.
traffic receipts for the week ending Septem~er 1 on
thirty-three of the principal lines of the United Kmgdom
amounted to 2,184,17H., ~vhi oh was. earned on 20,1.53!
miles. F or the correspondmg week m 1900, t.he rece1pts
of the same lines amounted to 2,118,284t., w1th. 19.885i
miles open. rrhere was thus an ~ncrease ~f 65,887l. in the
receipts, and an increase of 267f m the mileage.
The North-Ea tern Railway Comp.any _is construc~ing
ten new engines, which '~ill surpass .m SI~e .and we1ght
any other British locomot1 ve ev~r built. .Th1s depar~ure
is to ena ble the company to dispense w1th t he s~rvJCes
of assistant-engines in the ha uling of heavy trams .on
steep gradients. The locomotives are to b~ made w1th
drivm g wheels 6ft. 8 in. in diameter. ExclusiVe of tender,
they will weigh, when in w~rking O~'der, 67 tons 2 cwt.,
or 9 tons more than the. engmes des1~ed by. Mr. J . F
Aspinnll, of the Lancashire and Yorkshire R ailway Company.
A new use for a gas engine has, it seems, been discovered
by our "brother Boer." 'l'he J oha.nnesburg agent of
the Oampbell Gas Engine Company, Lin;tited, o~ Halifax,
who has since June las t been engaged m traomg ~oods
commandeered by the authorities of the late R epublic, reports that amongst these were four gas engines which,
commandeered for the dynami te factory, were taken to an
engineer's workshop in Pretoria for conversion into presses
for forcing lead into the nickel shells of J\~Iauser bullet .
'fhe work was only completed on one engine before the
ingenious mechanics and their superiors found more pressing business elsewhere. The crankshaft was cut short at
both ends, and a lot of spur gearing attached, in order to
secure the necessary purchase. The cylinder cover had
been bored out for the insertion of dies.
In a recen t issue of L a N ature, l\11. E. J. :!YLtrey describes some experiments on the photography of stream
lines in moving air. Whilst in many respects similar to
Professor H ele-Shaw's experiment on stream line motion in
liquids, l\1. Marey's differ in some minor particulars. The
current of air is drawn by a fan through a box measuring
20 in. by 20 in. in section, and fitted with glass at the
front and side. Steady motion is secured by means of
screens of fine silk ga uze at each end of the box. The
stream lines are made evident by passing in smoke through
a series of fine jets, arranged at equal distances along a
straight line. The smoke filaments thus produced are
photographed by means of a magnesium flash light burnt
at one side of the apparatus. By putting obstructions in
the pa.th of the stream lines their deformation is made
clearly visible, whilst by setting the series of jets supplying the smoke in vibratiOn the filaments become undulating, the number of undulations per inch run being a measure of the velocity of flow.
In celebration of its jubilee, the W estern Union T elegraph Oompany has issued a pamphlet ~ving a short
history of the origin of t he company and 1ts subsequent
fortunes. At the outset the company was organised to
operate a printing telegraph devised by l\llr. R. E. House,
of V ermont, and it was only after consolidation with certain bankrupt and moribund companies in 1854-5 that
this was replaced by the 1\'Iorse system. The company
paid its first dividend in 1857, and experienced no setback afterwards. In 1861 it undertook the construction
of a line to the Pacific, and in 1866 took over the lines of
its principal rivals through a consolidation of interests.
Rates have been continuously reduced, but still appear
rather high to English ideas. They are not uniform, but
vary witli the distance between the points of receipt and
delivery. The highest price now charged is 1 dol. for ten
words between New Y ork and San Francisco, whilst the
lowest appears to be 25 cents for ten words, and there
are numerous intermediate rates.
Not con tent with holding the record for high-speed
travelling with the famous Philadelphia Atlantic City
run, our American friends quite needlessly seemed moved
to depreciate the really capital expreSs services now
common throughout Europe, and more particularly in
this country. Thus ~Ir. R. S. Callaway, of the Amencan
Locomotive Company, and formerly president of the
New Y ork Central and L ake Shore Railways, in an
article published in a recen t issue of the .Railway !1Iaste1
Jlfechwnic, states that the high-sp eed express trains
in Europe are generally made up of four coaches. A
visit to King's Cross as the " Flying Scotsman " starts
out on its run of 395 miles to Edinburgh would much enlarge Mr. Callaway's ideas as to the loads handled in European express services. Fourteen to eighteen cars, ineluding two or three heavy restaurant cars, is much
nearer the average load ; and the time taken, inolusi ve of stops, being Si hours, t he mean speed works
out to 48 miles per hour. Still better time is made by two
sleeping-car trains, which make the run in 7! hours,
corresponding to an average speed of 51 miles p er hour.
In addition to the above, four other heavy expresses start
d:lJ: from the same terminus for Scotland, whilst very
si ar services also run from Euston and St. P ancras .
In the course of his Budget statement in the House of
Commons, on August 16, the Secretary of State for India
intimated that an exp ert "of very great experience and
attainments" would be sent out to India to conduct an
inqui~y i~1to the ifi!tem of railway management and
orgamsat10n preva g there. It was announced a few
days later that the e~er~ selected was Mr. T . Robertson,
late head of the Public Works Board in Ireland
an~ previously manager of the Irish Great Norther~
R,allwa,y. It has been semi-officially announced at
S1mla that :Mr. R obertson is to sp end the ensuing
"cold weather " and that of 1902-03 in conducting
the projected investigation, Yisiting for the purpose
every part of India. During the intervening summer
THE

months 1\IIr. Robertson will travel in America, with

a view to rep orting how far ~he methods of management there prevailing are apphcable ~o the CB:Se of the
Indian railways. An officer of the Ind1an Public Works
D epartment is to be attach~d to l\1!1:. R ober ts?n throug~
out his Indian tours. P endmg the 1ssue of ~lS .r eport In
the spring of 1903, the ~hanges in the org~rusat10n of t he
D epartmen t named, whtch have for som~ tu,ne be~n. under
consideration, will be postpo~ed, but 1t IS antiCipated
that the Indian Government w1ll be able to p~ss orders
on the report before L ord Curzon's term as V1ceroy expires at t he beginnin~ of 1904.
Following their acceptance of th~ proposal of tJle
British Association for an ethnograph10 survey of Ind1a,
L ord Curzon's Government have adopte~ the suggestion of the R oyal Society for the carrymg out of. a
magnetic survey. The existin~ magnet1c observatones
a t Bombay and Calcutta bemg inadequate. as base
stations for the vast area the survey will .cover,
similar obser vatories are in course of construc~10n at
D ehra Dun below the Himalaya , at K odaiknna1,
in the JYiadras Presidency, and at R a ngoon. The
D ehra Dun Observatory will be under the suyervision of Colonel Gore, R .E., the Surveyor-Genera of
the Indian Survey (whose head-quarters are located
there) ; but the other four will be in charge of JYir. John
Eliot, the meteorological reporter to the Govern.men.t .
The Survey and M ete.orological D~part~en ~s will, m
fact be jointly responsible for the mvest1gat10ns. The
field observations will be carried out by six or seven d etachments of the Survey_D epartmen t, and these will be
controlled by Captain Fraser, R.E., who has recently
been arranging in En_g,land for the purch.ase of. the necesSM'Y instruments.
Sind and the PunJab will first be
taken in lmnd; and, as the country is now intersected
with railways jn all directions, enabling field d~tachme~ts
to quickly cover t he distances from one obserVlng stat10n
to another, it is anticipated that five Y.ea~ '"-ill suffice ~o
complete the field work of the prelimm ary magnetic
suney.
In a paper read before the Buffalo Con ven tion of the
AJ;Uerican Institution of Electrical Engineers, :!Yir. A . J.
W urts described t he "Nernst " lan:!_p, as developed by
the W estinghouse Company in the United States. ~l'he
" glowers " ~re made out of a doug h of rare earths m1xed
with a suitable binding material, which is pr~.ssed through
a die and cnt off into lengths, dried and baked. The
" glower " for a 220-volt circuit is 25 millimetres long by
0.63 millimetres in diameter. It is a non-conductor when
col9. In the original " N ernst " lamp, the conne~tio~ between the "glower " and the leads was made by wmding a
few turns of platinum wire round ea.ch end of the '' Prlower1"
but trouble occasionally arose from the shrinkage. r o av01d
this t he connection is now made by embedding a platinum
bead wit h a wire tail in t he mass of the "glower." Any
shrinkage of the ''glower" then only serves to improve the
contact. When used with continuous currents the
electrolytic action results on a black deposit at the negative end of the" &"lower " which gradually spreads towards
the positive ternunal. With alternating currents nothing
similar occurs, a nd the "glowers" have then a life of about
800 hours, which is much greater than when t he lamps
are used in con tinuous-current circuits. The b est results
are obtained when the "glower " is enclosed in a glass
globe. It is necessary to place a steadying resist
ance in series 'vith the '' glower." since beyond a
certain point the resistance diminishes with mcrease
of cunent, o'ving to the better conductivity as the
temperature is increased. The amount of steadying
resistance needed is greater when the lamp is burnt in
vacuum, or in nitrogen, than it is when burning in the
open air. As a "glower" reaches the end of its life,
the voltage rises rapidly; but up till then is pretty
constant, and does not rise more than 2 or 4 p er
cent. The heater used to render t he ''glower" conductive in lighting UJ? consists of a porcelain tube wound
'vith fine platinum wrre pasted with cement, a pair bein~
used to each "glower ." These coils are out out a utomatlcally so soon as the "glower" becomes conductive. Their
life is some thousands of lamp-hours, a nd their value as
scrap is some 90 p er cent. of their first cost. F or p ower
lighting a number of "glowers" are combined in a single
lamp, a six-" glower " la mp being about equivalent in power
to an ordinary enclosed arc. The watts J>er candle~wer
are about one-half what is n ecessary w1th the or ary
incandescent lamps. A number aggre~ating over 55,000
candle-power have been operating at Pittsburgh for some
time, seventeen 6-"glower" lamps h aving been at work
for over a year. In this case the average life h as been
about 800 hours.
P ERSON.AL.-The Atlas Company, Limited, 38, Leaden~
hall;street, Lond~n, E. C., inform us that they are intro~
ducmg the ohnudt system of superheated steam in the
United Kingdom, under agreement 'vith M essrs. Easton
and Co., Limited, anctuary Chambers, Broad Sanctuary,
S.VIf.
ERHATUM.
-On p age 344 of our issue of September 6 there were
two errors in the reprint of JYir. J . A. Nor~and's paper
on " The DiSSlacement and Dimensions of Ships." The
line numbere " 2 " in the middle of the first column
should read :
2. W eights V (uryilt{} as the D isplacement!.
The figure i was accidentally omitted. In the third
column, at line 14, t~e formula should read :
Dt = 11,000 + 2. 51 X 330t + 3 X
D isplacement of
tlie new ship
3.51 X !_ 1436.7 = 12,585.
20
1'he remainder should be omitted.
DISPLACEMENT AND DlMENSIONS OF SHIPS :

t)

HEAVY HORIZONTAL TURNING .AND

BORING MACHINE.

l SEPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

374

3,

1901.

DIAGRAMS OF THREE MONTHS' FLUCTUATIONS IN PRICES OF METALS.

WE illustrate on page 366 a.n exceptionally large

horizontal turning a.nd boring mill, which is representative of a whole series of these machines now being
manufactured by :M essrs. John Hetherington a nd Sons,
Limilied, engineers and machine tool makers, of the
Ancoats Works, Pollard-street, :M anchester. The
machine will turn work up to 32 ft. in diameter by
~ ft. <;}eep. The face plate is 19 ft. in diameter, a.nd
1s dnven by doublt-, treble, and quadruple gearing,
giving a choice of 36 different speeds. The central
spindle has a top bearing 24 in. in diameter by 27 in.
long, and rests at the bottom on a gun-metal footstep
belo~ the floor level. This footstep can be raised so as
to hft the table clear of the bedplate when a. high
spe~d of revolution is. required. The two uprights
wh10h carry the crossshde are of box section, a nd are
accurately fitted, bolted, and keyed to the bed and to
the top cross-stay. The cross-slide is d eep and stiff, and
is raised or lowered on the uprights by power. Its
weight is bala nced in the usual manner. The two toolboxes have octagonal rams, and can be swivelled t o any
desired angle by means of a qua.dra.Dt and worm. A
graduated arc serves to indicate the degree of such
swivelling. The lower ends of the rams are coned out and
fitted with steel tool-holders arranged to take two tools
for boring. turning, or surfacing. Each slide and ram has
a quick adjustment by means of a hand wheel, pinion,
and rack, and a fine adjustment by means of a traversing
screw which can be operated from either end of ~he
machine. Each r am is fitted with independent feed
motions, which for turning and boring ranges from la in.
up to ! in. per revolution of the table. These feed s, of
which there are eight, can be changed without stopping
the machine. The machine weighs complete about
115 tons, and occupies a floor space of 48 ft. by 34ft.
The s mallest size of the series, we may add, will l urn
work up to 10ft. 6 in. in diameter by 6 ft. deep, and
weighs 46 tons.

(Speciall;y compiled from Official Repo'tts of London 1l:1etal amd Scotch Pig-I1on WCllrrant Ma'rkeb.)

140

14

138

r-

/36

Il l

134

11

132

:~

/30

it

12.8

PHILADELPHIA, September 4.
THE s trike situation continues unchanged, though
both sides report moderate gains and losses. The dis
charged workmen of the Duquesne plant are trying to
tie up the openhearth steel plant of the Ca.rnegie works.
The Amalgamated Association has about exhausted
its resour ces to empty mills of union or non-union
men. The August volume of business in crude iron
an d steel was very good. P rices in most finished
products a.re pointing upward, and, in fact, advanc
in g. Numerous enlargements a re in progress. The
Illinois Steel Company has decided to double the capacity of the South Chicago 'iVorks. A n iron and steel
concern is to be eata blishfd at :M cKeesport, Pa. , a
suburb of Pittsburgh, which will employ 1000 men.
The construction of 200 ovens has been begun
this week by the Maryland teel Company. The
Sha.ron Sheet Steel Company is the name of a new
company which will erect t en Pheet mills, to cost
600,000 dole., a t Sharon, Pa. A large iron and steel
plant will be built immediately 24 miles east of P ittsburgh, on the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
The Dominion Iron a.nd Steel Company's plant is
being hurried forward. Two blast-furnaces and 400
coke ovens have been completed. The pig iron produ ced has been distributed as samples among 125
consumers in Scotland, Canada, and t he United S tates.
The president of the Republic Iron Company has
resigned, and no successor has taken his place. The
reports from all market centres are full of encouragement as to the autumnal and winter consumption of
iron and steel. The railroad companies are contemplating extraordinary improvements in a.ll sections,
and especially in the north-western States and along
the Pacific Coast, where mining and agriculture are
the basis of activity. The demand for all manner
of equipment is now assuming larger dimensions.
This is especially noticeable in locomotives. In
the Baldwin Works in this city ten thoueand
men are at work. The output is four engines a
day. The Pennsylvania Company has just ordered
forty freight engines for quick d elivery. Bridge material is also very active, and all railroad companies are
interested in further improvements in bridges. A few
of the larger systems will, in the near future, ent er upon
t h e policy of building stone bridges instead of steel
bridges. The steel r ail production will reach 4,500,000
tons next year according to some recent estimates.
Light rails are in better d emand, especially for mining
locali ties. Tramways are being also built as rapidly
a s g irder rails ca.n be laid down. The balance of the
year will be exceptionally active, particularly in view
of the suspension of production, and which may be
continued for some t ime to come.

ftrs
-

d~
~

~
~

1\

lst

'

124

1'12

\1

t"

\1

1/8
1/6

~~

1/4

11;1

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16

14

72

70

....

68

NOTES FROM THE UNI'fED STATES.

AuousT.

JULY.

JUNE.

:1:

"

~~

~~

66

J.

38

36
AN

~I

34

./.

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11

r-

28
26

Z4
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llJ

11

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11'

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/4

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8
.$' IJ, )

&

, '

.'

. .,

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...

;y; ~

-.;;

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1111111

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...... " ., ..

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,f,
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Mf.
~

.~ ~J1!:!

I f}

25

t.7

iJ

;.s "'"" I

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/5_'11; .1~

JULY.

23

.c:S .. s 31

J.

14

16

lW OIIST.

:;::t

ZD 22. 76 2.8

s0

IN the accompanying diagrams each vertical line represents a market day, and each horizontal
line represents ls. in the case of tin plates, hematite, Scotch, and Cleveland iron and ll. in all
R ussiAN CoAL MINING.-The production of coal in the other cases.
The price of quic~silver is per bottle, the contents. of which vary' in weight from
Oural in the firstJ four montJhs of this year wa.s 9, 589,831 70 lb. to 80 lb.
The metal prtces are per ton. Heavy steel rails are to Middlesbrough quotapoods. The correspondi ng outputJ in the corresponding
tions. Tin pl&tes are per box of I. C. cokes.
period of 1900 was 10,539,092 poode.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

SEPT. 13, 190 1.]

INDUSTRIAII NOTES.
Tin~

United K ingdom has wiped out the reproach

of being far behind Amer ica in t he matter of labour
sta.tistic3. Our records do not go back so far as those
of various Bureaux of L!l.bour in the U nited States,
some of which were in full working order in the early
sixties ; but, for up-to-date facts, t he recent records of
the L!l.bour Depn.rtment of t he Board of Trade will
bear comparison wi th those issued in America.. In one
respect, however, we arA still behind , namely, in
international labour statistics. W e have even now t o
go back to some of the earlier reports of t he American
Bureaux for facts and figures relating to the condition
of labour in the chief European countriea.
The eigh th of a series of reports on the changes in
the rates of wages and hours of labour in 1900 has
just been issued. It is full of matter, and the tables
are s kilfully arranged, so t hat the full effeot of the
various changes can be seen at a glance. I t appears
that wages attained a. higher level in 1900 than in any
year for which statistics exist. This is a. gratifying
fact from the standpoint alone, if from no other, t hat
it indicates pro3perous trade. Wages can only rise
when labour is in demand and employment is remunerd.the. Em ployers do not, as a rule, employ work people
unless there is a profit upon the employment. That
profit ma.y be small, in eo:ne easel even to vanishing
point; but labour must be remunerative, or it will
speedily cease. When employers are pressed wjth
ordera, the question of wd.ges becomes secondary. If
the demand for an advance is unduly large, there is
resistance; b ut the employer will not, as a rnle, risk
a stopp.lge of work unless there are strong reasons for
EO doing.
The degree of profit decides the question.
The Chief Commissioner of L~bour, }.Jr. Lle wellyn
mi t.h, Eays: "The year 1900 was the culminating
point of t he upward moYenent of wages which began in
1896. Not only did the general level of wages in the
United Kingdom stand higher a.t the end of 1900 than
in any year for which sta.tist ics exist, but the rate of
increase d uring last year was unprecedently high . If
we confine oursehres t o t he ind ustries for which it is
possible to obtain definite st!Ltistics, we find that no
fe wer than 1,112, 684 workpeople, or about onesevent h
of the total employed, received advances during the
year a mounting t o no less than 212,000!. per wedk,
while only 23,010 s us tained decreases to the unimportant a mount of 2800l. per week. The net weekly
rise (in wages) of 209,0001. compares favourably with
91 ,OOOl. in 1899 and 81,000l. in 1898." He goes on to
Eay that by far the large.r amount of the total increase
went to the miners, whos~ wages advanced on the
average nearly 4s. 5d. per week, t he aggregate being
168,000l. , or about 80 per cant. of the t otal weekly inincrease in wages. The Commissioner estimates
that the total increase in 1900 amounted to no less
tha n 6,000,000l. in wagE's alone.
I t is significant t hat a lthough the changes in wages
were numerous and the alterations in the aggregate
great, t hey were nearly all effected wit hout strikes
involving a stoppage of work ; only about 5 per cent.
of the total ch!Lnges were preceded by strikes. The
ot her 95 per cen t. were effected by peaceful m eanE~,
by sliding scales, boards of conciliation, direct negotiation, and similar methods. This is especially grat ifying , for it ind irates that both sides are tired of the
was teful industrinl warfare, in the shape of strikes
and lock -outs, and that a better system is at least
being tried.
Although some signs of de~line in t rade were visible
t owards the end of 1900, the yea.r a 'i a whole was
characterised by good trade, steady employment , high
rates of wages, and freedom from serious labour disputes of any magnitude, t he quarrym en's dispu te being
an exception. 1'he increMe in the weekly wages bill
was nearly 215,000l. per week. The proportionate
dis tribution of the increase is shown by t.he followii1g
TablE>, in group 1 of trades :
A verages B :uecL on Total Number
of T rades.

Emp~oyed

Total IooreMe
Groups of Trades.
p er Week.
:
168,362
.
Mining and q u~rryiog
..
Eng ineering, shipl,utldi r-g, nnd
16, 2S5

metal trades
..
..
6,640

Building trades
..
..
6,0l0

Textile t rades. .
..
..
9,939
..
A~ riouttu ra.l labour . .
..
4,503
R~il way employcs
.
.

38
..
Seamen (A. B.'s o.n1 fi, meu t
12,<.76
A 11 ot her trade~
..
..

in GrJups
Weekly A ,ernge I nc rease
p er head.
8.
d.

3 lOt
0

3}

~0

H
2t

o:~

(I~

TJtal. .
..
..
..
2L4,771
0 6t
... Group 6 represent~ a deJ rea.3e baJed on earnings, and t group ?
a decre:1se.

In a fur t her Table it is shown to what extent the

work people p:uticipated in th~ ~ncrease of wa~es.
The bg ur~s work out th us : In mmmg and quarrymg,
705,437 - proportion of total e~ploved, 81. . ; in .the
te x ih trades, 1 ~5,099-propo :tlOn, 10.3; eng1oeerm g,
shipbuilding, &c., 95,285- proportion, 7.~; buildi~g
tradeo, 78,600- proportion, 9.6; employes of p~bhc
a 1thorit:fs, 31,743; and miscellaneous trades, 91, l v1-

375

proportion (bo th inclusive) 3. 7 ; clot hing trades, 8481

- proportion, 1.4. The aggregate p articipating was
l , 135,786 workpeople, the proportion being 14.2 per
cent. of the total employed. This total and the proportion are exclusive of ag ricultural labourers, and of
the railway employ6s and seamen, who suffered decreases, as show n in the above Table.
The total increa'3e in wages is given as 209,373l. net,
or an average increase in weekly wages of 3a. 8!d.
per head, the corresponding figures for 1899 were
1,176,000 work people whose average increase in wages
a mounted to ls. 6~d. p er head p er week. The total
number participating in each year was nearly the
same, but in 1900 the average advance in wages per
head was more than double.
The methods of s9ttlement are shown by t he follow ing Table:
Mod es of Settlement.
Sliding Ecale
..
.

Oo:1oiliation Bonrdd, &o.

Direct negotiation bet ween the

parties

T lltal and propor tion ..

T otal Number
Affected.
183,889
4 0,157

Percen tages.
15
42

47L,740

42

1,135,736

100

The figures given ara reprod uced io a variety of

ways as pertaining to the several groups, to proport ions and comparisons by years, eo that every aspect
of the ~b arges is presented to t he reader.
Red uctions in the hours of labour wera complrati vely few; only 57,726 work people were affect ed.
The aggregate working hours reduced were 238,043, or
in propor tion 4.12 hours per week p er head of t hosa
affected. The chief reduction was in Lanarkshire,
where 26,500 miners reduced their houra by six per
week, h a.viog adopted the eight hours' system. The
London County Council reduced the hours of 1510
tramway emploJ e3 six per week, and 8000 cabinetmaker'3 ia London had t heir hours reduced 2~ hours
per week. The eight hours' day was adopted in private
establishments employing 27,643 workpeople, and by
public authorities employing 65 persons. Altogether
27,708 work people adopted t he eight hours' day. Here,
again, the Lanarkshire miners swell the total. E x
elusive of those, only 1268 adopted the eight hours'
system in 1900. In eight years t he eight hours' system
had been adopted by 100,780 workpeople, while in the
same p eriod 1432 reverted from the eight hours to the
longer working houra in force before its adoption.
Another case of pioketing, and of an application for
an injunction, ha~ taken place. There is a strike at
the cotton mills of :Messrs. Banister Brothers and
Moore, Limited, Blackburn, whose premises have
been picketed. In consequence, the firm, through
their solicitors and counsel, applied to the Deputy
V ice Chancellor of the Palatine Court, at Liverpool,
on September 3, for an injunction against t he officials
and members of the Blackburn and District Weavers,
' Vindors, and \Varperd' Association, offices at Claytonstreet, Blackburn, to restrain t ham from picketing
near the plaint iffs' mills. As t he writ was only issued
threa days previously, counsel for the defendants asked
for an adjournment, on t he grounds that the writ was
only served on the day previous, and one of the defendants was away at the S wansea Trades Congress. In
consent ing to the adjournment, counsel for the plaintiffs asked for an undertaking not to continue the
practice of picketing in the meantime, which undertaking was given. As the Trades Congress resolved
to fight a test case, here is one ready to hand.
The sts.tement made in connection with the Trades
Congress at Swansea, and published in a. local newspaper, that the directorate of t he Taff Vale .Railway
Company had resolved to issue a writ, claiming
20,000l. damages against the Amalgamated ociety ot
Railway Servants, is incorrect. The dam!Lges claim9d
under the orig inating proceedings were not laid at any
special amount. So far the action of the company has
only gone to t he extent of making the society respon
sible. A perpetual injunction was granted, and the
recent decision only supports the j udgment of M r.
Justice F arwell. That judgment made the society
l i~ble for the acts of its members, and decided that a
cla im for damages could be laid. Any ~pecific claim
will have to be raised by another action, or by pro
ceeding to claim da mages in the case which is still
pending. It is alleged that no definite steps have as
yet been decided up on by the rail way directors.
}.!r. Richard Bell, M.P., secretary of the Amalga-

mated .ociety of Railway Servants, has issued in

pamphlet upon the various decisions of the House of
Lords in connection with Trade Union law. Those
cMes will help t rade unionists and workmen generally
to understand what the decisions mean, and to what
extent t hey m!Ly operate t o the disad,ra.ntage of the
organised workera of t he c~untry. But it will need
something more if workmen are to realise the effect
of s uch decisions. The language of t he judges is
often involved, always technic.l l, and therefore some
more p opular mtthod should be adopted, such as the

republication of articles in the law journals and other

periodicals expounding the law.
The iron trade in the W olverhampton district has
been steady, and quotations for all better classes of
finished iron have been well maintained. The output
has been regular ; new buying, on account of consumer's early wants, has been going on, and business
on foreign account has been r egarded as satisfactory.
Marked bars have been in good inquiry at bes t rates ;
common unmarked iron has been on fairly good sale,
while galvanisers have been ordering more freely of
black sheets. Galvanised corrugated sheets have risen
in price. Gas strip, rods, and hoops have been in fair
dema.nd. Steel producers report an active demand,
but prices have been kept down by foreign competition. The engineering and allied trades continue
f~irly busy for the most part, including ironfounders,
boiler and tank makers, bridge and girder constructors,
and workers io the rail way sheds. T he hard ware
industries also continue for t he most part to be well
employed, t hough here and there there has been a.
slackening off in a fe w of them: but these, as a. rule,
are not the larger br anches.
In the Birmingham district a firm tone has charaJt erised the iron market. Both for home and foreign
account orders have been placed of sufficient weight
to keep the producers well employed far into t he next
quarter. There has been an improved demand both
tor marked and unmarked bars. The engineering and
allied industries keep fairly well employed; there have
been no signs of serious falling off as yet. W orkers
in most of the iron, steel, and other metal-using indust ries ar e all fairly employed.
The position of the engineering trades throughout
Lancashire is certainly better tha n it was, for, with
the exception of one or t wo important sections, a fair
amount of activity is everywhere noticeable. The
exceptions seem t o be in the machine tool branch, in
some sections of which new work of any weight is noli
being secured. Heavy stationaryengine builders
also complain of slackness of orders. Textile-machine ma kers continue slack, but au improvement is
reported in some sections. As a set-off to this,
locomotive builders are still very busy, with sufficient
work in hand to carry t hem through next year.
Boilermakers are also extremely busy, and in all
branches of eleotrical engineering there is continued
pressure of work. Other branches are fairly busy, so
tlut there is no serious falling-off in employment .
In the iron market there are variations- a lack of
steadiness. It is possible that buyers are holding
back in anticipation of imports from America, either
to Liverpool, or through the canal to Manchester. In
t he finished iron branches there is more steadiness,
prices generally being well maintained. Bars are in
steady demand, and prices are stiffening. Generally
the outlook is encouraging rat her than depressing.
A strike of engineers has ta ken place at Leeds
against the abolition of the breakfast half-hour. By
the change t he working time would be divided into
two instead of three portion~.
At Hull a curious case has arisen. Some union
slaters have arrived to take the place of the union
s]aters on strike. The executive of the union, it
appears, consider that the strike is wrong, is adverse
to unionism. The situation is a. strange one, but is
not altogether unprecedented.
The fishermen's dispute at Grimsby is not settled.
Though t he owners and sharesmen or skippers came
to an agreement on Tuesday evening last, the trouble
with the other parties to the dispute is not yet over;
and one of the most powerful t rade unions has offered
to finance the men s till standing out through the
whole of the difficulty. It is reported that some
400 vessels are in dock, idle. The distress is, it
is said, very acute. ~lost of the help com(s from
outside of Grimsby, the wtll-todo inhabitants not
helping.
The conference of t he repreEentativ~s of the Steel
Corporation and of the Steelmakers, held on the
4ch instant, ended most unsatisfactorily. It appeat s
that the Corporation merely submitted its previous
terms, which involve surrender. This the men's representatives were not prepared to assent to. It is
reputed that some 500 men returned to work on t be
National Tube Plant, at ~IcKees Port, the day after
the conference. At present it looks as if t he trike
were collapsing, but the men's representatives do not
admit that it is so bad as that.
In the Bethesda district it is stated that quietude
prevails. The Chief Constable has reported that the
extrc1o police may not be fu rthu needed. At the
Tr ades Congress at wanE ea the delegate3 warmly
supported the proposals for continued support being
given by t he t rade unions to the men on strike. This
may result iu furth~r grants from some of the unions.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[S EPT. I

J,

190 1.

Mfany have already largely contributed to t he strike wages do not therefore represent the rela tive values of conclusions come t o which maturer considerations may
unds.
the men.
co~1demn. D a:t a has .frequen tly t o bo collected, and the
T o r em edy this st ate of affairs, and to obt ain a system p omts affectmg chfferent depn-r t ments in vestigat cd
every man receives t he same st andard rate of thoroughly, before a decision can be arrived n-t. There nre
A cur!ous case has a risen in con nection with a whereby
~vages, and, in adclition , fl;D. extra remuneration for any a,Js<? many suggestio? S of improvement mttde ca~ually
labo ~1r; dispute at B a rry. 1';1 M ay, 1900, the car p enters mc~ease over a, no~ma~ ba IS ra te of prod uction , i t was whiCh may be recogm sed as good and wor thy of adoption,
a nd JO.ners came out on st nk e for an advance in waaes d e01ded, a~ter COl'lSidermg all the best-known syst ems of bu t even the best sh op managet is unable always to follow
from 8.d . to 9d. p er hour. They ha ve n ow decla;ed remun.eratwn, to ad opt the premium sy tem, for the t hem up and see t hat t hey aro carried to a 'conclu ion.
the st~Ike. at an end, as the ma jority of employer s in follow1ng reasons :
P'~rther, after a sugg.e tecl improv~ment is p ut into force
1. The system was simple in its con cep tion and easily 1t 1s fre.quently lost stght of, and Its result s become unthe distri?t h~ve col!ce.ded the terms.
The local
master builders assomat10n d eny this and state tha t un~erstood by the m en , their extra remuneration being ascer tam able.
th~y do not r ecognise the n ew rate , ~s they p ay non- eas1ly cal~ulated by themselves ; the differential rat e T o. secure a prop er discussion on shop problems and to
umon . men 8d. per hour. But the Barry Distr ict ?YSt em bem g o~e!!- to objection on this point, and tend- provide. mnclu ner y for. the systemati~ carrying' out of
~uggestwns and reportmg of results, 1t was decided to
C oun ci l have recog nised the 9d. rate, and call upo n mg to lead to f1'lctwn between the men and the adminis- m
n.ug ura t e a t ou r works a cl ub comp osed not onl y of
trat ors of t he syst em.
~he. Wmks C?m~ittee to pay the advanced rate, and . 2. The SY,Stem '"!as comparatively simple .in i ts applica - foremen, bu~ of a ll t he ~dministrative heads of depar tInsist. upon It In contrac ts. The Master Builders' tiOn, and ~id not 1p volve a very large ndditional staff. In men ts, d rawmg-office, costmg departmen t, corresp ondence
Assoctat10n condemn the a ction t aken a s baneful.
the works m q uest wn about 500 men wor k under 1.:nemium departmen t, &c.
FIG. 1.
and the staff numbers five men a nd two boys m cludiug
N o. - . The Hig~land ghillies on Lord Dal housie's moor s, t he superint endent.
'
CONTRACT NOTE.
1n Forfarshtre, ha ve struck for an a dvance in pay from
3. It .had. no~ t he defect. of piecework, that an error in
27s. 6d. to 30s. p er week. They say that their hours ~ate-fixt!lg 1s either ~xpensiVe or discouraging-. An error
a~e from 7 a .m. till 11 at n ight, and therefore claim m premmm rat e-fixmg only affects the prermum, not the
h tgher rates. . An A m erican sportsman is the present wages.
4. It offered a real inducemen t t o t he workman to
tenant, an.d h1s g uests are put to great inconvenience
sugge:st improvements in his machine or t ools. U nder
by the stnke.
the p1ecewor~ syst em, so long: ~s the machine was kep t
up t o a cer tam standard condit lOn of fi tness the man said
T he d.ispute of miners at Mou ntain Ash, pending for nothing, as a~y imp1:ovem~nt he was awm~e would ~ro
a long t1me, h as resul ted in notices being tendered t o bably resul~ m cuttm g h1s rat e. U nder the premlUm
cease work, which was done on Saturday last. T he SJ;St em an Improvement suggested by the man benefits
men a sk ed. for 6d. a ton extra becau se of difficulties an d lum. and th e employer also, as withm reason no ra tet~e long d tstance from the pit to the workings.
The cuttmg is found necessar y.
5..The sys~em in its applicat ion gives a ccurate data
d1s pute was referred to a rbitration, b ut it failed . Then
for t1me-keepmg and cost-keeping purposes. It nets as a
the men m et. the manager, a week ago, but no settle- double check on the time-kee_ping, and it associates on
Time Allowance, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
ment was arrived at.
on e form t~e article, the operat wn, and the time cost.
The m iners employed at the Intunational Collieries
M an y differen t a pplications ar e in existence of this ComJnenced, ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _________
So~th Wales, have come out on strike against the non~ sys~em, m~st .of which are excellent; bu t in considering

u.mon men, and .those who are in arrears of contribu- their apphcatwn , the character of work being done under
tJ.oos to the umon. There were some 150 when the t he system largely influences the correct choice. In our Finish ed, - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - dtspute began, but ?OW all the m en, except about works there is a large amount of repetition work and also Time T ak en, _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
a large amoun t of sp ecial work ; but in no cas~ are the
tw enty-fiv~, have patd up or entered tl::e union.
opera~ions carried out under a premium contract of longer
d uratwn t han about fifty hours. W e therefore adopted Time Saved, - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - ---
t~e system of p aying a premium of 50 p er cent. on th e W ork n-nd Time Checked, _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _
time saved.
WORKSHOP ME'l' HODS.
The following T able shows the result to the workman
Some Effiaiency Fact01s iln wn Engin~e-ring B usilness. *
R emarks :of the application of the system :
By MESSRS. WILLIAM W EIR and J . R. RrcHllfONn,
of Glasgow.
Swmnnwry.- T he pap er gives an account of several
~chemes which have been ina ugurat ed by the authors to
m terest the st aff and ~en iJ?- securing ~reater efficjency in
th~ s.hops of a~ engm eenng establishment. Brief descnptwns a re given of the working and general results
of: 1. The Premium Syst em.
2. A F oreman's Club, for the discussion and settlement
Machine N o. _ _
Job
No.
of shop problems.
It will thus be seen tha t the workman has earned a N ames ___________________
. 3. A Suggestion Sch eme, whereby monthly awards are
N o. _____ _
IP-ven t o the employes for the best suggestions leadinO' to premium of one-third of his wages on this contract.
The cards used for con tracts are shown in Figs. 1
Improvements.
t>
No. - - - - - ~nd
2,
annexed;
Fig.
1
being
the
con
tract
note,
which
4: A T echnical . Commit tee, for dealing with n ew
1s self-expl!l.nat ory, and ] 'iS" 2 the ti me card. This
des1~s and expenmental work, and for tlie syst ematic
latter card is used when no time allowance has been fi xed No. of Piece.~ --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -consideration of complaints and defects.
5. An Intelligence D epartment, for the collection of for the opera t ion in question, and the larger part oi t he A r ticle _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
data 01~ particular subjects, for the use of various depart- superintendent's d ut ies are in wat ching t he execut ion of
work done under t hese cards, to en able a sui table rate to Operation _ _ _ ___________________ __
men ts m the works.
S o many p~pers have been writt en, and so much litera- be fi~ed f~r use wh en the op eration recurs. T he men
obtam tbe1r cards from t he premium office, situated in
tur~ nm~ exiSts on the equ~pment and organisat ion of
- convenient
parts
of
the
works
;
the
time
for
commencinO'
eng1neermg works, that a bn ef consideration of some less
frequently treat ed factors in promoting efficiency in t he the operation being t he t ime at which the card leaves th~ Commenced,----------------------'-- -off?cet ~he finishing and com~enc~g time of the oards
sh op s may be of interest and p ossibly of value.
c~mmdmg ; thus t he pre9 ara t10n t1me for a job is con - Firushed, -----------------------------------N o claim to novelty is made on b ehalf of these schemes sidered
allowed for m the time allowance. In the
a several of th em are of trans-Atlantic origin but thei~ case of s and
machines requiring a considerable t ime t o Time Taken , ---~------ - - - - - - - - - s uccess when t ransplanted to this side shows 'that much adj ust tpecial
ools, &c., this a.Uowance bears a ratio t o the
can. be d on e to interest the men and the staff generally in number of pieces to be done. On the completion of a con their work , .a nd to stimulate the initiat ion of improve- tract the not e is check -p un ch ed by t he inspect or, or the W ork n.nd Time Ch 3ckcd, - -------- --~ -ments. It IS as true to-day as when J ohn Stuart Mill foreman of t he department, who thus certifies the job t o
R emar1<s :- - ---- - - -- - - - - - -- - - _
wrote that " Capitalist s are almost as much inter est ed as be done correctly, and the f\111 operation t o be den oted on
labo~rers in placing t he operat ions of indust ry on such a
the card ~o have been carried o.ut. T o P.revent any chance
footm~ that those who labour for them may feel the of scampm g or bud work, a stnct r ule 1s enforced that if
s!l-me mteres~ in the work which is felt by those who an y p ar t of worh:, however small~ done under the contract ---------------------------------labour on therr own a ccount; " in fact, t he great er divi- is not righ t, the man loses his wnole premium under the
-----sion of labour and specialisation of product , which are contract. After consultation with the men , it has been
the .features of modern shops, require n ot only improved ag reed t o pay the premium ever y four weeks, except beWhen t he club was first proposed, its recep tion was
envu onment for the workers, but a lso some additional fore the t wo main holidays in July and D ecember, when not at all favourable ; it was con idered by the foremen
stim ul us, apart from the daily round, to prom0te a live eigh t weeks are allowed t o lapse before payment.
tha.t the discus ions would breed dissension, tha t reand hen.ltby spirit, if a high grade of efficiency is t o be
After more than three years' experience of the working flections would be made by one foreman on th e work of
kept up in an est ablishment.
of the system, we have found the followin&" t o be among another, and that gen erally it would give rise to internal
The schemes t o be d escribed have now b een in opera- the many ad vantages gained by its application:
friction. It was accordingly named the " Friction Club,"
tion for some time, so that a fnir idea. can b e given of
1. It has result ed i n a largely increased output from on t he principle t hat i ts mission was to be th e elimination
of friction. I ts business was to discuss shop p roblems
their working results ; and it is the ex peri ence of the our machines for the same labour cost.
decide on solut ions, to institute improvements and
a uthors that when judiciously introduced and governed
2. A n increase in our workmen's average d rawings of and
provide t he means of carryin g t hem out to final'i ty ; t o
by common -sense principle., they furnish mo~t valuable from 10 t o 40 p er cent .
assist ance in the conduct of business. The descript ions
3. In the practically compulsor y maintenance of our receive and adjudicate on complaints and suggestions.
Its rules were made as elastic as p ossible. Its officeof the va rious efficiency factors following are not intended machines in th e highest state of efficien cy.
t o be exhaustive, but ra ther suggestive sk etches embod y4. In a greatly increRsed in terest of the men in thei1 bearers con ist of a n execu tive commi ttee of ve, t hree
in g practical p oints which exp erien ce has shown t o be work, machines and equipmen t, and ~" fair amount of co- chairmen , who preside in succession , and two joint secret aries. M eetings are h eld once a mon t h, in t he evening ;
essential.
operat ion in all our sch emes for improving our factory .
Premi~vm System of Rem'l.vne'r atirna L abowr.- In a..n en5. I t has given our foremen a field for t h e che1ice of men the proceedings are reported and copies are neostyled
gineering works which for m an y years has worked wi th we never had p reviously, resul ting in t he employmen t of and given t o each member, for in er tion in a spring
binder wi th which he is p rovided. The business of each
only time wages, workmen wh o h ave been employed for a only th e best class of steady workmen.
long IJeriod in the est ablishm ent obt ain gen erally a
6. I t has caused our foremen t o be no longer merely meeting is arranged by t he executive, and deals with
hi gh er hourly rate than work men who have only been em - taskmasters over th e men, but to become mere providers whatever shop q uestions are most pressing.
.A club letter -box is provided in t he h op, into which
ployed for a compara tively shor t period, d ue to their of work for th em and insp ection of that work.
supposed bett er acquaintance with the work ; but in
2. The F1ictior1t Club.- In ever y est ablishment sh op members are requested to send notes on . uggestion$ or
man y cases younger and fresh er m en ar e b etter and more problems of various kinds occur, t he settlement of which subjects for discussion. This box is opened by the execuproductive than the "old timers," so that the relative affects different dep artments. It is not always con- t ive comm] ttee prior to the issue of the notice for t he
following meeting, nnd if any ma t ter tequiring discusvenient t o get t he different foremen t ogether during the
sion is received in t he box, it is incorporated in tho busiday's
work
t
o
decide
on
these
problems,
and
any
discus* P a per r ead befor e the In te111a t ional Engineering sions during working hours aro apt to he hurried and n ess for thLtt meeting.
Congress, Glasgow, 1901. Section III. : M echanical.

SEPT. 1 3,

190t.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

. The club .wa~ started at first with some misgivings, but efficiency, cost of production, and commercial advantage.
1t ha teadily Improved, and has taken its place as a most In the authors' ex~erience the systematic tabulation and
helpful factor in our estc'liblishment.
analysis of complamts is a most valuable helf towards the
Among the matters deu.lt with by the club have been elinunation of small defects. I n the rush o a busy day,
the following :
a . ingle complaint may be received, aud the temptation is
1. The establi hment .of a works library, containing great simply to blame the :personal element for neglect or
book nnd current techrucal papers and magazines. The careles.c;ness, and to minimise its importance. But when
weekly technical papers ar e available for metnbers of the complaints of a like nature are cla ed together u,nd
club one ''reek after publietttion, the monthly magazines tabulated over a period, they have the force, not of single
one fortru~l.1t. Book can be borrowed at certain hours spies, but of battn.lions.
from the llbrary, and the private technical li braries of
(5) T he I ntell!igence Depantmcnt.- In discussing businesa
mem.ber~ of the firm are made avnilahle to members on prmciples ir J. W olfe Barry ha mentioned as a most
appli?atwn. (~) The workmen's suggestion scheme, ns vital one " the necessity of keeping a;u. cowcvrtt with what
de cnbed later m th~ pr~ent paper; (3) the admittance is being done or contemplated by others in similar lines
and course of apprentices m the works; (4) the li~hting of bu iness, and of being well in touch with all probable
of the shops ; (5) the an angement of the firm's exhibit at new d evelopments, whether of applied science or of
t~e Glas gow In ternational Exhibition; (6) the di trihu- labour-saving expedien ts not merely in this country,
twn of shop labo~rers ; (7) hop .hi1~dra~1ces-a report by but among our world-wide competitors." 1'he Intelli~ach for eman on his department, md10atmg the hindrances gence Department deals 'vith the collection of informamte~fering with the execution or output of the \vork. tion and data required by t he various departmen ts and
of his department ; (8) grind tones ue1sus emery wheels ; members of the firm; the indexing, cataloguing, and
(9) weanng- of overalls by the men, &c.
filing of. technical literature, catalogues, cuttings, &c.
~he de01sion~ of the club ar~, wber~ nec~ssnry sub- It secures a systematic perusal of contract advertisements
mitted to the directors, and recelVe then sanction before in the technical papers, marks and records openi11gs
being put in operation ; but a each of the t hree chair- for the firm's products, and keeps a card index of
men of the club is a director, this is usually a matter of parties interested or likely to be interested in them.
form.
The principals or heads of d epartments furnish notes
.3. The W<??"-:nen's SU[Iuestion Scheme.- Closely allied of special subjects on which t hey desire information,
With the Fnctwn Club IS another efficiency factor which and articles in current magazines or papers are marked
hn recently been inaugurated in our work , namely the for their perusal. When ti1e subject is a general or voluW orkmen's uggestion Scheme. Encouraged by ' the minous one, such as ''vater-t ube boilers, R omeike and
success of the first few meetings of the Friction Club it Curtis can be requisitioned. 'fhe technical index of the
seemed a logical sequence that suggestions for impro;,e- " Engineering Magazine" is also utilised, and special
ment and reforms should be asked from the workmen articles are obtained by coupon when required. These
t~eJ?lselves. Knowing generally the lines on which a cuttings are filed under department or subject heads in
Similar scheme bad been worked by the National Cash card board cases for reference.
uppose the fir m is considering any problem, say
R esister, of D ay ton, Ohio, it was felt that with modificatiOns some means could be attained by which the foundry equipmen t, the Intelligence Departmen t is reintelligence and observation of t he workmen them- quested to collect the articles dealing- with this subject;
selves migh t be encouraged and directed. Accord- the variou ~ yearly indexes of teohmcal papers are gone
ingly a scheme was promoted and di cussed by the Fric- over; and, if need be, a summary is prepared for the techtion Club, i ts p urpose being to encourage the workmen nical committee, or the individual member to whom the
to make suggestions for improvemen ts in the shops, and question has been remitted. This method saves the time
on the work generally. The directors of the company of the more expensive staff, and is a means of readily obagreed to allot a sum of 4l. per month for the best sugges- taining concentrated information with a minimum expention, or suggestions, made by workmen, by means of which diture of high-paid labour.
The d uties of this department are, of course, not conan improvement could be effected on the machine tools,
hand tools, jigs, fixtures, work methods, organisation, tinuous but intermittent, and are combined with other
cleanliness, order, or other matters affecting the shops. clerical duties. In the estn.blishm..en t here d ealt with
.All uggestions are igned with the workman's name and they are undertaken by ladies whose natural genius for
shop number, al o a note stating whether the suggestion detail makes them spemally suited for this class of work
These brief notes on a few shop schemes are subis original~ or taken from a technical journal, or other
sowce. Tne written suggestions are placed by the author mitted as showing d evelopments in dealing with the
in a box provided in the gate-house. This is opened minutire of an engineering establishment, which may be
d aily by the club secretary, n,nd the suggestions received followed up with advantage and also with a view of
are stamped with a date stamp when taken out, and are eliciting the ~xperience of others on similar lines. Their
considered in order of priority. The judgment and dis- value has been found to consist in providing a medium
ou ion on the suggestwns is conducted by the Friction through which the intelligence and ability of the indiviClub, and also the allocation of the awards, the amount dual foremen and men are directly ascertainable, and in
being given according to their decision in one or more providing the machinery by which ideas and suggestions
are methodically dealt with, followed up, and exhausted,
sum according to the merits of the suggestions.
In deciding upon the awards, those suggestions which before adoption or rej ection.
They have also bad the effect of bringing the men and
are con idered of little merit are first eliminn.ted, until
gradually the be t are left ; and if any difference of their employers into more direct personal relations, and
opinion exists as to the comparative merits, they are of creating a cer tain esprit de CO?'}JS in the shop, the value
voted upon. The names of the suggesters are not given of whicbt although not tangible, is nevertheless of a real
to the meeting, but are known only to the executive com- and gratifying nat ure.
mittee. The successful suggestions each month are posted
on a notice-board provided for the purpose, but the names
of the suggesters are not published.
THE DORTMUND AND EMS CANAL.*
If the merit of the suggestions is such that the awards
By H ERR R EGl ERUNGS AND BAURATH HERMANN.
do not absorb the entire 4l. in any one month, the balance
(Contin ued from page 339.)
is carried forward and serves to augment the award for
suggestions which may be considered of special merit.
The canal crosses the water parting between the Eruscher
During five months the total number of suggestions and L ippa valleys in a cutting 10 metres (33 fb. ) deep to
received amoun ts to 60: 3 the first month; 11, 8, 18, and can al bottom. Acros3 the valley of the Lippe the canal
20 in the succeeding months ; and of this total the num- is carried on embankment, with the to wing path
ber of suggestions adopted and carried out amounts to 13.5 metres (44! ft. ) above ground level. The River Lippe
about 20 per cen t. of those received, and are grouped is crossed on a substantial aqueduct, with three openings
under headings as follows : (1) Cleanliness and Order ; of 21 metres (69 ft. ) span each. Crossi ng t he water part(2) Improvements in Machines or M ethods ; (3) hop ing between the Lippe and Stever valleys necessioated
Fittings ; (4) Safety Devices ; (5) General.
making a cutting 12 metres (39~ ft. ) deep. The embankThe discussion on these suggestions has been most ed u- ment across the valley of t be Stever is of the same
cative, and has resulted in several most excellent shop height. The River Stever is crossed by another sub. devices. The scheme has also been well taken up by the stantial aqueduct, having also three openingd. but only
apprentices, and has directed attention to t he men who 12.5 metred (41 ft.) span each. The Ems is crossed at
can be drawn upon for promotion to responsible posts.
7 kilometres (4 ~ miles) below the look at Munster, on a
(4) The T echnical Cornmi ttee.- It will be noted that the massive aqueduct of four openings of 12.60 metres (41! ft.)
W orkmen's Suggestion Scheme does not include in its span each. The canal l:ias to overcome the graatest
scope suggestions for improvement on the designs of the difference in levels wi thin the drainage area of the Ems,
firm's pr<?duct. It wa~ c~nsidered t~at t.his wo~ld be at a point near Riesenbeclr, where it is carried in a cutting
likely to mvolye complicatw~s and g1v~ n se. to di~cul 12.5 metres (4l ft.) d eep, through the underlying lim(>s~on~
ties. Accordmgly, the functwn of dealing w1th des1gns, formation near the T eutoburg forest.
&c. lies with a committee comprising the managing
Be-yond thelock at Bergeshoevede the country descends
dir~ctor, shoJ_:> manager, chief draughtsman, and draughts- pretty rRpidly towards the plain, so that the distance to
men on special design. This body is called the T echirical the next look a o aly 1.1 kilometres (0. 7 mile), where as it
Committee, ?-nd besides the above members it~? call. to was possible to place the succeeding locks leadi ng towards
i ts deliberat10ns an y foreman or other admimstratlve the Ems at intervals of 2.9, 5.4, 8.7, 7.8, and 3.5 kilohead whose adv~ce is required. I t deals with the .re- metres ( l. 8, 3. 4, 5.4, 4.8, and 2. 2 miles). Short raaohes
visal of the designs of the firm's product, the carrymg between looks cannot be recommended. When there is a
out of experimental work, the tabulation of results, the considerable amount of traffic t hrough the locks, the great
systematic considerati on of complaints and defects, and quantity of water used for locking causes perceptible
the cri ticism and development of new designs. Further, variations in the wa ter level, which vatiations are further
it considers the complaints which have been received by enhanced by the flo wing and returning currents between
the correspondence d epartment, and the reports of the locks, caused by the admission or drawing off of water.
firm's engineers who have been d eputed to examine and I ndeed, in the case of a reach 5.4 kilometre3 (3.4 miles)
rectify tliem. Each month the complaints and repor ts of long, the wave caused by looking prod uces a.~ times as
defects received by the corres{>ondence department are great a difference as 10 centimetres (4 in.) in the water
collected and tabulated under distinctive heads, and these level. I t thence fellows that t he headway from t he water
n-re consider~ in relatio~ to the design of th~ J?ro~uct.
* Paper read before the International Engineering
The tecbn1cal comm1ttee suggests mod1ficat10ns or
carries out experiments to obtain data, and reports upon Congress, Glasgow, 1901. Section II. : Waterways and
the results. It deals wi th new designs from the point of M aritime Works.

'

3i7

level b the soffit of a brid ~a cr.::ssing over the canal has

to be made at least 10 centimetres (4 in.) more than t hat
required by the load gauge of the barges. In th~ case of
the Dortmund and Ems Canal this he~dway has be: n
6 xed at 4 metres (l :ij- f t. ).
In t he Haneken Uanal there is a fall of 10.67 metre1
(35 ft. ), which is overcome by three looks. The water
level above t he reguh ting gates on t he Haneken Canal
is kept down by a massive overfa11 w~ir with free flow.
The rC'gulating gate is generally kept open, and is only
intended to sbut out floods ia the Ems that are higher
t han the watE-r levt-1 in tbe canal. The Ems, bet ween
Mepp9n a ad H erbrum, is divided into five reaches. J n
the upp?r four reiches tb e water is dammed up by needle
weir3. At H erbrum, sluices Wt)re considered neces~ary,
as, under certain condition?, the water below t he sluices
c:1.n rise higher th an above the sluices. The five locks
over come a total fall of 10.25 metr(>S (33i ft. ). Including the canal lift and the two end looks of the
Oldersum and Emden Canal, t here are altogether 20 loaks.
Ao t he end of each reach only a single lock has been built,
but the position of each lock of 67 metres (220 ft.) a vailable length h~ been arranged in such a manner t hat a.
second lock can be added hereafter in every c~e if required.
D nrENSIO.Ns m ' CANAL.

The Dortmund a ad Ems Canal has a depth of 2. 5 met ras

(8 ft. 2-! in.), and a. bottom width of 18 metre3 (59 ft.).
'f h ese are the standard dimensions fixed for all Prussian
canals to be built in the future. On curves, the bottom
width is enlarged on the convex side. The amount of
this widening of the bottom is regulated i n every case by
the radius of the curve, and the admissible maxi m urn length
of the barges, in n.ccordance wi t.h the rules fixed at the
In~rnat10nal Congres3 for I nland Navigation hjld at
Vit nna in 1886. In accordance with these ruleR, t he
amount of the widening of the canal bottom is equal to
twice the versed sine of the arc whose chord is equal t~
the lengt h of the longe3t barge, which ha.s been assumed
ab 67 metres (220 tt.). The amounts by which the canal
bottom is to be widened have been r.Junde:l off to the
nearest half metre, and are arranged for certain group3 of
radii of curvature. They ar.~ for a radius of :2000 metres (100 chains = 0 5 m. (_t ft 8 i n )
1000 ,
( 5~ ,
= 1. 0 , (3 " 3~ , )
500 ,
( 2o ,
= 2 5 , (8 , 3 , )
400 ,
( 20 ,
= :>. 0 , (9 , 11 , )
T he sharpest cu1 ves on the c:mal havd rad i of 400 n. etres
(20 chains). On the E ms, the bottom widt h of whic:h is
30 metres (98i ft. ) throughout, curves of 250 metres
(l7i chains) were admissible. The clear bottom width of
18 metres (59 ft ) has also been adopted for all structures
with vertical walls along the canal, which entails a. contraction of the wetted cross-section of the canal, and
consequently interferes with the free flow of the water at
every such structure. The area of the standard wetted
cross-section is 59.2 square metres (637! square feet) ; and
the area of the cross-section where in is contracted by
sbru otures wit h vertical walls is 45 square met res (484g
square feet). For the rest, in every case where standard
slopes could not be arranged, as, for instance, at bridges
crvssing over the canal, a standard width of 22 metres
(72ft.) has been adopte~ for a height of one metre
(3 ft. 3~ in. ) above canal bott~Jm.
EARTHWORKS AND PROTROTING SLOPES.

The croEs-scction of the canal in cutting and em ba.nkmen t

is shown in Fig. 3, page 378. The cross-section is somewhat
altered whe1e the slopes a.ra protected by stone pitching
or cement concrete slabs. The slopes of t he canal were
protected everywhere by either of these means wherever
the nature of the ground met with was such t hat it could
not be left even tem_{;orarily without some prott ct ion.
W1 th regard to the extra. depth of one metre (3 ft. 3~ in.)
provided in the canal on embankmen~, it should be menti<.1 ned that the long slopes have shown signs of weakness
and consequently it has been decided to strengt hen thei~
toes on t he cJ.nal side, by raising the canal b.:>ttom one
metre, for a. width of a.t least 3 metre.s (10ft.).
Various meth~ds .adopted. ~or p~otecting t he canal
slopes are shown m F 1g. 4. Ongmally It was not c:msidered
necessary to face the slopes tllroughout, but during cona:truction it was gradually discovered that the material
used for forming the e'lopes was almost everywhere of a
s ~ndy nature, and not compn.ct enough to res st the wash
produced by passing vessels. The shortest length d
fac-:d slopes, me:1sured along the slop~, is at prc sent
2.90 metres (9~ ft.) long, and. requ ires about 1.16 cubic
metres of stone p ;:r lineal met re (1.39 cubic yards per
linal yard) of slop~. The deepEst p-.~int or toe of the
fa~i.n g to t he slopes ii pl~c d O. tiO metre (2ft .) below the
otd10ary ~vater-level, wh1ch depth wa3 fixed by experimen t, as 1t was fo und that b:'low that dt-ptb t he action
d the wa ves did no damag~ to the Flopes. In S:;Vdral
plao~ s on l0ng stretches a nuvel met hod of prot cting the
sl?pes has bee~ t ri.ed, ~vith exc~llent rt ~ults a~ compat ed
w1th stc::epH' mcltnat10ns, whlCh conn s ted m covering
direotly the 3 to 1 sodded slopes with a layer of lo~ se
rubble. On future works t his method may probably be
used still mora exteneively. In other pace..,, on long
strt;tches, the elopes of the canal are faced 'vith cementconcrete elab:a, 1.10 to 1.20 metres (3ft. 7 in. to 3ft. 11 io.)
bng by 0.5 to 0.6 metre (20 i n. to 24 in.) wide, the prop Jr tions b~ing one part of cement to two parts of ~and
and from three to five parts of gcave!. The joints are
simply plugged with mos~. Tile slabs are durable if they
are cart fully made, and p rope ly bedded on broken stone
or coarse gra v'1, whereby t he danger of their being
undermined by t he w11sh is prevented. In sp ecial cases
where t he clay puddle was placed immediately bdow th~
layer of soil, cement-concrete slabs were also la1d on a
slope of 3 to 1. These flobs were made in siz:s of 1.8 by

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0. 6 metre (6 ft. by 2 ft. ), a nd 8 csntimetre3 (3f in.) thick,

a nd were strengohened by five pieces of hoop -iron, 25 by
2 millimetres ( l in. by i ! i n.), embedded in them. T he purpJse of the hoop-iron was to render the slabs less liable to
break, especially when t hey are being carried and handled,
and ba.s ans wered fairly well. ~Iore recent ly, broken
Rla.bs, 8 centimetres t hick, as be fore, and measuring 1. 20
b y 0.6 m e~re (4ft. by 2ft. ) have been replaced by new
ones only 5 centim~tras (barely 2 in.) thick, whioh bad
r ound iron b u s emb~dded in them, which are nob more
c Jsdy, and are less liable t:> break. An experime nt has
aho been tried of covering large surfaces with a t hin layer
of concre te, with embedded wire ne ttling, on t he Monier
p rincipl9 ; provi9ions were also made to hold down the
:oncrete t o the slope~, but the resulb was not satisfactory.
IrrA~ular cracks made their a ppearance, the c:>ncrete was
u odermined by t he water, and b roke in pieces.
Alterations in the original cross-section of t he can~l
we re al~o reqoirad for the protection of i ts slope3, as pro
vision ha d to b3 made aga inst leakage by t he use of
pnddle io e mb!l.nkment3. As it was of toe utmost i mportanc:e that t he puddle should form an unbroken, continuous
h .ye r, which should nowhere bs broken through by the
fa:~iog or n itching of ths canal slopes, all designs that did
not strictly complv with t his requiremen b had neces3arily
to be rejected. Paddle became neccs3ary every where in
ambanKwents where t he soil used for forming the bank
was not suitable for ma king a. water~ight e mbankment.
It W\S Pqoally neceosary i n cuttings wherever the materi11l
cut t hr 111~h was eit her porous or where it s stratifica.tion
was liable t o allow water t o leak out. In bobh these
respe%~ the D or !imund an1 Ems Canal was under an-

favou rable conditions. The long stret ches of high embankments across the valleys of the Lip~e and the dtever had
to bs formed of t he marly materJal derived from t he
cuttings. In the lower strata the marl was so hard that
it had to be quanied, almost like stone ; but it soon
cru mbled to pieces on exposure to air and water. Only
after lengthy C)nsideration and careful experi men1 s
wit h the maberia.l on trial l engths was io fioa\ly decided to make us ~ of this ma d for forming embankments. E xperiments proved t be p :>ssibility of ma king
use of i t for such a pur po3e, but only on condition that
the marl hea ps were effectually protected against t he
disintP.grating influence of air and water. It wa.s, however, impossiole bo p revent t he subsequent settlement of
t he banksJ formed of coarse, hard lump~, i o spite of t he
care wi th which the l umps were broken up and all
interstices filled. Considerable t rouble from t his cause
was experienced, especially where the high bank joi ne:l
the a pproach w<LllR of the canal lift. The marl ba nks
were at first wholly encased in a covering of clay, a.s
shown in t he cross-section of the embankment across th e
valleys of t he Li.ppe and t he S tever (Fig 5) ; but t his
caused furt her t rouble, as it was found that the soil
covering t he outer sl'> pes would not adhere to the claypuddle underneath, and slipped down in large patches.
It was t herefore decided l11.ber oo, during the p rogres3 of
the works, t o disp9nse with the clay covering on the
out3ide s lopes, and t J spread the soil directly over the
mar), which hM proved successful.
In the canal bed the clay puddle has been covered over
with a layer of sand in order to protect it against injury
from passing vessels. T he ston9 pitching of t he canal slopes

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was htid on this layer of sand. At some places, where

the covering of sand had not prop erly set, it hapJ?ened
that both t he layer of sand and t he stone pitching slipped
down together on t he slop~ of the cJay puddle. Fine
sand was met with in many places, an d alsl) required
special care for forming it int o e mbank ments ; but it gave
less t rouble t han the marl. The material in t his case
was rammed and watered. A cross-section of a 11 embankment roade of sand acro.ss the valley of the Ems is
shown in Fi~. 6.
Oo side-ly10g ground, where the c11nal is ps.rtly on bank
a nd partly in cutting, the clay puddle was omitt'3d
wherever it could be assumed tha t, if any leakage took
place, the water would run off ondAr~round without
t ouching the toe of the e mbankment. The average slope
of the water running off from the topmost la yers was in
this case assumed at 1 in 8. Experience, however. proved
that in ma 'ly instances this assumption was fallacious,
and the adminidtrat>ive authorities of the canal ware consequsntly compelled subsequently to perform a. great deal
of supplementary work, and to pay compensation, b ecause
not only h 1d t he loss <..'f water by leakage in the canal to
be made good by a.n increased s upply, but complaints
were aho ra ised by adj oining ownera for swamping their
lands. When making up his estimates, the engineer
ought never to stint t he sum to be set apart for making
the bed and banks of his canal thoroughly impervious.
The material used for making the canal watertight wa.s
clay throughout, which wa.s well rammed; and in case of
thick layera and high slopes i t wa.3 also well trodden
down by horses. The s oecifisd thicknesses of the puddle
along the canal were 70, 50, and 30 centimetres (27! in.,

tT1
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19f in., and 12 in. ). The th ickness should be nowhere

less than 30 centimetres (about l ft.). By way of expeii ment, a. thickness of 10 centimetres (4 in.) was tried, but
did not p rove successful.
CANAL L IFT, L OCKS, BRIDGES, AND OTHER STRUCTURES.

It is not pr:>posed to give in this paper a. min ute de-

scripton of t he various st ructures a \ong t he D ort mund

a nd Ems Catoal, w hich, moreover, without deta-iled
drawings, could hardly 1.>9 in telligible. I t must therefore sutfice to allude briefly t'l some structures of a novel
and ~ecuJia.r character, for the construction of which the
buildmg of the canal offe red a n opportunity. Anyone
who wishes for more d etailed information on this subject
is referred t o a. s~ries of ~uticles which are now (1901)
a ppearing in the Zeit:1chrijt f ur Bau-wesen (published by
Ernst and Korn, of Berlin).
Canal Lift.- 'he most important structure along t he
canal is unquestions.bly th9 caoallift near Henrichenburg,
which Rerves to overcome an average fall of 14 metres
(46 ft.) between the D ort mund reach and the ma in reach,
and C'\n b~ used by 950-ton barges, 67 metres (220 ft. )
long, by 8. 2 met res (27 ft..) beam, a nd 2 met res (6 ft. 7 in.)
draught. All canal lifts t hat h!l.vA hither to been constructed are only ab lA to ace )mmodate vessels of much
smaller dimensions. T he oldest structure of this kind is
the A ndert :>n lift for raising barg~s up to 150 tons carrying capa~ity ; the next one WM L es F ontinettes lift for
300-t on vesseh , and thr ee more lifts are to operate on the
Canal du Cent re, one of which, namely, t hat at La
L ouvie re, WM completed several years ago for 360-ton
vessels.

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In ord er t o accommodn.te tlv:) h,rg~st vcs3el trQ.diog on the

<'!lnal) the t roug hs of the HEnnchf-nburg lift h ad to be
m ade of J\ l~ngth which only allowed of a. mt: t hod o f
co~struction in which Oicb tr.>ug h w~Js C!l.rried on a s ing]':)
p otnt of su ppot t, which de~ign in its tu tu would ha Ye
nece~ ihted t~e adoption of hydraulic rams. Moreovdr,
a a mat t~r of OO'll'3P, tw.> troughs would havd b9.d to be
adopted, in <'rJer that the we-ight of thedt sceoding troug h
wig ht bs utili9ed for C)un terb ln,nc:i og that of the asJendi og
trough. Each trough of the new litt wa s of n ecessity to
ha.ve a clear l ength of 70 metres (230 ft. ). If only a
single large ram bad been adopted, there might have
been some difficulty in constructing such a. ram or a.
trough (I){ sufficient strength. The adoption of several
small rams, on the other band, might have proved a. source
of oons tanb trouble o wing to a. want of harmony in the
working of the several rams. Another syotem of construction h ad therefore t o be ch osen , which may be
described briefly a a. fioa.tin~ lifb with a single trough
m oving in p .u allel g uides. 'I he sub3tructure consists of
five conti g uous wells, each 9.20 m etr es (30~ H.) in diameter , ana 30 m etres (!)8~ ftJ.) d eep. There was n o difficulty in sinkin g these, because bard marl was found of
great deptb at this P"~inb, and with very few fissure~.
When sinkin g the cell,., the p ortion already excavated
wa lined, working downwards, with oa,st-iron cylinders.
Each ring was 1.50 metres (5 ft.) high , and was composed
of sixteen segmen~. At the bottom of each well a ma~s
of con crete was deposited in the shape of a hollow
spherical cup. The wells are connected with each other
by pipes, and are kept constantly full of water up to
their brims. In each well t here is a. floating hollow
cylinder or buoy, 8.3 m etres (27! fb. ) in diameter, and
10 m~tres (323 ft.) hi gh. These five h ollow cylindera
exert together an upward pressure of a.boub 3100 tons,
which is equivalent to the weight of the trough whm
full of wate r, plus the wei ght o f the five vertical supports
upon which ib res~. The trough i3 suspended by vertical
b l.nd s in a kind of cradle, which) in its turn, rests on
the five lattice-work supports carried by the floating
h ollow cylinders.
Th e whole construction, namely,
hollow cylinders, vertical supports, and the tank fi lled
with water, are in perfect equilibrium, so that if any
extra. water is admitted, the trough begins to sink, or, if
any water is abstracted, the trough begins to rise. In
order t o control the movement both up and down, also
t o start tho lift atl the proper momen t, or to stop it ab any
level, and to check the m om entum a.b the end of the
stroke, there are four massive vertical spindles, which are
turned by shaft.ing, which acts on all four spindles simulta.neonsly, and mak~ them revolve ~t a. unifor m speed.
The spindles work m four nu~, whtoh are attached to
the cradle carrying the trough. Both ends of the trough
and a.Js) the two fixed shore-ends of the canal are fitted
with watertig ht ga.tee. In front of each gate of the
upper a.nd lower shore-end hangs a. frame-like wedgeplace of the shape of the cross-section of tb3 trough.
The wedge-piece. i~ faced on bo~h sides wit~ india-ru.bber
r olls, and its postt.ton can be adJusted to s utb the va.nable
water level in the C!l.na.J. The ends of the trough are
also r ebated bo fi~ the wedge-piece. As .the trough ris~
or sinks into position ready for lookmg a. barge, 1t
squeezes the wedgt\- pieoe aga.insb the corresponding
shore-end of the can al, and makes the j oint Wd.ter -tighb.
The r aising of a ~arge from t~e lower to the upper
reach is pertorme:i m the following manner: AC3 soon
as the bugd to be r aised has been brou~ht into its proper
position, the gates at the correspondmg shore-end ~nd
a.t the end of the trough ar e c:mpled together and raHed
by a capstan, worked by a rack a~d pinion, the ~eight
of the gates lHing balanced by smtable oount13rwe1gh t 3.
The barge then enters the trough) and: the gates are
lowered again, and uncoupled. If reqmred, t~e water
in t1he trou_gh is lowered. to its proper level by lettu:~g off a.
portion. The t rough rts~, and 18 stopped oppos tte the
gate of the upper reach; the g d.tes are then coupled
together, and raised, and the barge ent~rs the .upper
r each. The p)wer for all these move~en t3 1S supphed by
two d y namos driven by steam engmes, of 220 horEep ower each. One dyna mo is sufficient to d o the work,
the other b3ing kept in r eserve. The press.ure a m<;m nts t o
220 volts, and a. cutrent of 800 a mperes 1s reqmred for
starting.
.
.
The cost of the lifb and the who!e m sta.lla.t10n was
2)600,000 mar k~ ( L30,000l.). The cont ra~ tors for the work
were Haniel a nd Lueg, of Dues3eldorf-Grafenberg, and
the Bridge Construction Company, r~ pr~sented ~y J. C.
H a ..k orb of Dui ~burg.
The electnc mst alla.t10n was
carried ~ut by the D eutsch e Electricitiits ~VHke Ga.~b,,
Lahmeyer and Co., of Frankfort-on- th~-~Ja,m. The 1~ea.
of a. floating lift guid 3d by scrow mot iOn waJ sugge~ ..ed
by H err .JebeJ?S! eng ineer, of Ratzl:)burg.. Th ~ time
occupied m r~usmg one .bugd aJ?d lowt:on ng a not her
averages 25 minutes. Tlus t1me 1s counted from the
moment when thA firJb b!l.rge enters the trough to tbe
time when t h e lnugh, having d~livered the firat ba.rgd
and finished the r etura journey w1th a second one tra velling in the opposite direction, this b~rge has p~ssed out,
an1 the tr.:>ugb. i~ ready for b~e receptLOn of 11. thud bar~e.
The actual rtlllno- or lo wermg of the tr.:>ug~ occuptes
2~ minnbes. The blift haJ hitherto worked Without ~ny
hitch ; ib even behaved extrdmely well on C?ne occt\.3100
when, by accident, the tr.:>ugh r an dry durmg 11. d ownward journey, and .t he apparc1tu.s had to act under oond ltions under w hich 1t was never I!ltended .to work.
.
The objection tha~ can be ra1s~d aga1o st th~ adopbt?n
o f a. lift ii that it h as t oo m a ny dtffer~nt workmg: par ..P,
the fd.iluro of any one of which m.ay m terfere w1th the
prop~r working of the wh 1le. A hft constructed on the
fi oa.ting-brou gh principle should only be adopted whud
the conditions f )r i b are favourable, and. a. good founda oa.n either b3 found, or can be prepared .wtth~utany ~re!Lt
tr.:>uble and exp3nditure. In c 1n clus10n, 1b should b e

ENGI NE ERI N

(~.

379

m entioned bhab when the further extetuion of the Dortmund and Ems C!J.n al is taken in hand , it i3 contemplated to cons~ruot a flight of locks by tne side of the
oanallifb.
Aqueducts.-The great aqueducts upon wh ioh the canal
is carried acroes the Lippe, Stever, and E ms, are cons truct ed enirely of masonry, forming n oble-looking structures which are wel\ worthy of being studied by the engi neer in every d etail. In fu t ure works of this kind i ~
will be highly ad"i3able to ntake the wing walls a,s long as
p1ssible, in ordt-r to insure a. proper wa.tH-tigh t bond between the esnhwork o f the em bankment and the
m as :>nry of the abutments. Experience has al so taught
the le~ son tba.tl where the abutments ara backed with clay puddlP, the offsets or steps atl the ln.ok of th e walls
should n ob b3 nude very wide, because when the claybacking settlelJ, wide off-sets or steps prevent an even
settlement of the whole mass of clay behind the wall.
The p or t ion of the clay resting on the off-set is held up,
and t he puddle i3 apt to break up into horizontal layers
which may cause leakage. The importance of making
and maintaining a. water t ight bJnd babween earthwork and masonry mg,y be gathered from the foregoing
remarks. In all structures along the Dortmund and Ems
Canal the masonry ahntmen ts are lined behind wi t h a.
layer of clay-puddle from 30 to 70 centimetres (12 in.
to 27! in. ) thick, which joins the corresponding layer
of puddle of t he emba.nkmenb. As for the r es t, the structures are made wa.ter-tighb with s heet lead, 3 millimetres
(0.12 in.) thick) the firs t cost of which was con~iderable,
but which gave excellent results and could be thoroughly
d epended upon. All hori zontal . and vertical ~urfaces
were coated with a layer of cement: mortar 2.5 oent1mebres
( l in.) thick. The horizontal faces were covered with a
k ind of a-spha.lte bra.ttice cloth, and the upright faces
were coated with wood cement. The lead is hung in
sheets, measuring 5 by 2 metres (16~ ft. by 6~ ft ), against
the vertical faces, and is protected on the side facing the
water by a timber framework covered with boards. The
horizontal sheets of lead were further covered with
tarred brattice cloth, upon which sand was spread, and
upon this the paving was laid. The sheets of lead over lap ea.ob other by 20 millimetres ( i~ in.) and wer e soldered
together by the oxy-hydrogen blasb. The contracting
firm for this p or tion of the work was J . C. Eckelb, of
B erlin. The cost of the sh eet lead covering 3 millimetres
(0.12 in.) thick, was 19 marks per square metre (15s. 10~d.
per square yard). The total oosb of the s~eeb lead covering, includmg the pavement and proteobmg screen . was
74,500 marks (3725l.) for the aqueduct aoro3~ the Ltppe,
and 79,000 marks (3950l. ) for ~hat! across the Rt ver Ems.
Bridges. -There ar.e 185 bndgos a.orcs3 the canal ; . two
of these are swing br1dges, and the othera ard fixed gtrdu
bridges, giving a head way of 4 metres ( ~3! fr. ) above the
hig hest navigable water level. The gndH-3 are all of
mtld steel. 'l 'be square span of the bridges was fixed at
31 met res (l Ol! ft . ), in consequence of V!hich the cro:~
section of the ca nal is contracted at the brtdge.Q. In addttion to thi3, the deep slopes had to be protect(d wit h ~tone
pitching for cJn siderable len gth above and below br~d ge,
a nd for the whol e hei gh t, which entailed an expend1ture
a mounting to as much as 8000 marks (400t.) for some of
the brid gcls. In the long ruo) ib was found preferable to
increase the ~pans of the bridges sufficiently EO as n ot to
contract at all the cro~s-section of the canal. The tvro
arrangements are sho;vn in Fig~. 7 and 8. The ord~nary
bridges. crossing the canal .at r1ght an~les, were ~mlb to
five different types of dra.\\Ings, accord1og t? the d1ffereD;t
widths adopted for the r oa.dwa.ys, and the d1fferent .ma.xtmum loads they h a.d to carry. The widths fixed for
bridges cl.rrying ordin ary fiHld roads were 4. 5, 5.0, and
5.5 metres (14~ ft., 16ft. 5 in., and 18 ft ), a.nd ~or pu~lio
road bridges 7 and 8 mebres (23 fb. and 26! ft. ), mcludmg
footpaths. The former class of bridges were builb strong
en ough to carry a. rolling load of 10 tons, the latter .20 to os
and a load uniformly distributed all over the bndge of
400 kilogrammes per squa~e metre (82lb. J?er sq.u are fo )t).
The nnmber of bridges bmlt to type drclwmgs 1s 112. In
sJ:ecial cases special ~rawings w~~e prepared fo r .the
bridge to suit the pa.rt1cula.r condtt1ons of the loca.hty.
The largest bridge, cl.rrying the Aschendorf-Rhede road
across the Ems cutting, has a clear span of 66 metres
(2t6~ fb.)
Across the down canal heads of the looks at Meppen
and B ollingerf:ib r, there are two lifb bridges. These are
intended to carry light country-road traffic only. In
order to b e able to give the n ecessary standard he~d way
of 4 metres (t3a fb.) under them when the water m the
lower reach is abnormally high) the superstructure of
these two bridges can be ra.~sed off the abutment s by
steel ropes and capstan s. TbB a.rungement has answered
well.

h' h
The canal is cr.:>3sed in several places by rd.tl way e) w to
are in a.ll case s carried over the canal.

J nto the s ubject of commercial orgttnisn.tion of en gi ne

works, or the strictly on-cost factors, it is not intended to

enter, but instead to touch upon cer tain factors which
directly ttffect t h o workshop it elf, and have a distinct influ en ce upon its productive capacity. The inter est which
is spreading in regard to workshop econ omies is ono of
the most hopeful sign s that a n awakening to the now
order of things is taking place. ~ianufacturers are
becomin g alive to t he fact that it i n ocessM'Y n owada.ys
for a closer and more personal intero t to be taken in the
minute t and, a,pparently, mo t trivial details of workshop
practice ; and are forced to con ider certain influences,
som e of which hn..ve been looked upon as out ide the
range of p ractical works hop econ omics, or n.t most ha \' O
r eceived '"qualified or indifferent approval.
'l' here is t\. wide and in teresting field in every workshop for he who makes the -e his special study) Lut it
requires continuous and concentrated attention to obtai n
the best re ults. 'l'ho points particularly referred to
are :1. A premium systmu of labour remunera.tion.
2. Good, accurate, and powerful tool~.
3. Arrangement of tools and roomy shops.
4. Clean and tidy s hop .
5. \Yell -lighted and well-warmed ~hops .
6. 'tandardisation.
The P1'c1JI,iU?n 'ystcu~. -The first and gr en.test of all
these influen ces i the introduction of t he Premium
ystem, whi ch effects n othing hort of a complete revolution in a shop; and its con equences arc very wide and
far-reaching indeed, and in directions which at first sight
m igh t seem to li<we no connection with the source.
One of the primary r esults of the Premium . ystom is
the establishm en t of accurate dn.ta., upon which comparison can be based and deductions m ade. It is hardly
po ible to over -estima,tc t he benefits of having accurate
a nd reliable detailed data in the works as a means of com parison ; yet this is often overlooked or ignored, a nd t he
comparatively small s um per annum which the establishment of an efficient time or records office in the works
would cost is grudged, because the profitable return
which such a,n investment would give, if properly worked
and managed, i not r ealised.
The reveh\.tion which would be made by the introduction of uch nn office in any place previou ly without ono
would he sufficiently con vincing to mo t engine b uilders ;
yet lethargy or indifference keeps many from ~wailing
themselves of a mean of speedily infu ing n ew vitality
into their place) <tnd stttrting afresh with ren ewed you th
and vigour. '! 'here is n o doubt that it requires an
amount of faith and the whole- ouled energetic personal
attention of a principal or highly-placed ofticin.l to introduce such a y tem. The n ecessa.ry work takes a large
amount of time for a considerable period) but the r esults
are worth it a.U, and onco tho system is started and in fair
worki11g order) ther e will be n o lookin g back. The accompanying Table I. (page 380), columns 1 and 2, gives a few
examples of what the Premium ystem has done in the
way of economising time.
Apart) h owever) from t he question of economis ing time,
the system provides an admirable and efficient check upon
an y exce sive rise in wages cost, as each contributory
cause becomes apparen t, and ~'lin be investigated the
moment it arises, and suitable mean taken to prevent a
recurr ence in future. The knowledge that uch variat ion s above the n ormal in the time taken are investigated
in detail and checked acts in a mo t wholesome manner
upon the men and foremen) keepi11g them alert, and
t ending to produce an even and gmd ually increasing
u.verage of performance.
A ccu1atc and Powc1jul T ools.- Anothor mo t important factor in the economical p roduction of work is good,
p owerful) and, ver y especially, accurate machine tools.
'l'his is axiomt\.tic. E very on e acknowled ges thi , b ut how
many builders even yet r ealise exactly what this mean,)
or can state in r eliable fig ures the actual difference
between on e tool and another in output, which, after nll,
is thA r eal bas is of comparison. Had they been able to do
so, the wave of revival and reorganisation n ow setting in
would have commen ced far earlier than it has done; and
a vague and h esitating belief in the n eed for n ew and upto-date tools gradually taking th e place of a. hitherto
blind confiden ce in old and cheri h ed machinery, would
h ave speedily grown into strong con viction, when backed
by the
hard facts of accurate and relj~tble chtta of corn
panson.
The experience of t he author's firm in this direction has
been of considerable oxten t. Old tools which were
formerly thought to be doing fairly good or average work
on the whole were found to be hopelessly wanting in
speed, ha,ndincss, nnd principally accuracy and power ;
a nd within the last few yem'l:! n early the whole of these
machine tool h~we been sold or oth crwi e dispo ed of,
and n ew and more powerful machinery ubstituted.
The Premium y tom had not been very long started
(To be continued. )
before i t began to show up some very great discrepancie.':l
in the performance of sunilar tools when on the same
work. 'l 'his led to a n in vestigation of the causal, and
THE MANUFACTURE OF MARINE
gen erally it wns found that the r esult was due to tl.e
ENGINES.
weakness or want of power of the less efficient tool. InSome FuctO?'S A ff'ecting the Economical J.l fwwfactun of
deed so frequently wa this }?articular fa ult of wealm& s
M ct1inc Engines.*
or w~ut of power found to eXlSt that the limit of outpLt
B y ~(R. "\Vl LJ--IJH I 'l'HOMSON, of Glasgow.
was ver y soon r eached; and in order to overcom e this, nll
'fuE m ost desultory r ead er of our technica~ jourt~als the work h ad to be moved up a stage or two, and a
cannot fail to be struck with the great a:ucl m 9reas m g h eavier cla of tool used, in order to get m ore p ower for
interest which hns of htte years been taken m the m.ternul the h eavy cutting ~vhi~h. the Premium ystem ~evelopccl.
economy of our engin eorm g workshop . 'l'he obJect of 'l'his led to con gestion m the work for the h eaVlest to Is,
the following remar~cs is . to dr~\W pecia~ attentiOn
so n ewer and more powerful ones all along t he line were
certain factors a ffectmg this, w luch h <we lu th erto n ot 1e- substitutedh~s soob n ~s ~o ible. . A f~wTexbimplesb of the
d the con sideration which their importan ce warra nts. res~lts oft 1s su . t1tu.t10n ar e gt.ven m a e 1 ., y corncalVe
_
p armg columns 2 and .3, page 4..
.
- * P a -er r ead before t he lnten mtion nl Eng!neering 'l'he l~igh cutting sp eeds which hav~ _lately been m~roOongrep~, Gla~gow) 1901. Section Ill. : l\lecbnm cal.
1 duced ~mce th~ B ethlehem Company 1a1sed the question,

:o

E N G I N E E R I N G.
T ABLE

I.

[SEPT. I 3, 190r.

squad~ was done in 19.6 p er cont. less time in the n ew shops S<?lely. t o th.e lighting of the shop. The difference in other

than 1t had a veraged in the old, while the machines

t urned Ol;l~ thei~ work in 10 p er cent. less time than before ;
the cond.1t10ns m both cases as regards t ools and appliances bemg exactly the same, except that more room was
allowed.
Anothe! example ~u,ken from the machine shop illustrat~ this same p om t very well.
A group of three
machmes was located in the old machine s hop in omewhat cramped a nd inconvenient p ositions, but a fterwards
these machines were ~hifted to a new machine shop and
given amplo room. 'fhe results of this new arrange~ent
are given bolow in t he ann exed T able I I.

drrect10ns 1s mo t marked . The men can move about

'~ith freedom and decision, there are no dark corners, the
Same :Machines Throug hou t .
t1m~-w:orkers have not the same t emptation to wa te
th~u trme, and managers and foremen can see wha t is
g~m~g on from end t o end of. t~1e sho{> with the utmo t
DeEcai ption of
( l)
(2)
(3)
(4)
distmctness. T a ble Ill. (sub)om ed) gtves a comparative
Work.
T ime Time T aken Time TakeL
stat e.ment of the various shop lig hti.ng:
T aken J D I ntr oduc- in Better
R ecord
vVI~h regard to the warmmg, th1s IS a problem which
U nder Old
t ion of
L ocation
Time for
ha gJven the firf!l much.t~ought for some time back, but
Time
Premium with Greater t he Sam e
System. I System.
as yet no defimte deciSIOn has been come to in the
Faoil i t ies.
J ob.
!Datt~r. The rang~ of temperature is not 1iearly so great
1. Turning COO
h ours I
h oura
hours
h ours
m thiS country as m .the S~a.t~ and Germany, and the
necting rod.
wn;nt of pr<?per heatmg facilities does not become one of
1 off .

43}
36
35
TABLE I I.
29!
dail{ exp en ence; hence probably t he renson why so little
2. Slotting COD
has oeen done in t his direction. Never t heless, there cannecting . r od.
Saving.
no.t be any doubt that as a rule engineering- workshop in
3 off .
31

24!
22!
20
Ou ~pu ~
web
3 Oran k
l r oreased t~ country fall ver y short in this direction. The idea
Maohlne.
(fi n i s h i o J!
whiCh used to be very prevalent, especially in boilerby
holes. 1 off)
7~
6!
T ime.
4l
Money.
3!
making lines, that a cold snap made men work all the
------harder in order to kee~ themselves warm, is happily exper
per cen t. per cen t.
cent
pl<?de~, and a more rational view is now heinB' taken of
DJuhleh
eaded
horizon
tal
borer
3.9
2.5
4
Ntw a nd mor e
this hitherto much-neglected subj ect. H ow IS it to be
.
..
22.6
14.0
29
Old Machines u nder Powerful Machines on H . and V. planer . .
expected that work, and esp ecially good work, is to be
Conn ecting-rod la the
.
..
12.8
8.3
14.7
Premium System .
got from men who e hands are chilled to the bone and
while th e main energies are na turally taken up 'with
I n this comparison the conditions were as nearly as means of keeping up their circulation.
Old Time P remium Fjrst Time Record
po ible the same in both ea es ; the machines doing the
on
New
System.
System.
Time.
same lcind of work, the same men were at the machine and
T .mLE I II.
Machine.
were working under the premium system in the new ~hop
-hours
as in the old . The result was that the men made on an
hours
h ours
h ours
Amount
4. T urning t u nn>1
average-which is t aken over a long p eriod in both cases
of F loor
s hafting. 1 off.
42
29~
21
93!
Shop.
Area.
Ligh ts.
9.3
p
er
cen
t.
more
wages,
the
work
was
8.
3
p
er
cent.
Space per
5. Turning e:::c.
cheaper
to
the
firm,
and
15.9
p
er
cen
t
.
more
work
wns
Ampere.
rode. 1 oti ..
2~
11!
9
8!
got out of the same machines, due entirely to a better
6. T urning t hru11
FQ yards amper es sq. yards
arrangemen t and more roomy location of these machines.
&haft. 1 off
120
97!
75
65

per pa1r
7. Fioish turnin~
T his example is only one of many which could be given
22 at 10
e r a n k s h a f t.
42
34
15
9}
but ser ves to bring out the p oints which have bee~ Boiler shop . .
3700 {
} 13.2

4
,
15
1 off . .

mentioned .
H eavy machine shop 0 . I. Bay ..
880
7.3
12 " 10
8. Tur ning quad
Clean ancl T icly Shops.- Wit h regard to clean and Ligh t machine shop 0. L Bay ..
~3.5
11 , 10
7.6
hlo ' ks. 13oft
195
140
91!
tidy s hops, it is the belief of the author's firm-and Erecting shop
..
1040
11,.10
9.4

0. Slotting sole
1430
they are encouraged in this by exp erience and ex- Heavy machine shop M. I. Bay
11.9
}Jlates. 1 off
12 " 10
70
59!
41k
35!
10. S lntt.ing COD
ample of the most progressive shops-that these do Hea vy machine shop M. I. Ba}
gallery (screwing gallery)
.'.
479
4 , 10
11.9
denser. 1 off
6l
56
H
34
pay ; yet are not dirty, dark, untidy, cold, and badly Finishing
shop
674
12 ., 10
4.8

11. S l..>tting high

arranged shops met with in this a nd other countries,
(in verted)
pressure cyturning out good work, which must cost , and is cost- S mit hy
..
511
4 a t 10
12. 7

tinder. 1 off.
21
45l
21
33~
ing, more than it might, simply on account of these
(i n verted)
12. Rippin~
out
drawbacks. T hat such conditions are allowed to contin ue
h oles m crank
------webs (1 web).
is due either to indifference or ig norance of better on the ----------------------~-----Voltage 110. Br okie-Pell l amp~.
2 boles
29
17
9
7

part of the responsible management; or if they realise t he

14. H ole boring
benefits of ha ving better conditions, they lack the necesStanclcvrclisation.- Tbe premium sy t em, with 1ts attenm ain bearing
sary courage or p erseverance to put an end to the old bad dant records, very soon showed up the benefi ts of having
for
covers
ones. The value of having clean, tidy, well-lighted, and duplicate work, as the saving of time was quite con ider45
bolts. 12 holeF
37
20
2i t
warmed workshops is one which is impossible to deter- able where a run of duplicate or nearly similar pieces
six
15. Pla ning
mine in s. d., but that it does have an actual and very was given to a machimst . This was so marked that
steel slabs for
102
142!
12 c rank web:
66!
real and subs tan tial value is t!h e belief and experience of the question of standardising-, not only the details, but
all those who have em bodied these conditions in their the whole enpne, was gone m to in order t o get the full
workshop practice, and there are now many examples of benefit of th1s ; and as patterns began to require ren ewal
ba,~e ver y much increased the stress on lathes and boring this belief.
the engine was re-designed with this end m view. In
machines, and have rendered powerful and substantial
One cannot have a clean shop which is not a tidy shop, carrying out t his idea in a new design it was found necesmachines a greater necessity than ever. G enerally sp eak and neither will be found in a badly-lighted shop. The sary, not only to consider the engine and its details in
ing, in machines of this class cutting power is not in aut hor's firm set out to improve on these lines by fi rst relation t o them elves alone, but also with special re~ard
proportion to capacity, and want of belt power is a fault getting rid of t he old eart hen floor which is so common, to their p osition in t he range of sizes which it was decided
more often met with than not in machines of all classes. and by laying the whole of the ground floor "Tith grano- to make with a view of k eeping down the number of
A certain tool made by a first-class firm was purchased lithic and concret e pavement. 'fhe improvement is most different sizes of det ails. The question instantly became
hy t he author's firm three years ago, and a fter repeated marked ; formerly with t he old earthen and iron-chip one not only affecting the whole range of engines made
trials it was concluded that it liad not adequate belt floor it was impossible to keep any thing clean. Dirt a nd by the firm, but also th eir practice in connection therepower; so when a second machine was ordered, an in dust were the order of the day if the floor had to be swept, ' vith. This practically meant re-designing simul taneou ly
crea e in the ratio of gearing of about 28 to 30 per cent. so it was generally left alone as Ion ~ as it coul d be tolerated. all the sizes of engines made ; but a careful analysi and
wa in isted upon, much against the will of the t ool- Now there is no trouble; but m s tead a fine, smooth, consideration of the requiremen ts to be met enabled t he
makers, who con..,idered that the first machine was amply clean, bright surface to move about on. The floor is from whole range to be suitably broken up into well-defined
p owerful. The result is t hat the newer machine turns 9 in. to 12 in. thick in most place~:, and below machines gtoups, each group representing a cer tain size of main
somewhat thicker, and consists of about 2 in. of rough centres, and p ermitting certain variations of cylinder
out the same work as the old in 26.5 p er cent . less time.
A rranucment of T ools and Roomy Shops.- The ques- bottoming of broken stone, then 6 in. of concrete of 5 to 1, diameter and stroke witllln well-defined limits, and
tions of arrangement of tools and room y shops are closely a nd a top finish 2 in. thick of facing made of granite chips suitable for the usual steam pressure . The detailsconnected and interdep endent, and where t hese have to and cement in the proportion of 1~ to 1. A s it sets it is which in each group are never altered, although the
b e applied to existing buildings they become very difficult levelled and smoothed off with a trowel, and in three days ~ylinders may vary within the group limits- aro
ones to ettle, and in most cases t he r esult cannot be any is ready for use, becoming q uite hard in about a week, m very many cases common to several groups, and a
t hing more th an a compromise, because, for a given and when thoroug-hly set the floor assumes a beautiful large number common to the whole range. This object
sequence of op erations to be carried on within a given white surface, which has the effect of reflecting the light is always kept in view, in order to provide a much
crane area, certain t ools are required, and roominess and percep tibly aiding the general lighting of the shop . duplic.:'tte work as po ible. E pecially i this so in the
around each t ool cannot be given without affecting the Alt hough somewhat dearer than other styles of flooring, case of the very mall and numerous detail because in
arrangement of the tool , probably to the extent of ex- there is none other which po esses so many advantages. these the governing factor in the co t is the wages, not
cludiug some of them altogether from t he building, and It has a fine, bright, smooth s urfttce, and is therefore the material; a sligh t and unimportant variation in size
thus breaking the sequence of operations by extra ea ily swopt and kept clean; is easily repaired, and does causing a relatively large variation in wages co t; while in
handling . When, however, new shops or extensive altera- not wear into hollows like wood p aving ; and there has the larger details the conditions are reversed, and the
tions are about to be entered upon, t he q uestion deserves been no complaint from the workmen about it being sore mat erial becomes the important co t factor, a relati vely
smaU variation in wages covering a very large variation in
the most serious consideration. The comfort and con- t o th e feet .
Well-L ightecl cuncl WeU- Wcwmecl Shops.- The benefits of size. The location of the dividing line between these two
veni ence of having room y machine shops is an other condi t ion ver y difficult to p ut a money value upon ; but those having a well-lighted engine and bmler hop are pret ty confiictin~ sets of condition thus becomes a matter of conwho have had to deal with overcrowded machine shops, generally recognised, but not to the extent t hey might siderable Importance, but the accurate data from the time
where a large proportion of floor space is taken up by tools be. There are s till fn.r too many places-some of them office enables its position to be fixed with great exactness,
or by the work for them, realise t he great inconvenience of front rank-without adequa te means of lighting, strug- so as to allow of as much duplication of parts as will pay.
When, however, duplic.:'ttion of pieces c.:<tn no longer be
nnd discomfort caused by this, and must see that money is gling along with lucigen lamp or g-as in an almost
heing lost under such an arrangement. Plenty of room Stygian darkness, which can only be d1 pelled by electric carried out on account of the cost of material prohibiting
sh ould be allowed round each tool : and this app1ies to a lig ht aud plen ty of it. This is more generally the ea e i t, m uch can be done in the way of duplicatmg similar
greater degree to heavy machine tools than to light, be- in boiler shops than in mnchine shops ; and, if there is a machined, faced, &c., parts in d1fferent group . This encau8e these have to c1eal with much heavi er a nd more place wh ere there ought to be good light it is in a boiler a bles and encoumges the use of jigs, which, under other
bulky pieces which cannot be easily handled or trlms- shop. The amount of time lost by men cautiously feeling conditions, would not have been warranted by the saving
portcd from spot to sp ot, and are gen erally stacked around then way about in semi-darlme...~, coupled with t he time in wages. Wh on oven this cannot be done, standardisalo t by skulkers , and loafers dawd ling away their time in tion by a graded series of similar pieces does much to
or n ear the machines which operate on them.
The question of handling of materia~, which .is the da rk corners, is very con iderable ; besides which, m en make the progress of the work through the drawing
direct result of the arrangement of tools, IS one w in ch has very naturally dislike having to work in a dark shop, and office and the 1hops ea y and free from the friction and
n ot received t he atten tion it deserves, simply on account theu unwillingness affect their attendance a nd t hey lo e delay inciden tal t o sudden and abrupt changes in desirn.
In the drawing office it has the effect of crystallising tnat
of t he difficult y of getting a t the direct Ios.~ caused by a time.
Owing t o certain circums tances, the new boiler shop vague thing- known as "our pract ice," nnd compel it to
p oor arrangemen t, eve~ if it is reali:;ed t hat a los~ is
taking place, and expenments are t ed1ous and expensiv.e. electric light inst allation was not in working order until carry out 1ts work on well-defined l ines, thus avoiding
There is no doubt, however, that m uch can be done m the w inter season was half tluough, yet from the day t he expensive and irritating changes and mistakes or overthis direction in the marine-engine shop if these ques- cunent was switched on the boilermakers' attendance sigh t. It has also the effect of economising- draught men's
improved; and while the avora~e time lost before the time, as a standard series of drttwings once properly
tion be properly inves tigated.
As an example of '~hat .can. be done by. the con- introduction of electric li ghting- was 14.72 per cent. , a fter arranged do not require to be re-drawn for every
sideration of these quest10~s, 1t m1ght .be men t1<?ned that the light was introduced tho t tme lost averaged 13.2 per n ew job.
In the shops, standardi~<ttion by itR consistency in .
after the a uthor's firm laid down their new boiler-shop, cent.; a dis tinct saving of over 1. 5 per cen t ., or threethe work turned out by the light and h eavy plating quarters of a n hour per week p er man. This is attri buted dc~ign familiarise t he staff and mon with the practice

----

SEPT. I

3,

1901.]

E N G 1 N E E R I N G.

and onu..hle.."' thorn to go about each now job with confidence and expedition: knowing thnt each job ns it como..q
forwn.rd, if not t~ duplicate, will at len 't be similar; nil of
which go ftw to SI;)Ced up the progress of work through
tho shop nnd th us mcrenso the output. And, ltbovo all,
by t he vory fnct t lmt the moan to effect this cnlls for tho
hest f~tcilit'ics nnd most oxnct workmanship, tho result i~
that the chnmctcr of the workman hip is raised hc."lidcs
being chett-pen ed, with satisfactory results to both consumer nnd manufacturer.

Where the drcdg<;>d cuts arc properly located, a sa.tisfa'Jcompleted ; and about 2000 mil e3 of the river have
been mapped, and the maps have Leen pub!ished on a tory cha.nnel ca n be readily opened ; a nd. expet:ienc_e s~ows
that when once openod, the cha nnel. wtl~ mamtam 1tsclf
soale of 1 : 20,000.
The chief construction work of the Commi~sion hM un til t here is a. considerable fluctuat10n 10 stage, soob &1
be<'n confined to th a t portion of th o Mississippi Ri Vt r t o change the diraotil)n of fl >w of the tlrea.d of the
lying bet we('n the mouth of the Ohio a nd N e w Orlt~an~. C!>rrenb. Such a dredger i \ opertl.ted a~ a total cost of
The work hM consiste:l of contracting th e channel iu wid e ahou ~ 100 dols (20l. 17s.) p er day of 2! hout'3.
pltlC9S, rovebment, and dredging. A Bill pending b efore
REVRTMENT AND Co~Tna.orro~ WoRKS.
the htst Congress requirad that a. thorough study shall be
made. with a viow of a1certttin 'ng the feasibility a~d
J n a sl rea.m flowiog thNugb a ~ed of its own formation,
practicttl>ility of securing an Mnplo waterwa y 14 ft. m the banks are na.turn.lly very eastly erod e~ ; a nd. a Ja,tor~l
dep t h, th e ultimate objeob bri ng t > saoure a 14-fb. cb1tnn~l movement in one direction or tho other 1s contmu_ally. m
THE IMPROVEMENr OF TriE LOWER
from L ake J\ilichigan to the Gnlf of Mexico, via the Illi- progre38. Any permanent improvement of na.v1gat10n
MISSISSIPPI RIVER. *
nois t\nd Miesis~i.ppi l~iVHJ, The prcso11t lttw contem require3 the banks to bo made stable, to prevent. the _flankBy Mn. J. A. OOKERSON, St. Loo~, Mo. , U.S.A., plates a cbanuol not Jes~ than 0 fb. in depth ab the lowes b ing of the cha nnel works, and to stop the contrtl?utiOn of
Member of the Missi:sippi River Commi~ ion, M e mber &tlt-geR of the ri vor. Und er. natural condi~~ons this d op~h erod ed mate rial which builds Ul) tbl1 obstructms- bars.
of tbo American Socioty of Ci vil Engineer~, Member pre vn.ils for an average p en od of about eight months m Active bank erosion is con fined to the concave stdes of
tbo yettr. The Jo w-wa.ter period genera.ll,Y ra nges from the bends in the river, where the thalweg lies close to the
of t he Engineerd' Club of St. Louis.
the middle of August to D ocember. Tbn is, however,
A STREAM carrying the drainage of an area of 1,256,000 the p erio:i when t he grain crop~ are movin~, ~tnd good bank. Tbe:e blnks are sometimes 50 ft. in height above
square miles, having 15,000 miles of na.viga.blo tributaries, nl\vigation is most urgently needed. As the imprJve- low water and extend down below for an equal depth.
and 'vhioh is itself 2500 miles in length , justifies the menb of a stream of such great length will necessa.rily Tbi3 give~ a steep b:J.nk about 100ft. ~i gh, w~10h must ~e
appellation o( "Fa ther of Wa.tere." The Miesissi ppi requ ire along p erio :l of time, temporary exJ?edients for protected in snch a. w~y as to pre vent It~ eros10n a nd d S
River, rit:i ng in nortltern Minnesota, where its waters the relief of na viga tion must be used, for wh teh purpose 1ntegra.tion : a ve ry dttficulb and expensiVe work.. There
are ice bound for nearly half the year, flowd southward, hydraulic dredgera of large cttpacity have been con- is no r vCk near n.l) hand for uee as ballas t Or pa.vmg, ~nd
gathering strength and volume on its way to the sea, structed. An ex perimenta l dredger was firab constructed, it has to b~ broughb fr vm quarries several hundred m1les
until it finally enters the Gulf of Mexico, where it washes and ~ orked for a. p er:od of over two years, for the pur- away. The willows used for coveri og the bank below
th~ low. water line grow in profusion along the battures ;
the shores of semi-tropical L ouisiana..
pos~ of ascertaining whether dredgin~ in a stream wh ra
The reguhltion and control of a river of such magni tude such enormous qu antities of matena.l ara continually but e ven the supply of willows would be severely taxed to
involves probl~ms which gren.tly tax the ingenutty and moved along the bed by the current could gi ve any meet the de mands of a genera.l syst~m of bank revetm~nt.
skill of ntC\.n to solve. Jn its lower ha lf, th e river oscil- ben eficial results, and also to learn by experience bow to 'f h e method now in vog ue for holdmg the ban~ consists
la tes in vol ume from a minimum flow of 65,000 cubic feet manreu vre and operate a dredger and di~charge the of a. covering of fascine- willow mats, ba.llnsbed w1tb stone
per second to a maximum o f 2,000,000 cub =c feet P "r material in strong currents, 'l,hese expenmf!nts and and usually 300ft. in width, extending from the lo~
second, and the oEcillation" in stage b etween extreme htgh work done since then have fully established the fa.c~ that wa ter line out iot::> the stroam. 'fhese mats a re builb
a nd low water amount! t o 53 fb. About 1250 miles above a. powerful hydraulic dredger can open an a mple nav1gable and sunk in lengths of abou t 1000 ft. The only limi.t to
i ts mouth the Missouri River enters, with its sediment channel through an obstructing Sttnd-bttr, a nd maintain the length is that fix_ed by th_e streng th o_f tbe hoa.d-h.ne~
lad en waters that are prolific in hind rances to navigation. it at a cost fully j ustifying t he expense. F or the next! which hold the tioatmg mat m place durmg ~onstru ct1~n.
This sediment, and tbab derived from the ero~ion of the lo w-water season there will be in t he service of the com- With a strong current, and larga aocumula.btons of drif t,
alluvhtl banks, form the sand-ba rs which develop during mission a working fleet of nine dredgers, with a com- it is often difficult to hold a. very long mat.
In the conetruotion of a mat, the firs tJ step is to secure
t he falling stages of the river, and become, ab low stagE*~, bined working oa.paoity of over 10,000 cubic yards p e- r
the mooring barges end-to-end at righb angles to the
formidable obstructions to navigation. It will thus be hour.
shore and located at the up-stream end of t he work. They
seen that t here are two distinct problems, one involving
A descript ion of one of the later type of dredgers, n ow are fi~mly fastened together, and cable~ reac~g secure
the improvement of low-water navigat ion, and the other und er construction, will g ive a good gene ral ideo. of ~hat
the prevention and control of destructive floods. Inci- is considered essential to a good dredger, for work m a fastenin~s on shore bold them firmly m posttion. The
dentally, the works executed for the ~a.tter b~ve a. ? ireob stream where th e material to be moved is river ea nd. beading for bbe mM is ~he~ ma?e of a bundl~ of strong hardinfluence on the former, by prevenhn~ a. dtsperaton of This type of dr~dger is pro~,ided wi_th propelling power wood poles, 5 in. to 8 m. m dtame.ter, a.nd 1s secur~d a.l~n.g
the water~, tlnd thus inducing a scourmg effect in the operating t wo stde wheels. Ih~ hull u of stet-1_. a nd a~ple the downstream side of t he moormg barges to wbtch It ts
bed, wbioh enlarges i ts ca.pacit y. The lower half of the cabin accommodation for maohmery and crew lS prov1ded. suspended. It. is fu_rther secured _by 6 or 8-wire cables,_ an
str~am flows in an a lluv ial bed of its own formation, the The genera l dimensions are as followo : L ength moulded, icch or more ID dta.meter, pa~s mg uoder the moormg
banks of which ttra very fMily eroded. The (;ro~ion takf s 192 fo. : wid th moulded, 44 fb.; depth .mould ed, 7 ft.; ba rges and leading to strong fasoening~ on. shore. ~o
pla'le, for the mo~ t pa.rt, on the ft~.lling stage~. The ?anks maximum wid t h over wheels, 70 fb ; suot1on well at bow, obtain a ddibional &trength, a. second headmg u placed m
being composed of alternate layers of sand ~nd stlfl, or 25 ft. by 33 fb. ; working draugh t, 4 ft ; o_abin, 4~ ft. by the mat about 10 ft. below the first one, and securely
ola.y ttre disi ntegrated by the layers of eand bemg wMbed 130 ft. dia me ter of centrifugal pump, 75 1n.; auct10n and fastened to it. Two mat barges, end to end, are dropped
out ~hen the water in the saturated banks recedes towa rd disch~~ge pipes, 32 in. in diamete r; leng th of dis.oha.rge in below, a.nd parallel to, the mo :>ring barges, to wbiC'h
the river as ib falh. This leaves the cla y unsupported, pipe, 500 ft. ; main engine (tan?em CO';Jlpound), 1q 10. a nd they are a ttached by three cables, so arranged that the
and causes the bank to collapse in large masses, which 26 in. by 20 in. ; and seven botl era, w1bh four 1~-1n. flues mat barges can be readily dropP,ed d~wn _s tre.am ns the ma.t
elide into the river, a.nd then diEintegrate from the force 44 in. in diameter and 30 ft . long. 'rhe capa.01ty ? f t he is builb. These barge3 are bu1lb wtth Ino~med ~ays on
of the currf:nb. In the 885 miles of the river lying below dredger is 1000 cubic yards of sand per hour, deh vered which the mat is constructed, and are provided w1t h reels
the mouth of the Ohio River, this e rosion or oa.ving through 1000 fb. of discharge pipe, at a. pump speed of for holdin g the sewing cable~ and wire strands, all spa.c~1
at t?~ propAr inte rvals. ~ll'.o w pole3 arl1 next placed m
amounts to an average of 9! acres in a rea. for each mi!e 160 revolutions per minute.
pos1t10n at the top of the mol me, and normal to the shore ;
of river i n a. year, or a volume of about 1,003,579 oubto
The sand pump h~ a suction on ea~h side. of the p um p a nd a fascine 12 in. thick and 300 fll. long, or the full
yards for ench mile of river per year. The total am;m al casing; a nd the d1schar~e lea,es . the c.:asmg from the
of th~ mat, is constructed. The willows used
amoun t of erosion for this reach equnh 10 square mileP, lower side and follows along a. ptpe ln.td on the lower width
range from 1 in. t o 4 in. in diamete r at the butts ; and
86 h. in depth.
beams of the hull tJ the stern~ whe.re it is co~nec.:bed w~tb
In its n atura l condition t he river below t he mouth. of a floating p ipe line. Th=s floatmg diScharge ptpe l !:i carr~ed the entire leng~b, incl~ding the bus~y t~ps, i~ made
use of. Galvanised wue cables l, m. m dta.meter,
the Ohio overflowed its banks at floods stages, wh~c:h on P.Onboons, in lengths of 100 ffl. , _coupled toge_ther w tth spaced
about 8 ft. apart, are attached t o the bes_dgenerally occur in t he spring mon_ths . . T he de~truc~Ive flonble joint~ of rubber, to as to dtecharge ou titdo of the ing, a.nd run the '~bole le ngth of the mat along 1ts
tloods invariably come from the Ohio Rtver and 1ts tnbu cha.nnel. The d ischarge pipe lioe ca.n be deflected by underside. The fascmes are d mwn close up_to the h~ad
taries chief among which a re t~e T~nnes~~e and Cu~t ber mu~ns of shifting t he p -:> ntoone, a nd ttlso by the use of a ing, and are fastened to6other by a ! ID. g~lvam:ed
land Rivera which drain a reg10n m which the ramfall blt ffle-p late n,t th e end of the lin~. 'rh~ pum p runner, wire strand, which p!lS$e3 ro~nd e~oh fascm~, and
is exceptio~ally h eavy. The alluvittl basin su~ject to 75 in. in dia meter, has five blades,_ a nd to . keyed upon a als'> the longitudinn.l oa.bles, whwh are the mamstays
overflow covers a n area. of about 30,000 square m1lc3. It steel shafb. The blades are provtded w1th remo~a.ble of the mat. The weaving strand and bottom clbl~ are
has a soil o f remarkable fertility, which yields enormous wearing plates 1f in. thick. ~rhe Clt~ing is of cas~ uon. cla mped together a t frequent interv1~ls by staples drtven
crvp s of cotton a nd sugar cane. ~t is thus cap~ble of The intake of the s uction is in two parts, each 11~ fb. in to the la rge willows. As the ma twaya become filled
sustaining a. large population, a ddmg very m t~tenally to long by 8~ in. deep. These suction he1ds are broughb and t he mab de vel?ps, t he m ab bu.~ges ar~ dropped a way;
the wealth of the coun try. This brief description of the down to a. seo~ion 22 in. equa.re, and enter the hull by and thi3 procfS3 u repeated unt tl sufficient length bas
phy~ical conditions of the stream is essenti al to a n under- means of radial joints, which admib of raising n.nd low~r ben made. Rows of large willow pole a re p laced on
stand ing of tbe problems rela ing to its improvement and ing the sucbions at will. This motion is effected by_wue top and lengthwite of the mttt at inte rvals of about 16ft.,
the metbodg employed therein.
.
rope-s pas~i~g over, sheaves,_ a nd opera ted. by_ suttab~e and are eecurely fastened in place These pole3 perform
From S t. L ouis to Cairo, a dist'lnce of 180 m.tlcs, the windiog engmes. 'I be mater1nl at the .sucbton m take IS the doub!e function of strengthening the ma.t, and prowork projected at present contemplate3 a channel 8 ft. loosened by wa ter jets from t welve 2-tn. nozzles, v.:ork- venting the loose rock ballast from rolling off. 'fb e
deep a t low water, and havin~ a width o f 2000 fb. 'T he ing under a pre~sure of 60 lb. to 120 lb. per square 1nch channe l edge_ of the mat ~s fur ther stre~gthened wit~ a
overflo w &tnges ate not of such frequent occurrence as to by mea ns of a horizontal dup!ex compound plun ger ~-in. ~alvamsed steel w1re ca.blP, ba vmg a. brcakmg
justify e xpensi ve embankmeots or Levees to control t he pump. The main engines a re horizontal c~nd on~mg strpngth of 9 tons . This i~ cla mped to the weaving
floods. 'he high stages occur in the months of a y a_nd t"ngioes of the t amden compound type,_ o~ th_e d~mons10ns cable on top of the mat at u~tervnJs of 10 ft., the uppe-r
June ; whle the lo w-water ~eas~>n generall_y begms with given above. The boilers are t he Mtsslsstppt Rtve~ type, end being eecured to the headmg. Where gn~at strength
S eptember, and often extend3 mto the wn~ter mon ths. bituminous coal being ~sed as fuel. ~fhe d_redgor 1S p o- is required ~imihtr top cablo3 are placed at mtervals of
The system of in;tpr ovement adopted for t_h1s r_each con - vided with a n electric-hgh t plan t, refnger n:tm~ plant, _anri 8 H. to 16 f't , according to t~e necessities of the case. A
sistR m contru..ctmg the channel, and closmg stde chutes Rteam steering gear. AJ?pl~ s:,tccommodatton 1s provtdc:d ma.t of the character descrtbed Clm be made a t a rate
~r chmnela by means of permcab'e dykes ttn~ b_urcllcs. for quarters, and for mamtat_owg t~ q~u'!Jle crew. Pf. well- of aboub 10 ft. per hour. When completed, the ma t
'his requires thab the banks must ba held, ~htch 1s d o~e equipped machine shop provtdes faC1lit1es for mn.ktng all float3 on the surface with onf' side rest.ing against tho

by means of revctmcnt. W ork is a lso do11e w1tb bydrJ.uhc ordma.ry

river bank, the whole being held in place by the mooring
repatrs.
dredgers and tempomry portab'e _dyke3, which are uEed
'Vhen in operation, the dredger is manipulated by two
F'
to open channels tbr.)Ugh obsbructlng bars. On th e ~on~ wire cables 1 in. in diameter. and 1200 ft. long, onf' end lines.
The n exb step is to s ink the m~t to the bottom.
u-sb
pletion of the con traction works now in .progr ess, 1t H being attached to hauling drums, 48 in. in diat?eter, a nd a uniform distribution of s'one 1s made all over the mat,
expected t hat a navign.b1~ ch ~nnel of 8f t. m d epth a t low t he other to hollow iron piling S"Cur~ly placed m the be~ nnd of sufficient quantity to barely allow the mat to float.
water wi ll be rettd tly mttm tame~ . .
.
.
of the river. W ith the ca.blos all ptttd out, the dredger ~s Barges loaded wuh ballast stone are then brought to the
The Miesis~ippi Ri ver Comm1~Sl.Olll~ ~harged w1th _tb o at the lower side of the sand bar to bo out t brough; and 1b head of the ma~ tl.nd s ufficioot s bone is placed thereon to
sur vey and ttudy of the phy sical c~nd1t1~s. of ~be rtvH is pulled up-stream at a. spo:d varying wit h the depth of sink it when th~ lines to the mooring barges are slackened
from ittJ source to t he Gulf of MeXlCO. l~m; survey c~m thg out and chamoter of material. F or depths of 5 fb. off The cables to the shore still hold it from moving
siats of a obain of high-grade tria.t?gulat10n tt.nd o. J_me the rttto of movement ranges from a b'lub 90ft. t o 153ft. do~n-strea.m. The b e1d of the mat being on the bottom,
of precise levels, which form the ba~ts f?r a. top~grapb1~al per hour 01 somelimes evoo as high as 200 h. of cub per and the balance stilln.flol\t, the stone barges are dropped
survey covering tt width of about a. mtl~ on etther. s~de hou r. After one cut is finished, the hauling cables are in below the mo :>ring barge!!, and p nra.llel to them, and
of the river and also for a. hydrogra.ph10 survey gt vmg shifted. the dredger is again dropped bnck to the lmyer EO connected thnt they can bo float ed down as the mat
deptbo, slope3, volume of discharge, &o.. Permanent edge of the bar, and a nother cut IS made alo?g the ~1dc ~inks. A large force of men then thro'v off the stone
marks or monuments are lefb at freq uent m~rvals, and o f the fir st cut. This process is repeated unttl suffietent on to the mab, and a1 it sink~, the ba~ges float ~own
theRe serve as the initial points from. ~b1cb subse- width bns been obta.i ned. After th g 6t:3t out. hf:lS been 0 ,er ifl, delivering the atone balln.st umformly unttl the
quent surveys ara made for ascHtamm~ cha~ges opened, th e current is an acti.\o agent m asststmg t?e whole rests securely on the bottom. The head cables,
occurring in the bed or banks of the nver. The development of a channel, proVldt d the cut ha~ bee~ pro- which a.re provided with special toggles for th~ purpose,
general survey, made i n great detail, has been nearly perly located with reference to t he natura l dnaotton of are then removed, and t he subaqueous port10n ?f phe
bank is secured by the ba.lla<Jted mat. The final smkmg
tiow.
Otherwise,
the
ar~ifioial
cut
_ma
b~
6lled
as
fast
*Paper read before the International Engineering Co~
of a mat 100ft;. lon g is accomplished in about a.n hour.
gress, Glaqgow, 1901. Secbion I I.: Waterways and Ma.n- as it is oponed, by t he material wh10h ts moved along by
The form of mat describod i'l found t0 sorve the purpose
the current.

tim,

wl r~8.

E N G I N E E RI N G.
V(

3,

1901.

l'f We~l, the weake,t point be ing the Wi re fa.steniogP, being tha t tbee had been no ve ry d c:lid e :l ch anga in the with but few dangers. The G .1.ntock, ly ing off Danoon,

whic~, m the course of t im e, corrode and break. \Vh e n

once In place, the ballaste:l ma t filled with sedimen t will
!em ain, und e: ordinary co nditions, even without fasten1Dg3. To ob v1a te the d efects in ciden t to corrosion, exp ?rim ents are being mad e with s ilicon bronze a.nd other WH&,
and different wire coating~.
The following materiali ara used per 100 s quare feeb of
mat : Willow b ru3h, 1.639 cords ; poles, 0.053 cord ;
E~t~el wire, 4.861lb. ; silicon bronze, &c., wiro, 0 546 lb.;
wuo stra.nd, 10. 965 lb.; clamps o r sbaples. 1.500 lb.; a nd
~tone, 0. 6~5 ton. A no bherform of m at, called a crib ma t,
JS used w1th good r esult s when the plant is limited and
ib also h as the advantage of eliminatinO' the use of ' wire
an d wire strand. The~e mats are cons tructed on temporary ways built on the b~nk near w her e the willows
are cub. The dimen<lions are us ually 100 fb. by 150 ft .,
and abou b 1 fb. thick ; bub the mab may be of any
suitable s i?.e or thickness. A bottom frame of S9.wn lumber
is fi rst laid on the wayfl, consis ting of 2.in . by 4-in. ):>'e~es
laid in pairs a.t inte rvals of 10 f b. Uprig ht p osts or bmd ~rs
a re placed betwe2n the pairs of scantling ttt intervals of
5 fb., and a:re sqc':lred to t~em by wooden pins. T he firs t
layer of willows IS next latd on, and fasten ed with spikes
across the fra.mes, or at right angles to the river ; a
second lay er is laid a.b right angles to the fir3b, and a
third layer parallel to the bottom layer. The wbo' e is
then firmly compressed by a special dwice, a nd a, top
f ra me s imilar to the lower one i3 p ub in phtc9 and securely
pinned to the uprights. On top, and ac ross these top
f rames, p)le3 ar e fa'ltened to stiffen th~ mat while being
handled, an d to h old the ballas b in sinking. E ach m11t a~
comp1e~ed is la unched in to the river; and wh en a suffic :ent number have been eonstrucbed, they are bound
to~ethor ~tnd t o wed by a t ug or to w-boat t o tbe point r eq uired. They can be bound toget her to form a lon g ma t,
or th ey can be sunk s~puately. T h e ma~ costs 3 ceots
(l~d. ) p3r squar e foot a flott, a nd 6 cen ts (3d.) in J?lace,
a nd r equires 12lb. of stone p er square foot to s ink 1t.
After th e subaqueous portion of th e bank h as been
secur ely p rotected , t he upper pat t of the bank is g rad e i
t:> a slope of 3 to 1 by an hydra ulic grader, and the g raded
s ur face is paved with stone t o a thickne~s of about 10 in
This paving is carried up to within 10ft. of the top of
t he bank, and s ometimes is carried r ight up . Where the
ballast s tone is very far from the wo!'lr, arti6c'al stone of
cement ttnd rive r gravel, Vr hich is u3u ally near at baud
in abund~tncP, is made use o f. German P ortl and ceme nt
is us 3d in the propor tion of 1 cement to 13 of sand a "ld
g ravel. The;) m ixer and its ma')hinery is carrie d on a
tramway laid on tbe gravel bar wh era th e m aterittl is
abundant, and a series of moulds are p!aced on t he
ground alon g the tram. Tb e blocks ara made 7 in. thick,
12 in. d eep, and 6 fb. lon g, and, a ft er hard ening, ar .:~
b rokEn into s izes to sut. This artificial s tone weigh s
about 140 lb. per cubic foob. A smaU p!ant will l1Ja.k e
aboub 1GO tons per d ay, at a coEt of abou b 1.40 d ol. (5s. 10d. )
per cubic yard. as against 2 dols. (Ss. 4d ) or more for t h ~
stone in s ome localibies.
E x periment3 are being made with upper bank paving
of concrete 4 in. thick, laid in situ. Brick is also being
t ried for ballast and paving.
The average cost of a complete bank revetmenb, wi lh a
sub-aqueous mat300 fb. wi de and upper bank g raded and
I aved, is 27 d ole. {5l. 12s. 6d. ) p H r unning foob of bank.
In some cases spur dykes or buttresses, spaced 450 ft..
&p!!.rb, have been used to bold high banks a.nd check the
erosion, constructed of willows and s ton e built up in
layers on a b road foundation mat. In some places these
have failed by scou r taking place behind them, as
bhe above water bank is left. unprotected. Such spu s
properly sp1.ced would d oubtless be successful, and p ar
baps more economical than bhe standard continuous revebmenb. The closure of chutes or side channels is
effecned by means of brush and ston e dams and pile
dyke~, built t o a height somewhB~t above low water.

[S EPT. I

L EVEEEI.
The alluvial basios below the mou th of the Ohio,
which are subject to overflo w, cov er an area of abou b
30 000 square miles, or aboub equal t o the area of Scot
J a~d. At high stages, these lands, under n atural conditions, a re flooded to d epths varying fr om a few inches to
15 ft. or even more. Originally they were d ensely
wood ed ; bub the extraordinary fer tility of the soil attracted t he agricul buris t, who settled there, and cleared
up the lands ab the risk of being overwhelmed by the
floods. U nder such conditions, only the very highes t of
the lands, which always lie near the river b~n~, co~ld
be utilised; and most of the land was leftl m 1ts wild
state, u n t il the inhabitants undertook to build barriers
to k eep out the annual floods. In this way the levee
svstem began;, and so lon ~ as it w!'-5 confi ned to .isoJu~t<?d
d istriotta, Jea vm g the ma)or pot t10n of th e lnsms Eo t ill
o~en to t he flood s, the levees r equ irc::l were of small
d1mensions.
W hen the impror ement of th e river l:egan, it soon
becam e appar en t that i t was impot t ant to confio e the
wttter~ as fa r as p racticable, to th e Pa.m e general channel
lines at both low an d hig h s tages. Thie mean t th at the
floods muet be confin ed t hroughout the whole length of
the alluvial valley. To restrain all t he en ormous volume of
wa ter necesearily required much hi~her and Etron ger
levee3 t han bad been found sufficient t'J proteob isola ted
patches of l and. As was ex pected, t he river in flood,
confined between levees a mile or two apart, r eached a
plane considerably higher than ~vhm it was a.llowe~ to
spre 1.d unimJ=crle:l over the w1d e ex}Jane c of bastnP.
While the cam e eeemed qui te appar en t, ma ny p ople
a ttributed t he rise in t he flood plane betwee~ t he Je ,' ees
t o a fill in g up of the l e i o f t he ~trea.m. Thts J~d to an
extend ed in ves t1gation by the author, e~tendm.~ over
e.everal hundred m iles of ri ver, the con clusiOn arrived a t

bed; bub, on the wh ole, the eviden ce poin ted to a lo wer- is guarded by a gaslighted beacon; then an other obstrocing of t he bed. This view wa.s fUT tbcr substan tiated by tion, called bhe \Varden Bank, is met with, which till
t he fact t hat the low-watsr p lan e was very materi~lly rccantly was nob shown on the Admiralty char lis, and
lower than it was prior t.> t he completion of bhe levt e was nob gen erally known bo ex is b. I o forms an extension
system, al t hough the d epth and volume wa.s equal t'J of Lunderston Ba.nk, and has 34 fb. of water over it at
those of form er y ear~.
d ead low water, Ro thab ib d oes n ob form a danger to
Prior t) 1882, t he constru ction of levee ' wa3 con fi ne d b ordinary traffic of the present draught. Within a few
tlH' several St \te l and to p rivate landownerS~. In tbu~t yards of this rooky ledge there is a depth of no lesg
year th ere occurr ed on e of the g (cate t floods known, and than 300 f b., so that the west s ide of bbe Warden Bank
It bec~me apparent that the aid of the general Govern- is a s ubmarine precipice. Skelmorlie Pd.tch is the next
me nb was essen tial t o adequabe protecbion. Appropria.- shoal, the boulders coming to within a. fe w feet of bbe
t ions of funds wna made; and s ince thab time the Go - surface. Ib forms a d an ger ab preEenb guarded by a gasvern men t h as s pent aboutl 16 million d ollars (3,300,000l.) l ighted bu oy and bell. The esnuary south of this to the
in levee construction, while the several States have s pen t L1ttle Cumbrae is from 30 t o 60 fathoms in d epth, through
a.boub d ouble that sum. The t otal length of levee lines which the n avigation is unimped ed by dangerous shoals.
below tlbe mouth of the Ohio is aboub 1450 miles ; bub
The Clyd e, ib will be seen, d iffers from mosb of the
they sti ll lack much to br ing them up to the dimen- navigable rivers of this C)untry in that ib d oes nob Bow
s ions and height d eemed necessary for safety.
direct into the sea. with the natnral accompanimen t of a.
The ord inary standard levee is builb wi bh a crown of bar, bub entera into a deep and sheltered estuary. T he
8 fb., and side slopes of 3 to 1. T he crown and s ides are estuary itself is encumbered with sandbanks, bub owing
sodded with a very ten acious g rass, known as Bermuda to their sheltered s ituation bhey are not stirred up to any
g rass. Where t he levee exceeds a height of 11 fO., it is great exten t by heavy waves, and the sand is n ot carried
reinforced on the land side with a banquette of earth, in to choke up the channel way. There is n o " fretting " of
which r aaches a height of 8 H. below the top of the levee. the b~nks, as in the Mersey, for example. The Clyde
The crown of the banquette is 20 fb. in width, and has Lig hthouses Trust, which succeeded the Cumbra.e Trust
slope, for drainage purposell, of 10 to 1, bhe s ide slope in 1871, immediately took steps to carry out the powers
being 4 to 1. These dimensions d both levee ani ban- which Parliament had delega ted to them, and appoin ted
quebte are i ncrea<3ed if the foundation is bad, or the Messrs. Stevenson, of Edinbu rgh, their engineers. T he
maberial is n ob g ood . In some places the only material improvemen t of the estuary between Port Glasgow and
a vailable is a very sandy soil, and in such cases a. very large the bail of the bank involved, ab the same time as the
section is r equired. The use of levees as roa.dways is improvement of bhe estuary bo G lasgow, the conservation
strictly prohibited.
of bhe en brances t o the harbours of Por t G lasgow and
On approaching tlhe lowe:r end of th e le vee syatem, G reen ock. These harbours required t o have the benefits
the floods sometimes continue bo s tand far up on t h e le vees of a na vigable fairway in close proximity, and yeb the
for se veral mon t hs, which tries them vuy severely, as channel way for the ordinary river traffic to be sufficiently
they become mturated, and easily abraded by wave- removed from th e sh ore that ships passing to other ports
wash from wind or passing steamere. To p revent the mighb be comparatively free from Interruption from the
wav e wash, a plank revetment is fixed a s hort d istance local traffic to Porb G lasgow and Greenock. The inconf rom the l evee>. A fter a levee become3 thorou ghly satu- venienb curves round Garvel Poi nt, and the bight ab
ra.t e:i with water , a co1laps9, wi th its d e3tructive effects, Ccl.rtsdyke, also r equired to be d ealt with ancl made easier
may occur. Such break3 in the leveeR are called ere for the p assage of ld.rge ships. A channel way, or r ather
va.eses. When once formed, they contioue to increase what is really a shipcan al, has now heen formed from
in wid th, and bhe r ushing flood plays havoc with evary- Newark Castle (Por b Glasgow) to P rince's Pier, G reen ock,
thi ng i n its wake. H ouses, fences, and 6von th e soil having n owhere a less depth than 23 fb. ab low water of
itself a.re torn up, and great damage is done. When a spring tides, with a mimmum width at the bottom of
break occura, but litt l"J can b e done beyond holding t he 300 ft., and s lopes of 100 ft. on either side, h aving depths
brok en ende, so as bo save as much of t he levee a1 possible. varying from 20 f t. to 23 fb. Before this canal was begun
So far , effor t 3 at closing a bre1k have n ot been very suc. the ruling d epth at that p arb o f the estuary was 12 ft.
ce3Sful, and are always attended wi t h enormous expensP. The cur ves at Garvel and C.1.rtsdyk e h ave been eased by
Bank erosion ia one of ~be mo~t active and for~udable j fully one h alf. These improvements, great bhough.the.y
agents in the destrucbLon of levees. A considerable are, cannot be taken as fin al, as the draught of ships JS
length of completed line often caves in to the river, still on the increase, and, perhaps, a b no very distant d ate
neco3si tatin~ t he cons truction of a n ew l in e farther back, fur ther d eepening and widening of this channel way may
and connectm g w:th th e stable ends of the old line.
be called for by the s hipping intere!)t. 'fhis deep-water
'fbe above brief general d esoription of t he chief works channel has been marked on it3 n or thern side by buoys
carried on for t he improvement of the Mississippi River and a lightship lighte-d by gas, while the sou t hern side
will give 8: fair idea of what is bein g d one. Any ~hing hag also been s imilarly ~arked by buoys, and gas-lighted
lik e a d eta.1led accounb of work~ of s uch great ma g m tude beacons and buoys. Pilots can therefore take vessels
would require volumes ; and t hey have only been touched through the estuary ab night almost as well as by day;
upon h ere and there in th is paper. I t is hoped, ho wever, and when fo~ obscu res the lights, t he fog sign als ab
that it is n ot whol1y wi t hou t intcre3t. While t his g reab Kempock Pomll, F orb ~Iatil cb, C loch, T oward, and
riv er has few, if any, patallels, the p roblems are mo3t Cumbrae, give their warning n otes to the eailor bhab he is
intricate and intere3tin g ; and th eir ~olu tion will doub~less near them.
.
.
The remova~ of wrecks becomes sometimes a aenous
k eep the engin eer busy for generattons to come. L tttle
by li ttle>, step by ~top, the skill of t he eng ineer will fia d matter in such navigatione. In the case of the "Auchmeans of overcoming the difficul ties, un til finally t he mountain," lying as ib d id in good anchorage g round, the
g reat forces of na t ure-, pent up in t he g iant Et ream, will wreck bad to be repeatedly tackled with explosives, and,
yield to his bidding, and become subservient to the finall y, on the suggestion of our firm, was covered up by
requirements of man. Then will it indeed, " flow dredgings, which has mad'3 the anchorage a p erfectly
uuvexed to the sea ," bearing in safEty the commerce of safe one.
the Mississippi Valley from the g reab lakes to the G ulf
The tidal flow has been greatly facilitated by the dredgof M exico, from wh ence it will b o distributed to the ing works, having oaused the tidal flow ab P or b Glasgow
uttermcst parts of th e ear bh.
(where the Clyde Lighthou3es Trustees' works described
were executed } down to G reen ock, to be more distinctly
that of bhe sea proper than whab ib was ; and especially is
this an improvemen t from a sanitary poinb of view, as it
IMPROVEME NT WORKS ON THE CLYDE renders the admission of fresh water m ore rapid, although
ESTUARY.*
the actual gai n is nob so much as might be wished owing to
effects
amoun t of sewage to be
By Messra. D . and C . S TEVENSON, B S c., F1 R E ., bhe counter
h h
fof the greater
d
deal t WIIi b an m or mer ays.
.LY~, I OS b,
, J:~
iJ,
M ll.,r
T HE lo wer estuar y of the Clyde, which may be called
the key to the U pper Navi~ation, and with whi ch this
T HE R AILWAY CLun.- On Tuesday, the 3rd inst , bhe
paper deals is under ' the j unsdiction of the C lyd e Lighthouses Tru~tees, the j urisdiction of bbe Clyde Navigation open ing m eeting of th e Hl012 session of this club was
Trusb ending above Porb Gla~gow. The estuary extends held at the M emorial llall, lt arri ngdonst reet, E. C., the
from Por b G lasgow wes bwards, the channelway passing chair being taken at 7.30 p. m. by Mr. Robert Bruce, M.In 3
through san dbanks until the" tail of the ban k '' is reached, M ech. E .. M. I. M.~. P relimin ary business being disbelow which the estuar y is m ore of bhe n ature of a firth posed of, Mr. C. Rons-Marten d (>livered a long bub exor fiord 1 the depth of water varying from 180 fb. ab Cloch tremely interet:ting add ress on " Railway O bserv!'-tions:
to 370 f b. ab the Cumbrae, althou~h ib is d eeper ab some Th eir Subjects, Objects, and M ethods," a sub)ecb on
placefl s uch as o pposite the Cloch, than ab places more which probably n o one is better fitted to speak. The nexb
seawa~d, such as S kelmorlie..lb is en cumber ed by seve~al meeting will be h eld on ' Ved nesday, Ootobe~ 2, ab. the
''patches," the highes t. np bem g that of ~oseneath! w1th Memorial Ha1l, at 7.30 p. m., wh en a lecture will be gtven
a d epth of 7ft.- over Ib ab low water, situated m1dway by the Hon . S ecretary, Mr. Gaims, on "Locomotive
between For b Matilda. and the Roseneath shore. The F reaks."
depth of bhe estuary here varies from 60 ft. to 220 ft. ; and
the slope of the bottom from th e tail of the bank is n o
Tmll ELRCTRIO Lro BT A1.' S uNOEHLAND. -Ab the las b
less than 190 ft. in one mile. The Gareloch, one of the meeting of the electr.ic lighting. committee of the Sun.dernumerous a rms of the Clyde estuary, bran ches off here ; land Town Council, 1b was de01ded to ask the counc1l t o
and a little lower down, wher e th e estuary takes a r ight- ins truct the finance commit tee to apply to the L ocal
angled bend t o bhe sou~h, L oo? L ong come~ in, which is Governmen t B oard for leave to borrow 30,000l. , partly for
n avigable for large ship~ to Its h ead, wh.tch for ms the a n ew station in Hylton-r cttd, and partly for the existin~
starting poinb of the proJected g reat Scotbtsh Canal c~n ~hbion in Dunningstreeb. T he scheme incl ndes 7673l.
oecting the Clyd e and t he Forth by L och L omond, which for tha extension of mainP, and 12,000l. for future extenbeing only 10 f b. above high water n ecessitates little sions. T he question of a reserve fund was considered, and
lr ckage an d has an almost inexhaus tible supply of water. ill wa.s found th a.~ there ought bo be a. r eser ve of 50001. ,
F rom L och Long, the Clyde estuary is p ractically the sea, while the committee h ad only set aside 1257l.; which.
wi th an estimated credib balance of 1034l., made a total of
.,. Paper read before the Internation al Engineering 2291l. In face of these facts, bhe committee resolved
Congress, Glaf:~ow, 1901. Section 1!. : Waterways and bhab ib was undesirable to ~ppl y a.ny of the profib towards
the raduction of the eneui ng rate.
Maritime ' Vor ktJ.

SEPT. I

3'

Pl~EMIUM

E N G I N E E R I N G.

190!.]

SYSTEM OF REMUNEltATING
LABOUR.*

By Mr. JAMES RowAN, Member, of Glasgow.

MR. FRED. W. TAYr.on's paper on the" Premium System," published in Gassier's Magazitn.e of October, 1897,
was probably the best of the many articles that had
B.{>peared on this su bjecb, bu b the system described by
btm was nob suitable for the purposes of marine engine
manufacture. To the ordinary piecework system there
were the objections which were so well expressed by Mr.
S later Lewis in the Engineer ing M agazine, t namely :
"lb cann ot be pretended, however, that the piecework
t:~ystem, as usually employed, commands itself as a satisfactory, still less as a final, solution of the problem. We
obtain, it is true, an immediate definition and limitation
of cost, coupled with a strong and direct inducement for
the employe to exert his best andeavours to increaee and
intensify production. At leaab this is the theory; but in
practice it is a true statement of the result only within
very narrow limits. The defect of the method is, that
when on ce the workman has begun to derive a vrofib from
t~e transacbion, the employer has n o direct m terest in
h1s fur ther exertions, but only the indirect advantage of
a stationary labour-cost coupled with a gr eater intensi ty
of output The general resu lt of this id, of course, well
kn_o wn and understood. There inevitably comes a time
-1f the workman continues to improve in ski11, or to give
evidence of a continuous and successful application of intelligence to his work-when the gains of the workmen
appear excessive compared with his former earnings as a
mere supplier of labour by the hour. The employer
would be more than human who did nob, ab this stage,
ask himself the quesbion, 'Have I n ot mf\de a mistake in
fixing prices ? '
"When this question is answered affirmatively, a reduction of rates inevitably follows . The suzerain power
insists on remodelling the convention, and the result is
frequen tly not peace, but soreness. Of course, where
much piecework is in vogue the t rouble does not n ecessarily arise with as much frequency as mighb be expected,
for a very good reason. As soon as the workman finds
himself appro-a ching the point at which his extra earnings
tend to rise beyond the limit ab which the traditions of
the shop teach him the r eduction may be expected, his
efforts slacken. He makee n o endeavour either to improve in skill, or to trouble himself about little tricks for
the better management and handling of his job. His
interest for the future is barred, and the net result
amounts to this-that he has adopted a some what greater
intensity of production, and receives a somewhat greater
constant r emuneration than when be was on hourly
wages.
"That there is a gain, both to man and employer, is
obvious ; b ut that it is a slighb and limited gain is also
obvious. Absbraotly considered, the method is remarkable n o less for what it wastes than for what it effects.
"From an examination of its defects we are enabled
to formuiate the conditions which must be fulfilled by a
more sat1sfactory method. We require : (1) a. minimum
standard of remuneration based on the average attainments of hourly labour; (2) free and full incentive to the
workm~n to i!Dprove upon tbi~ average, n ot merely up to
a cer tam arbtbra.ry stage of Improvemen t, but without
limit; (3) participation of interests between employer
and workman in this improvement, n ob mer ely in its
early stages, but t o the ulti mate extent to which the
intensification of output and consequen t reduction of costs
per ~iece can be carried, either by constannly augmenting
mampulative skill, or by a series of small improvements
ir;t method. A ~beoretically perfect system of remuneration should n ob rnvolve the constant comparison between
tb~ piecework earnings of the exceptionally clever or
skilful workman and his former earningE~, when neither
exceptional skill n or cleverness were asked for, n or sought
to be rewarded.
"It may be objected that this theoretical perfection is
actually realised to the full by the piecework system, if
only we assume that rates shall never be cut. This is, of
course, true; bub it is n ob the whole truth. The element
of participation by the employer in the direct r eduction
of l~bo~r cost i~ en tirel.y wanting, and that such participation IS essen tial and JUSb can be seen readily enough.
If it be t rue that the actual reduction is wholly d ue to the
~ff!>rts of skill or of intelligence ex~rted by the workman,
1t lS ~qually true that the opportumty for such exertion is
proVIded by the enterprise and perfection of technical
and business organisation of bhe firm."
Wi tb a view to the adoption of a reliable and satisfactory method of p iecework, a premium system was decided
upon, of which the following is a d escription :
W or~, as. recorded on a Job Ticket, Appendix I., an!lexed, lS given ~o ~ workman on a time allowance, and
If be red~ces this time allo wance, his rate of wages per
hour, while be is working ab the job, is increased by the
same percenba.ge aa that by which the time a llowan ce
has been r edu ced. It is, of course, apparent that data
must be collected for the purpose of arriving at the time
to be allowed to d o work. For this purpose a special d epar~ment (Rate-Fixing Department) is required, and when
mst1t~ted,. dat~ accum ulate very quickly.
The period
occu~1~d m domg work under the usual time payment
cond1t10ns may be accepted as the time allowance of the
Premium System.
When a. job is given to a. workman, a J ob Ticket is
issued to him with a description of the wmk to be d one
and the time all~wed .to .d~ _it. On completion of the
work the Job T10keb IS mttlalled, and the time o f day
*Paper read before the International Engineeting
Congre~s, q-~~sgow, 1901.-Section III. : lUechanicaJ.
t Vol. xvm, 1899-1!>00, page 203.

r ecorded on ib by the forema,n. and this is the time of

commencing the next job. vVhen the work h as been
examined and pa~sed by the wo~ks inspector, the ~ob
Ticket is banded to the Hate-fix mg Departmen~~ wh1ch
passes the same f~r payment. In the ?ase of a. joo being
rej ected by the mspector, any prem1um wbtcb would
otherwise have been earned by the workman, by reason
of his havi ng r educed the time allowance, is forfeited. No
clerical labour devolves upon the workmen, and very little
upon the foremen.
The t ime allowance for a job given t o a workman rated
ab, say, 8d. per hour is 100 hours, and the acbual time
occupied on the job amounts to 75 hours. We have
then 100 hours ab 8d.
800 pence against 75 hours at
8d. + 25 per cent. (2d.) = 750 pen ce, giving the workman
a pr emium = 150 pence or 2d. per hou r and the employer
a reduced cost = 50 pence. P rovided the time allowances
ar e equitable to employer and employed, and baaed on the
average attainmen ts of hourly labour, it will be evident
fr om the foregoing that the higher the premium earned
by the workman the greater will be t he savin g in cost.
T he output of the machines is also increa.sed, but it is a
bard matter to put a value to this.
Occasionally a piece of work is begun on on e machine
and finished on another. The Job Ticket in a case of this
kind is passed by the first to the second operator , and so
on unt il the work is completed, each work man en~aged
upon it r eceiving any premium earned, in propor tion to
the total reduction of ttme made in completing the whole
job. Any number of men may be employed on the same
piece of work, and it is not n ecessary that they should all
remain ab the work for t he same period, because a lump
time allowan ce is mad e to cover the t ime of all the men
on a job, and the total time spen t upon the job fixes the
premiu m percentage, which is used in fixing the premiums
of the differen t m en only to the extent of the time each
ha.s been employed upon the work; that is, a job for
which the time allowance is 1000 hours m ay be performed
in 800 hours: on e man might work 100, on e 300, an d one
400 hours. Each of these m en would have his hourly
rate increased to the exten b of 20 per cent. for the time
be bad been employed upon the job. The r eduction or
increase of a workman'd hourly rate is not affected, as
any chan ge in either of these d irections made during the
time he is engaged upon a job is calculated at a percentage on his hourly rate or rates. Neith er is any d ifficulty
introduced in r espect to overtime allowances, as the
actual time worked upon a job determin es the time upon
which a premium ia paid. The overtime allowan ce, which
in the Glasgow district is paid ab the rate of 50 per cent.
on the over time worked, d oes not appear in the Job
Ticket as time, being ortly shown as such in the W arkmen's Time and Wages Book, as a unit to fix the value of
the over time allowanceEt. In the Job Ticket this allow
ance appears ab its value in money. Nor is there an y
difficulty presented when working a night shift, as each
of the two men at a machine receives a share of premiu m
earned in proportion to the number of hours work ed on
the job.
It is advisable, where ab all possible, that every man
should work on his own account; hub in ca-ses such aa
before mentioned, which refer particularly to the E rectin g
Department, the inclusion of several men on one Job
Ticket cannot very easily be avoided. lb m ay be mentioned that in t he E recting De12_artment the apprentices in
their fi rst year are nob given a Job 'icke~. In their second
and third years they are junior apprentices, and h alf the
time that they work is counted; in the fourth and fi fth
years they are senior appren bices, and three-quarters of
the time they work is coun ted. They are allowed the
same time as a journeyman. In the Machine Department,
apprentices in the four t h and fifth year do the same kind
of work that is a lso don e by journeymen, and they are
allowed 25 per cent. more than journeymen.
The p aymen t of premiums does n ot tak e effect until
5 per cent~. premium has been earned, and thereafter only
in multiples of 5 per cen t. T he original time fixed upon
as a time allowan ce has n ever been r ed uced, unless there
has been a radical change in the method of doing a piece
of work. As a rule, the ~remiums earned by the men
have ~ncreased since the Introduction of this system,
sometimes due to the industry, skill, or intelligen ce
exer ted by the workman, but often er due to those exercising a controlling p ower. The value of this premium
systeiD; is nob limi.ted to a savin g in cost of labour by the
reductiOn of th e t1me taken to d o work. N umerous instan ces might be cited where the system has been the
means of bringin g to n otice, through , con centration of
attention on its development, improved methods of manufacture.
. A n other feature to which special abtention is directed
IS the us~ of ~he Job. Progres3 Card, Appendi x I I.
(page ~4~. This card 18 prepare~ every morning by the
Ra~e-Ftxtng Departmen t, and mdicates the progress
wbtcb has been made ab the various mach ines ; and it
may be made of great value to employers and man agerf!.
The first column gives the maebine numbers, the second
column the h ours allowed for the jobs in hand the third
column bhe number of pieces included in ea~b job, the
fourth column t he hours spent upon the job in band till
10.30 a. m. on th~ date the card is prepared, and the fifth
column the p~ev10us r ecords for similar jobf!. The card is
tbere~ore ~n mdex _of the progr ess of work in each and all
macbmes 1n operatiOn.
There is a Job Register Book, Appendix I I I. (page
384), for bhe Machine, B rass-finishing. Tinsmiths' and
Smiths' Deparments, Erecting in the Works and Fitti ng
on board. the m acbinery in the Yard and ~b the Quay.
A s n~w J_obs oocur th ey are duly r egisbered. Every separ~te JOb m tb.e manufactu~e of a mari.ne en gin e, from the
t ime t~e castings and forgmgs come mto the works until
th e ship I en ves after her trial trip, is register ed in this
book.

The Job Data Book, Appendix IV., is a r ecord* o~ the

work done on each article, ~nd this book .n ow con tam s. a
most complete and miscellaneous coll~cbton .of data m
connection with the manufacture of marme engmes. and of
other work. A ll whitewashing and pait;Iti_ng, shifting .of
machines laying down concrete floors, sbtft mg of materia l
fr om plade to place, and many other OP.eratio~s for which,
n ot so long ago, it would have bet>n tmposstble to fix a
time, are n ow r ecorded in the Job D~ta B_ook.
.
The system is by n o means a fina l solu t10n of the pt~cework problem, but it is s ubmitted that this system l S a
step towards a. solution. The value of good and powerfo
tools is forcibly brought forward, the use of jigs, gauges,
&c., is found to be n ecessary, and old machines are placed
ab their true value. Meetings with man agers and foremen for the discussion of questions arising in the
course of manufacture a re found to bs n ecessary, and of
g reat value. Bebter wages are earned by workmen, and
more work a nd better work is gob out of the machines.
We d o n ob hesitate to say that the introduction of a
Premium System such as described would have an elevating influen ce upon any workshop where the hourly rate of
pay or the ordmar y piecework is in use.
Referring to the quotation from Mr. S later Lewis's
paper (page 3), the following statem ents are ans wered :
1. " A minimum standard of remuneration, based on
the aver age attainments of hourly labour."
This statement is answered by the fact t hat no m a tter
bow long a man takes to do the work, whether from
novelty, misfortune, misadventure, hanging over his
work or carelessne&a, be r eceives h is hourly rate of wa~&~.
2. "Free and full incentive to the workman t o Impr ove upon this average, n ot me rely up to a certain
arbitrary stage of improvement, but without limit."
This statement is answer ed very fully. If a man is
repeating the same job on the same machine and continually reducing the time of p roduction, by all means
encourage t his man to continue doing so.
3. "Participation of interest between employer and
employe in this improvement, nob merely in its early
stage, but to the ultimate exten t to which the intensifica.tion of output and consequent reduction of costs per
piece can be carried , either by constantly augmenting
manipulative skill or by a. series of small improvements."
Statement No. 3 is almost a r epetition of sta.temenb
No. 2, and it may be added to the reply to No. 2 that if
the tim e allowance has been fairly fixed ab the beginning,
the m ore a man earns the cheaper is the work; in other
words, the element of participation is introduced.
APPENDI X I.
MACITINE DEPARTMENT.

Jou TICKET.
CoNTRAC'l' No. 334.

MAomn No. 193.

Hours.

No.

Time
U.ate.

Name.

\V orked
I

81 J. Gillan J. *

d.
8

I mtum.
~re

Premium
R9ote.

Premium.

Io

- 7-

21

21

- - - - -.- - - - - - - - - -, -

---

No. off 1.
Time Slved, 21 hours = 50 per cent.
j}[ain Engines: (889)
L'lw-presaure crankshaft. Turning couplings and journals of
crank. Complete.
Foreman:

Inspector : J AS.

WM. WILSON.

Time allowed
Job started, August 2:!, 1900, 8 45 a. m.
Job finished, Auguit 2j, 1900, 8.0 a.m.
Lost time
Hours
0\ertime
Allowances, 4a. 2d.

A DAMS.

42

hours.

12~ hou :-s.

* Journeyman.
F ITTING DEPARTMENT.
Jon

T IOI\ET.

CoNTRACT No. 33 l.

MACIIINE No.

-.-------~--~------;-----:---

Name.

No.

Time

Prem. Premium
Rate.

Rate.

392 James Simpson. J. i

613 J. Brown.
J .A ~

Hours.

d.
8
2

Worked Prem.
11

11!

11
6A

2.8
.7

7
8

----1---- --- - - -116~

;;-::im::e~s=a.-=v~ed:-,-:1:-0~;-:1:-lo_u_r_s _ _!,_--:8-::-5. !pT

. . er- c-en_t...:.__ __J_ _..!.__!_~No. off 1.

* Appendix I V . is a facaimile reproduction of pages of

t~e poo~, but the demands on our space p revent! us publubmg 1b.
t Journeyman.
:t: J nni0r apprentice.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
Main .Engines: (46)
Or~~ksh.aft : Shrink .webs on to pins and coupling ends.
Dnvmg m and firessmg shaft, locking keys.

[SEPT. 13, 1901.

53. Chipping off centros of coupling bolt~.

portable too_ls, more especially in. ~eavy work, is very
51. Laboure rs widening holes in coupling of crank- grea.b ; the ttme and labour of shtfting and setting the

- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - shaft.
. 55 .. Beddi?g

Foreman : J.

lnspeotor :

SMITU.

Time allowed
Job started, August 2, 1900, 6 a. m.
Job finished, Au~uat 3, 1990, 7.30 a. m.
Lost time, J. S., !
Hours.
Allowances

10

27 hours.

Overtime

21 120
6145 90 163 22
7! X 22
54
6 47 55! 180 83
26
66! 15 47! 29 209 20
H X 27
36
7 34 26 209 M
70
25 11 7! X
L64
431. 3 a:I
101 7
2~
169
26
2 7 1 ' 160 12
20
1 4t n t 171 9
6~ X 193
4! 23! 204 180 60 37 178 191 50
5} X
-- 222 8
Sy X 63 19 7 9! X 224 82
39} 62 82
26
1 7~ X
15! 131.- 142
5 13 1l X 10 21
153
33
1 6} X
66 48
4 19 86! 214 30~
165-6 144
20} X 183
-- - - 215 45
12
10! 34! 184
5 7! X
St X 206
-- -134 24
74! X 206 16 1 13t 14 161 120
-- 28t 39 182
14~ X
9
20:\ 26 15! 15 194 120
46! 59~ 13
16
8 7i 9 sa.r 16~ 32 65 2 33 46 61 25
10 27! 33
- - 69 8
62
9
6 41} X 201 20
65
18 15 n t X

14

28

1
4
1
6
18
12

48

30
31
36
37
39
44
46
61

7
10
96
27

32 306
36
1
12 26
156 16
67! 15
39 23
102
3
30
1
464-- 3

71

75
167
1 68
1 70
192
210

ADA~IS.

Hours.

APPENDIX II.
Job Pcogress Card.*
9/5/01. No. 805.
10 30
10 30

10.30
3
5
6
8
19
20
23
2l

JAS.

9119}1 X
47 3:f X
2 12! 15
12 2~ 39

--

1 3i X
2 3~ 6!
10 7! X
1 24 39~
3 4t X
16H- 60!

--

3 3! 13!
8 24 30!
3 28i 17
12 19~ 31!

--4 - --

6.t X
12 79 60
12 69!

--

-- - 295 8!
30 5
58 10!

X
X
X
X

'

APPENDIX III.
J OB R EG ISTER-(MAOHINE DEPARTMENT).
:lv!AIN ENGINES : PISTON AND 00NNEOTINGRODS.
Connecting-Rods.

316. First operabion .-Turning complete.

317. Second operation, Type "A."-Slobbing outside
fia.ts of forks a.nd sides of bottom butts.
318. Second operation, Type "B." -Slotting sides of
bottom butts.
319. Third operation, Type "A."-Slotting round
gudgeon.
320. Third operation, Type " B /'-Slobting fia.ts of
forked end.

321. Sawing-out ja.w.

322. Finishing ja.w afber sawin~.
323. B oring out jaw a.nd finishing.
324. Fifbh operabion, Type " A."-Slobbing insid9 of

JaW.

325. Fifth operation, Type "B."-Slotting inside of

jaw and sides of top bubts.
326. Boring oub and finishing for gudgeon.
327. B oring onb crosshead a.nd crankpin bolt holes.
328. Boring oil holes in each connectmg-rod.

Main Engines- Or01nkshajt.

389. Cra.nksba.fb. T urning cou~lings and journals of
crank com~lebe.
390. Bonng and rough-widening holes in bwo couplings
a.nd facing boles in one. Boring two stea.dy pinholes.
391. Boring holes for eccentric pulley keysea.ts.
392. Crank ends. Boring holes through centre.
393. Round key for crankshaft. 'furning to fib a.nd
tapering point.
394. B oring holes for round keys a.nd boring off centre.
395. Cutting into two pieces.
396. Boring two couplings ; widening and facing one.
397. Boring bwo steady pinholes.
398. Boring bwo couplings and facing two.
399. B oring a.nd facing one coupling.
F ITl'ING DEPARTMENT.
Main Engines-Propeller Shaft.
9. Shrinking liners on propeller shafb.
10. Cubbing k eyway in propeller s ha.fb and fibbing key.
11. Tapping boles and pmning liners on propeller
sha.fb. Fitting nub and stoppers to propeller sha.fb.
12. Bolting t ogether steel couplings with bla.ck bolts.
13. Cubting sheet-iron liner3 for muff couplings.
14. Wrapping propeller sha.fb between liners with
canvas a.nd ma.rline.
15. Ta.pping bole in liner and fitting cock. Pumping
in boiled oil a.nd plugging up holes aga.in.
16. Cutting clearance for slotti ng oub propeller sha.fo
keyway.
Main Engines -Crankshaft.
46. Shrinking webs on to pin and coupling ends.
Driving in and dressing shaft looking keys.
47. Boring holes for crankpin locking keys.
48. Driving in and dressing crankpin keys.
49. Dressing corners of webs.
50. P olishing webs.
.
51. Setting up cranks, and ma.rkmg off holes in
couplings.
.
.
.
52. Setting up oran~, and w1demng holes m couplinge.

ln the actual paper this ca.rd is given in fac-sjmile.

tools in many instances being very much less than if the

dummy s hafb to place; chipping gutters heavy c~sb~n~~ have themselves bo be s hifted frequently .
m m a.m bearmg bushes.
. The fl eXlb~tby of bhe system is also of greab advantage
56. Bedding cra.nkshatb to pla.ce complete, and fastening m the extenston of works.
a.ll main bea.ring bop nubs a.nd pin, and taking leads.
The advantages. of fle xibility are grea.tly enhanced if
57. ~faking and fitting Board of Trade gauge to the powe~ be obbamed from a.~ independent supply comcrankshaft.
pany, as m bhab evenb .no constderabton need be given to
bhe mcrea.s~ of generatmg pla.nt, either for a permanenb or
temporary morease of demand.
ELECTRICAL POvVER SUPPLY.
~II. It is more difficult! to appreciate the advantage
N otes for Discussion on Electrical Powe1 Supply in Ship. of mcr~sed output, and ibis by no means ea.sy to demonstrate 1t; bub there has been on various ocoa.sions when the
bti!ildilng Yat ds and Marine F/ll{/ine Wo1ks. *
subjecb ha.s been discussed, considerable testimony by
By Mr. RoBERT ROBERTSON, B.Sc.
bhose who hMe adopted the system, tha.b not only a. very
THE subjeob of this discussion is one which a.b the pre- substantia.! inorea.se of oubpub is obtained, but a.lso ab a
senb da.y no shipbuilder nor constructor of marine engines very considerable reduction of cosb for labour.
c~n afford bo ignore, as the application of this power for
Among obher causes for bhis improvement we have
many purposes in connection with these industries is already seen bhe ad vanba.ge of being a ble t o eiace tools in
rapidly increasing year by year.
the most convenien t situations, and bhe p osstble large use
Upon a.n occasion like the presenb, it is only p ossible to of p ortable and semi-portable tools, several of which may
look a.t the subject broadly, and to discuss the general be a.t work on the same piece of machinery simultaneously.
principles involved, as the nirne is boo shorb to dea.l with ib The absence of a. considerable amount of belting and
in s uch detail as would be required if the application to sha.fbing also admits of more extended a.nd free use of
all the differenb cases met with in practice were to be overhead cranes, and such cranes a.re more speedily
operated themselves by electric power. A further advan~
gone into.
Works of bhis kind, like a.ll ot he~, differ in size, in tage is obtained from the fact t hat individual machines
arrangement, and in ma.ny other respects, so much that ca.n more easily be driven at their most economical speed
each ca.se mus t be taken up a.nd considered in debail by electric driving.
Shipyarcls.-lt is evident that a.ll the a.d va.nbages claimed
by itself, before a.ny reliable conclusion can be arrived a.t
in the case of engine works a.re greatly enhanced when the
as to the ad vanta.ges in thab particular insbance.
The conditions ruling in a. shipyard are so different working of shipyards is considered. The sa.me principles
from those in a.n engine works, thab ib will be convenient to may be applied a.s in the other case, and ib is unnecessary
consider the two separately, and also to take the latter to consi.der bhem more i.n . ~ etail; but the advantages to
be obtamed by the flex1bthty of the system reach their
parb rat.
Engine l JTorks.-The advantages claimed for electrical maximum in a shipyard as compared with a.ny other
driving in marine engine works ma.y be convenient ly industry. The tools themselves are, as a. rule, of a heavy
classified under three heads, viz. : I. Saving in cost of cl~ss, whi~h can most conveniently a.nd economically be
power. II. Flexibility of the sysbem. III. Increased dnven by mdependentl motora, and ma.y thus be disposed
in such p ositions as to reduce to a minimum the handling
oubpub.
I. In considering this subject the saving in cost of of the ra.w material. Wibh the increasing Rize of s hips
power is too often looked upon as bhe only advantage to a.nd corresponding increase of weights of the component
be gained, a.nd the advantage treated lightly, because the parbs, this is of the grea.tesb importance.
Furbher advantages may be obtained in a. shipyard by
whole cosb of power in a. work of this class only bears a.
very small proportion to the other costs of production. the facility wibh which electricity may be applied to all
It musb, however, be evident that if the ad vantages forms of gantries, cranes, or other lifbing appliances used
gained under the other heads are such a.s t o result in in the erection of s hips.
Portab~e tools m ~y be a pplied on board .the ships during
substantial increase of outpub and diminished cost of pro.
dnction, bhey a.re of much greater importance than the construct10n, a.nd temporary workshops w1th semi-portable
tools fitted up on board.
sav in~ in cost of power.
Equipm.ent.-Here also i t is only p ossib!e t o deal with
Owmg to the great diversiby of the arra ngement in
different shops, it is impossible to la.y down a.ny fixed general principles. Broadly speaking, there are bwo
proportion of saving which can be effected generally under systems which may be adopted, viz., the continuouscurrent system a.nd the mulbipbase a lternating-ourrenb
this head.
For example: in bhe case of a la.rge, well-arranged system. As regards the a.cbual driving, either system is
engine shOJ> wibh a single driving engine of economical suitable for bhe shipbuilding industry, and each system
design, SUlta.bly placed for driving several main lines of ha.s advantages peculiarly ibs own; the outstanding advanshafting, the aotua.l sa.ving in cost will nob be so grea.b as tage in favour of the continuous current is the fact that
in another case where the shops have been extended from mot~r3 of this class can more easily be ada pted ~o run ab
time bo time, a.nd consist: of separate buildings, each va.rymg speeds.
On. the other hand, bhere a.re seve:al a.d va.ntages wibh
having one or more small, and more or less 11neconomioal,
engines, and supplied with stea.m either by long lines of mult1phase current for work of thts class. The startpiping from a central boiler plant, Ol' from separate boiler ing arrangements are very simple, especially with
sma.ll motors; the moving parts are of strong mechanical
plants.
The saving to be effec ted in bhe cost of power may be construction, a.nd leRs liable to damage by over-loading,
considered under two heads : (1) the saving in power pro- and t?ere are no brushes and oommubators requiring
a.ttent10n.
duction, and (2) the saving in dis tribution.
There is very little b etween bhe systems as regards oos b
By the adoption of a. central power planb, with boilers
and engines grouped together upon a suitable site, it is a.nd efficiency.
The q uestion as to whether single motors on each
p ossible to use with advanbage a.ll appliances for
gettin~ chea.p power, and thereby effect considerable machine tool, or g roup driving by means of short shafts,
reduct10n in the a.mounb of steam used per horae-p ower should be a.dopbed is of the greatest importance as regards
economy in working. In the clas9 of works under congenerated.
This saving is placed by severa.l authorities who have sideration bhere is, a.s a rule, nob much difficulty in
a.rri ving ab a decision. U nless in. the case of special
investigated the s ubject a.b from 30 to 50 per ~en b.
In order to appreciate the saving under the head of dis- portable tools, ib is not econ omical t o employ motors of
tribution, ib is necessary to consider the circumstances in less than five horse-power. Below this size the cost of
each ca.se. Under the older system of driving, this loss motors per horse-power increase3 very rap idly, a.nd their
consists of evaporation from steam pipes, losses in main efficiency decreases very rapidly ; a.nd, in addition, where
shafts, belting, bevel gea.ring, &c.; a.nd ib is evident that machine~ .are WC?rked int~rmittently .and ab varying
these losses a.re prac!Jically constant at a.llloa.ds, a.nd bea.r powers, 1b I S posstble by smbable g roupmg to arrange a
a. very much higher proportion to the total power when motor of, say, 10 or 20 horae-power upon a s haft to dri ve
machines which, if s upplied by separate motors, would reonly partial load is on the pla.nb.
In the case of the electrical system, the distribution by quire a.n aggregate of more than double bhat power. Single
means of wires or cables bakes the pla.ce of the steam motors may be employed in the shipyard to grea.ter adpif)es, main shafts, main belts, and bevel gearing, leaving va.nbage, bub bhe bools in this oa.se a.re of such a class tha.t
in most cases only short lengths of straight shafts. The in very few ca.ses will s maller mobors bhan 5 horse-power
losses in the wires are such tha.t they ma.y fa.ll off in be required.
It is impossible bo consider the question of cost of ingrea ser proportion than bhe load fa.lls ~ff, and therefore
bea.r a more or less constanb proport10n to the power stallation in a general way, as ib will vary in every cage
according to circumstances.
being used.
In conclusion, it ma.y be confidently asserted that in the
The saving to be effected by this means ab full load
will probably nob exceed 5 or 10 per cent.; but ab all other ca.se of starting new eosine shops and shipyards, it is untimes when bhe loa.d is other than the maximum bhe doubtedly the bes t poh cr. to adopb electrical po wer, and
bhat in most oases it will pay to make the change in
saving will be much greater.
Ta.ken together, the saving which can be effected in the existing works.
generation and distribution of p ower is con8iderable; and
while ib is impossible to put a.n exact gure upon ib, the
A.MERIOaN L OCOMOTIVES IN FRANOE.-The Paris, L yons,
saving in coal consumption effected in some works which a.nd Mediterranean Railwa.y Company has purchased t en
have adopted the system is very substantial.
locomotives. The engines have been put
I I. Under the second head of the advantages of this American
together a.b A rles. The purchase is, t o some extent,
system of power-i.e., fl ex ibility - litble need be said
an experimental one.
further than indicating the po!!sibilities.
The use of separate motors for large t ools or for small
SwEDISII IRON ORE. -The exports of iron ore from
g roups of t ools, enables these t o be placed in the mosb Sweden reached 1, 619,910 tons in 1900, as compared with
s uitable positions for convenient handling of the mate- 1,688,000 tons in 1899, 1,439.860 tons in 1898, a.nd 1,400,801
rials, irrespective of bhe position or direction of line shafts, tons in 1897. The porb of Lulea shipped 1,054,675 tons,
&c. The advantages to be gob by the extended use of a.ud Nikoping 531,908 t ons last year. The destination is

shown by bhe following figures :-Finland, 18.731 tons ;

* Paper rea.d before bhe International Engineering Germany, 422,625 tons ; H olland (also for Germany),
Congress, Glasgow, 1901. Section IV. : Naval A rchitec- 967,249 tons; England, 102,771 tons; BeJgium, 99,12ij
tons ; a.nd France, 9400 tons.
ture and Marine E ngineering.

S EPT. I

3,

I 90 I.

SUDAN GOVERNMENT MILI TARY

RAILWAYS.*

c.

By MA.JOU
B. MACAUT.EY, R.R.
IN oon~ideri.ng nhis paper the following p oints should
b s b orne m mmd :~
(1) Th~ line was laid primarily. to su pply an.army in
the field , t he route, method of laymg and matertal being
all chosen with this object in view. ,
(2). Pa.!tly .aCJ .a consequence of (1), nearly 50 per cen t. of
the lme 1s la.1d m d esero.
(3) Every train le&ving one terminus for t he other has
t o take !>500 gallons of water wi th it to en able it to cross
the ~aterless d eserb sections. T his water is c.1.rried in
spe01al tank bru?ks, ,five of whi~b a re required, in addition
to the .te~d.er ; 1b wtll be rea.dlly seen that this considerablf d1m1n1shes t~e useful carryin g power of t he line.
'I he Su ':lan Ra1l ways consist of two b ra nches b obh
sbart from Wadi H alf!l.
'
0 ae go ss to Khar tou 'D, a dista.nca of 576 miles by ra.i l,
an~ the other to .J<~rma ( tn the D mgola Prov inc~),
a dtsta~oe of 203 mtles by ra1l (see sketch ma.p).
It will be most o:>nvenienb to consider each branch
separately, as they r u u throu5h different kinds of country.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
da.y-ib. was impo~ible to b~ild bridges or culverts ; this
defe.ob IB n ow bemg remedted as quickly as p ossible.
Wh1be ants a re present in considerable n umbera on this
parb of the line, a nd steel eleepers are necessary. T he
whole country from the Atba.1a. to W ad Ben Naga.
(496 f!lil~s from Halfa.) practically answers to the above
desonpb1on. There are many villages along bhe river
~s.nkt~, and a. considerable arnounb of oulbi vabion. The
tnhabtta.nts own large numbers of oa.bblP, sheep, and goa.t3.
~he usual date p alms n,nd d6cn p~1.lms are fo und on the
rt ver banks.
~he stations .are :-E1 Damer (392 miles from Halfa),
Z<3tda.b (399 mtles from H alfa.), Mukhmir (430 miles
from . H alfn.), . Kobashieh (451 miles from Halfa),
Shendt (471 m1les from H alfa). At Shendi are workshops, engine-pit, reserves of coal, and stores gene~ally. lb ig, from the rn:ilway p oin t of view, the most
tmportanb plaoe on the hne nexb to Wadi H a.lfn.. lb is
situated almo,b in the centre of the AtbarJ.-K hartoum
section, and, being liable to be out off from Halfa. for
periods of. evera.l days during the rainy season, has to be
self-oontamed. At Wad Ben Na.ga (496 miles from
H alfa) the line leaves the river ag.J.in and goes through
the deserb to Wad Ramleh station, near t he large village
of Gehli, Z obeir Pasha's village (545 miles from Halfa).
Hy taking this route t he line cuts off a corner, and avoids

ot'' TnE KHARTOUM L nm.

The Khartou~ li~e leavas Wadi Hal fa. and goes in &.
-south-easterly dtrectLOn through the N ubi an D esert to
S KETCH MAP O F THE SUDA N
Abu Hamed, which is 230 miles from W adi Halft\. T he
COVERNMEHT RAILWAY S .
wh ole of t his p &rb of the country is a flt~.t sandy desert
occasionally a few hills are seen, but t hey seldom exceed
300 ft. in height, and most of them are only from 80 fb. to
100 fb. above the surrounding count ry. S ome idea. of the
extraordinary fit\tne~e of the country may be gathered
from . the fa.cb that 1t was po~sible to lay a. piece of line
H UQOR 180
J.
I
N 7. 140
45 ~tles long witbou b a single curve in ib, and w iohou b any
oubtmgs or emba.nkm9nts worthy of the name.
-~
lb ve_ry rarely rai ns. ab all in this pa.r t of the desert, and
when tb d oes, very h btle seems to fall at a. time. There
1
KERMA 2C'J
a.re n o streams or su rface wa.ber of any sort. W ater waCJ
found in two places between Wadi H alfa. and Abu Hamed
_........... AtJU HAMEO .Z3Q
by sinking wells ; one plaoe was 77 miles from Wadi
0EifHJSH. 24'1,
H alfa. and the other was 126 miles from Halfa. W a.ber
OONCOLil
A8UDIS,!lG3
was found at the former place a.b a depth of 72 ft ,
and ab the latter plaoe a.b a. depbh of 96 f b. Several other
places have been tried, but so far no water has been
fou nd.
The only vegetation in this p a.r b of the cou ntry consists
ABADIA 8110
of a few Sunt trees, a kind of acacia.; there are extremely
BERBER.362
few of them. Their presence does not seem to indicate
88$ ATDARA

the presen ce of water ab any reasonable d ep th, a~, al though

EDOA ~891.
UID~O 8fl9
they exist at both the places where water was found, they
MUKH/1! 111. 430.
a.lso exist at places where Wd.ter could nob be found at a.
depth of 200 ft. Occasionally, j ugt after rain, a coarse
grass spring3 up, bub ib soon dries up again and d i:~.
MI<Tl:I\IMlH/
appears. There are nine stations, for crossing brains, i n
WAO
this section of ohe line. At No. 6 station (126 miles from
..Nou-. Tlu,~ ~- che- ru.un.eB or
Sto.b.oru; w.cu..ca,(.e/ ~d.ust.IUI..e&, tro
Halfa) there are small shops and an engine pit. At Abu
~IA.slv ~.rrorrvWo..ci.JjiJAlJiv. nwcv
Hamed (230 miles from Halfa), where the line come3
$~ al..uto.g ilre-~lwcw.
down to the river ag11.in, there is a small runningshed for
eight engines, with a. small workshop, cont&ini og a few
OMDURMAN
lathes and drilling machines, etc. From Abu H amed to
Shereikh (292 mi les from Halfa.) the line runs close bo the
river; the country here consists of small sandy hills wi th
rock cropping up occa.CJionally; limestone and mica are

found here, but the la.bber is in boo small pieces to b a of

m uch use. Date palms and d6m p alms are plentiful, and the rooky bit- of country which exis bs on each side of t he
there is a cerba.in amount of cultivation, which is increas- Shahluka cataract. F rom Wad .Ramleh station the line
ing as the people come back to their vi llages, from which r uns p a.rnllel to the Nile, and about two miles from it, to
they bad been driven by the Dervishes. Ab Shereikh the Halfayt\ station, the berminu~, a p:>int on the Blue Nile
line leaves the river again and makes a detour into the about a. mile from its mouth, and exaobly opposite Khs.rdesert in order to avoid a very rough rooky bib of cou ntry ; toum. The oou nbry between Wad Rll.mleb and Khartoum
in this pa.rb, as in most pa.rbs of this cou nt ry, ib appears to is a fl at plain, with soil like cotton soil, on which the natives
be a. maxim that flat ground can always be found by going grow large quanti ties of dhurra. after the rains. There is
far enough from the river. The line comes down to the a cerba.in amount of scrub near the river, and there are
several large villages on the ri ver banks.
river again at Abadia (340 miles from Ha.lfa.).
At Abadia there are small workshops and a. couple of
GENERAL D ESCRIPTION OF THE KERMA L INE.
engine-pits. From Aba.dia the line runs along near the
river over a flab plain covered with scrub, the soil being
The line to Karma. runs south from H alfa, followi ng t he
something like cotton soil. There are old native salt course of t he river as far as Sarras (33 miles from Halfa).
workings h ere. The next place of any imporba.noe is Barber The country for t he firat fi ve miles is a flat sandy plain,
(362 miles from Ha.lfa). This ig by far the largesb place but after that, where the second cataract begins, th9
on the railway between Ha.lfa. and Khar toum. From cou nt ry changes to low rocky hills wit h very little soil of
Barber the li ne rnns over the same orb of plain to the a ny sort. The cutbings a nd emba nkments in t his secA bbara River (385 miles from Ha.lfa). The line crosses t ion a re the la rgesb on t he line, some of the cuttiog3 being
the Abbara. ab a p oint a.boub half a mile from its mouth. 40 fb. deep through rook. This part of t he railway was
The bridge is 1050 ft. long, consisting of seven spa.ns of made yeara ago, a nd t he work on it generally is ftu
150 ft. each. The girders are supporbed on paira of cylin- hea vier than on a ny other part of t he line. It could not
d ers sunk into the bed of the river and resting on rook. ha ve been d one during the hurry of an expedition. The
During the construction of the line, before the permanenb g radients are frequent, and tl.3 steep M 1 in 60. The
bridge was oGmpleted, a. wooden pile bridge was uged. curves also are numerous a nd sha rp, 500 ft. radius being
F rom the Atbara. the line runs more or le~s p arallel with t he sharpest. There are 24 bridges on this section, moRt
the River Nile, and a.b a. dishanoe varying from a. few of t hem being iron-plate girdera with stone abutment3 ;
yards to four miles from ib, throug h a. cou ntry which con- the largest is 100 ft . long, in three spans.
At Sa.rra.CJ the line leaves the river and winds in a nd out
sists chiefly of a. fla t plain covered with scrub a nd small
trees. '!'he scrub is very thick, in som9 places too thick a mong rooky h ills, chiefly following dry wa.teroouraes, to
for a man to force his way tbrougb, but this is only in Akasheh (86 miles from H alfa). 'here are two stations
some of the watercourses. The plain extends, a.s a. rule, for cro3sing t rains b ebween Sarras and A kasheh, one ab
for a. distance of two to three miles from the river; after ~Ioghrab (47 miles from H alfa), ttnd ono a.t A mbigole
tJ this h1.tter pht'le t here
that, rocky hills beg in. In some places the hills come W ells (64 miles from Httlfa.).
down almost to the river, whils b in others the plai n is a good and constant supply of water from three wells,
stretches as far back as can be seen, rising gently as it 25 ft. deep. A t Alntsheh tbe line comes down to t he
gets fur t her from the ri ver. The plain is intersected by ri ver, hub leaves it a~ain at once and goes t hrough rocky
wateroours~, dry for the greater pa.rb of the year, bu t <;oun try to F erkeb (90 mil~s from H~tlftt), where it again
which are liable to be flooded in the rainy season. South comes down to the river. The whole of t he country from
of the Atbara. River rain falls every year. The line has Sarras to Ferket is one mass of blu.ok rock; the rail way winds
very few bridges or culver ts at p resent, and, as a conse- t hrough it in a n extraordinary wn.y to avoid oubtings and
embankments as far as p ossible ; t he result is t hat there
quence, is often washed away in place~.
Ab the speed at which the J~ne was laid-about 2.000 to is hardly a st raight or level bit of line in this section,
2800 yards a day, with a maxtmum of 5100 yards m one which is more an example of what can be done by a good
surver t han of what a rttilway ought to 'De.
* Paper read before the International E ng ineering Owmg to most of this part of t he line b eing laid in
wa tercourses, it is lit"ble t o be w~shed a way for considerQonY,res~, Glasgow, 1901. Section I . : Rail ways.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION

...

B~ HA~ ~86

able distances at times; 14 miles were wMhed away

during the 1896 Expedition, a nd smalle r lportions have
occasionally been damaged since. The cost of laying a
safer line would, however, be so groat that it has been
considered better to ta.ko t he risk at present than to
attempt it, e~peoially as it rains very rarely in this part
of the cou nt ry. Some more bridges and culverts are, bowever, to bo buil t.
F ro cn F erket the line runs along the river b!l.nk to
Kosheb (105 miles from Halfa.). The nat ure of the
country changes again here, and it is once more a. wide
sandy plain, wi t h a considerable amount of oulbivation
and date palms along the river bank~. A t K osheh there
is a small running shed and workshop. There is a considerable trade in dates from here d uring the sel.son.
From Kosheh t he ri ver makes a large hand, and tlhe
railway leaves it a nd goes a.cro~s tlhe deser t to Dulgo
( l74 mile3 from Ha.lfa.). There is a station for crossing
orains half-way between K o3heh and Dulgo. This uit of
deserb is fairly fla.b. T here is one bridge in this section,
about eight miles from Dulgo. I b 1s built over a wa teroourae named Abu Sunb, down which a considerable
quantity of water comes ab times. T he bridge is 200 fb.
long-seven spans-brick arches. At Dulgo t be line comes
down to the ri ver again. There is a good t rade in d~te3
from D ulgo. Both t he Kosheh and Dalgo dates a re
oo~sidorod t.> be the be3t in the S udan 1 and fetch good
pr1ces.
F rom Dulgo the line goes a.lontr the river bank for about
10 miles. A t t his point t he r1 vcr makes a. considerable
bend and the rail way leaves ib, and, cutting off a corner,
run i across t he desero to K arma (203 miles from Halfa).
K erma is eituabed in the middle of a h.rge flat plain, wi t h
dark soil, something li ke cotton soil. Ib is very ferbile,
and is culbivated in places a b a. oonsidora.blo distance from
the river. K erma itself is a. large village, a. little south of
the railwtty terminus. At the terminus there is a. sm&ll
r unnning-shed and workshop. Kerm'l. i~ the sta.rt.ing
place of the steamer a for D ongoht. Oonsiderablo quant ities
of dates and grain come down by rail from Kerma., also a.
small qua ntity of ostrich feathers.
D ETAILS 011' TilE KHARTOU~[ AND KERAfA LINES.

Permatnent Way ( Khartoum Line). - Single line : gauge,

3 ft. 6 in. Rails: V ignoles section, 50 lb. per yard.
Sleepers of three kinds: creosoted wood, uncreosoted
wood, and steel, 81 lb. The rails are fastened to woo:len
sleepers by spilces (no bearing plates), a nd to steel by keys.
Joints : one flat and one angle fish-plate. The lino is
unba.llasted except in a. fe w places; arrangement are
being made for ba.llasting,
Permanent Way ( K erma LineJ.-Siogle line : gaug~,
3 fb. 6 in. Sleepers : pine. R n.ils vary; some 41! lb.,
some 36 l b., some 50 lb. : the older sections have the
lighter rails; all aro Vignoles eoction, and are fastened to
sleepers by spikes without bearing plates. J oints : two
flat fishpla~es on older sections j one Hat a nd one angle on
newer seot1ons.
Bridges.-Very few in existence. All exoepb the
Abbara Bridge are steel-plate girders ; 50 fb. and 30 ft.
lengths are used, one or more spans being employed as
may be necessary. More bridges are now being built.
Rails are laid on tops of girders.
Culve1ts.-Owing to the lowness of the embankment in
most places these are all small, bhA most convenient type
being cast-iron pipes 2 fb. in diameter, several pipes being
used if necessary. They are set in masonry, with an apron
on the down-stream side of the embankment to prevent
scouring away the foob of the banlr.
Gradients.-The steepest gradient on the Kharboum
line is 1 in 120. From W a.di Halfa to No. 5 station is the
heaviest pull on t he line ; it is uphill practically the whole
way. Wadi Ha.lfa is 446ft. , and No. 5 is 2010 fb. above
M.S.L. The line f~lls again from No. 5 to Abu Hamed
(1200 fb. abovo M.S.L.); after this there are no very long
gradients. The line between Abadia and Shendi is prac
tioally level.
Oun~ves. -Tbe sharpest curve on the K hartoum line is
955 fb. radius ; there are very few as sharp as this, t he
usual being 2865 fb. radius.
Stations.- M osb of these are ab present rather primitive,
bub they serve their purpose. At H alfaiya, Shendi, and
Ha.lfa. tbere are proper stores and buildings of burnt brick;
at all other places buildings are of sun-dried brick. The
following stations are t he only places where there are loops
for crossing brains : Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, Dekheish, Abu
Dis, Abu Sillem, Barber (South), E d Damer, Zeida.b,
Koba.shieh, Wad Ben N a.ga., Gebel Gerri, \V a.d Ra.mleh.
Engines oa.n water at Halfa., No. 4, No. 6, Abu Hamed,
Sbereikh, Abadia, Atba.ra, Mukhmir, Shendi, Wad Ben
Naga., Halfa.iya.; engines can coal a.t H a.lfn, No. 2, No. 4,
No. 6, No. 9, Abu Ha.med, Abu D is, Shereikh, Abadia,
At bara., Mukhmir, S hendi, Wad Ben N aga, Wad Ramleh,
and H alfaiya. ~rhere are n o turntables on the line,
triangles being used; these exist ab H&lfo, No. 6, Abu
Hamed, Aba.dia, Shendi, Halfa.iya.
Oa tho lCorma.lino, the stations are of simple construction, with loops and sidings according to their traffic
requirements. Engines can water a.b Sands, Ambigole,
Akesheh, Kosheb, Dulgo, and Kerma. There is a re3erve
of coal ab every station. There a.ro t riangles ab Akcsheb,
K osheh, a nd K orma.
Workshops.-Tha main workshops are a~ Wadi H alfa;
t hese consist of1. Running shed, holding twelve engine~.
2. Erect ing shop for heavy repaird, holding nine
ongmes.
3. Smibhs' shop, conhining twelve smiths' hearths,
oopper3mitbs' heart hs, steam hammer, punching and
she!l.ring machine, pla.te-bonding~machine, a nd radial d1illi og machine.
4. M a.ohine shop, containing wheel labhe...~, screw-cutting
h"the~, slobting m achine~, shapin~ machines, pla!ling

E N G I N E E R I N G.
maob~nes, lot-d1 illi~g ~achine. ~ tilling mi\Cb i oe~, mi lli ng
m ~obm e, e mery pol1s hmg macbme ; al t he abo ve being
d r1ven by a hori zon tal compound eno-ine, 45 i nd ica.od
ho~~c- power,, th e ~team being provided b y two L 'lnoa.shire
hOller~, one 10 use a t a time.
6. F ound ry for brass and iron castings up to ! ton.
6. Ya~d where boiler work i3 done (s hop to be built
h ere), w1th over ben.d cra.ne en gant ry, 15 t ons lift and
t y re fu.r nace for shrink ing on tyre 3, al$0 us:d f<. r'ca~o
bardr:n mg.
7. Carp~nterb' shops, con t aining two oiroular eawa, ona
gc n e!al jomu, two wooddrilling machine~, one woodturn~ng la t ?e {pa ttern-makers); all driven by a locomobtle engme. ~Iuoh of the wood-turning is dono by
looa.l ~en, who use an arrangement of their own The
work lS held between two mandrel~, the chisel between
the man'~ toe~, and .the wo.r k is turned by a.n object like
~ b ow, w1th the ~trmg tw1s ted round the piece of wood
m hand. There 18 one large shop for oarpenterP besides
the ruachine shop, and a.lso a. small shop for 'pa.tteram akers' work.
8. Cd.rriage:repairing shop~, consisting of two shops, lOO
ya.rdslong, w1t h two lines running down eaoh, fitlt( d with
bench es, &c., for fitters at the sides ; two overhead
ga.ntrieg, w ith differential pulleys, for lifting trucks rapidly.
All repairs to rolling s took are done here.
. The~e are also s~eds for heavy smiths' work in connectiOn wtth such thmgs as truck frame~, &c. There is a
sruallshed for smiths and fitters at No. 6 station.
. A bu H amed has a. runnin g shed capable of holding
e1 ght eng ines ; also some lathes and d rilling machines,
en gine ptts, stores, &o. A badia has a. fitters' shop and
smiths' shop, also two Engine pits and a ~mall store.
Sbe odi has shops w hich are next to H alfa in size; also
a running shed capable of holding six engines, fi t t-r3' shop,
wheel ani screw-cutting lathe~, drilling machines, elottin~
and shapi~~ machines, smiths' shop, reserve st ores of
coal, &t'. .1:111.lfaiya has no shops of any importa.ncP, but
only a. few fittu~, carriage examiner s, &c. On the Karma
line thE r~ are small workshops at K oshehand K erma.
L or<nnot il'cs.-Owing t o the light rails and bridges on
the older sections of the K arma line, and also to the sharp
curveP, one class of engine only is used-a four-wheel
cou{>led side - tank engine, with leading four- wheel
b og te. Driving wheele, 3 ft. 9 in. in diameter; ou t~ide
cylinders, 14 in. by 20 in.; weight in working order, 30
t ms. There are six of theseengin~, which were mad e by
the Hunslet Engine Company, Leeds.
T he engines on the Khar toum line are h eavier. There
are seven ola.sses. The number of cla.ss:s is d ue to the
ra pidit y with which the line was la id ; engines bad t o be
obtained someh ow a t once, and we some times ba d t o take
whatever we could ge t the soonest.
There are eight N eilson's engine~, same J?at tern as
supplied to t he B echu analand R ailways; eight-wheel
coupled, leading fo ur-wh eel bogie; oylindHs, outside,
17 in. by 23 in. ; driving wheels, 3 ft . 6 in. in diameter ;
weig ht on d riving axles, 9.2 tons each.
Tbere are five Huneleb Company's (:ngines: six-wheel
coup led ; loading and t railing p ony t ruck; driving w heeJs,
3 ft. 6 in . in diamet er ; weig ht in working orde r, 37 t o ns ;
out~ide cylindor.:a, 14 in. by 20 in.; W alsohaer t/s valve
gen . These en~inos take the Fa me trai n over the fla t
eection , from Ahadia to S bendi, a~ the Neilson 's take
over t he more hilly section, between Halfa and Abadia..
There a re two Dubs' engines, same as supplied t o N at al
R ailways : eigh t-wheel coupled ; driving wheels, 3 ft . 3 in.
in dia met er ; leading four -wheel bogie and trailing
pony t ruck; ~id e tanks ; ou t~ide cylinders, 17 in. by 21 in.;
wei ~ ht in working order, 50 tons.
T hree Hum.let's similar to fi ve mentione d above, but
with eccentric instead of ' V alsoha erb valve gear.
Six eng ines hy :Messrs. J\ria.nning, W ardle, and Co. ; sixwh eel coupled, leading and trailing p ony trucks; antsid e cylinders, 14 in. by 18 in.; W alscbaer t valve gf'ar;
w eig ht in working ord er, 31~ tons.
E leven engines of the "Mogul " class by t he Bald win
Locomot ive Company: S~x-whe~l coupled d~ivi!lg whe~l~,
4 f t. in dia meter ; outs1de cyhnders, 17 10. by 24 10 .
s troke ; leading pony truck; bar frames ; weight in working order, 38 t ons.
F o ur engines by th e B ald win L ocomotive Company :
F our - wheel coupled ; . le~ding four - ~heel _bogie ;
d riving wheels, 5 f t. m d1ameter ; outside cylinders,
15 in. by 24 in. ; weight, 31 tons. T hese are used for
t he fas ter light t rains.
T wo B eyer Peaco~k'~ e~gines : Six-~heel coup led
d r iving wheels, 3ft. 6 m . tn diameter ; leading ponv truck;
saddle t ank; outside cylinders, 14; in. by 22 in . . In additi on to th e above t here are two shuntmg engm es1 bot h
four-wheel coupled.
P a.'lsengC? S tock. -Tbis h as hither to . consi. ted of ~i x
saloons of th e Indian t ype. T wo t1a,zns de luxe with
sleeping and d in ing-oar.s are now being bough t, and some
sp are cars as welJ. T here are fourteen Eo-call.;)~ p~ssengcr
carriages now, bu t t~ley are of a rough clescr1p~10n, and
will bo done away w1th when t he new s tock arnv es.
Good s S tock.- D onble bogie t ruoke, 32 f t. over all, by
M essrs. Brown, M a rsball, and Co. : F ifty-seven 10 ton
trucks - some of t hese have been fi tted as cattle t r ucks sid es 3 ft G in. high; one hundred and twen ty-t hree
ditto sid es 1 ft . 6 in. hig h; t en 14-ton covered tr ucks ;
t hir ty-six 12. ton covered t r ucks ; six brake vans
F our-wheel trucks by Me~sr~. B rown, _]Yiar hall and Co.:
One hundred and tluce 5 ton t r ucks ; e1ght cattle t r ucks ;
eio-ht hig h-sid ed t rucks, ~ix teen brake vans. T wen ty -two
4-~vheel s tore trucks by Coch rane a nd Oo.
1 11 ,.~tcrr" of W 01king. -T he line is wor ked on the absolute
b lock sys tem-no p~oper block instruments h a ve yet been
provided. 'T elephones ~re us~d. There are . no ~fety
appliances, s uch as facm g p om t bolts. or pomts m~or
locked wi th signa ls and one anot he1:, &c.. The q uest on
of p roviding t hese is n ow under cons1derat10n .

S c:r uire of T rains.-The ordina ry ser vice of trains t o

Khar toum con ists of two fast trains weekly each way
(connecting w it h the two principal mai ls from n or t h and
to n orth) and on e slow t ram each way daily. T ho latter,
although i t carr:es passen~ers, is really a goods train,
and carries t o south all G overnment supplies, stores,
buildin~ mat erials, &c., bring ing back cln efly gum, aL a
a certam amoun t of i vor y, sonna, ostrich feathers, and
-grain. The ser vice t o K erma consists of two mttll t rains
each way weekly, connecting as above with t he Europ mm
mails, and other t rains as ma.y be required, usually t hree
or four a week each way, making a total of fi ve or six
trains ea ch way weekly. A good deal of grain for the
army at K hartoum is brough t f rom K er ma, and in t he
dato season a certain n umber of sp eoin.l trains arc r un to
a ccommodat e t he date merchan ts. ln add ition to t he
abO\~e th.ore are a considerable number of t rains at work
on t he iruprovemen t of the lines generally.
to?'Cs.- The bulk of t he store3 for t he line aro kept a t
H alfa . Coal is s tacked in t he open .
T he stores are divided into t hreo clivi ions : 1. E xpendable stores, s uch as coal, oil, waste, a nd ma terials
for use in s hop &'enerally. 2. T ools. 3. pare par t of
emrine 3 and maclunes.
'l 'here are small expense stores at No. G s tat ion, Abu
H amed, Abadia , hendi, and H alfaiya. Owing to the
co t of t ransp or t, all s tores are ver y dear a t H a lfa, coal
eo ting on the average 3l. p er ton, and occa ionally more.
One of t he greatest difficulties which has t o be cont ended against is t he great wear and t&w caused by
sand. Engin e tyres wear wit h extraordinary rapidity,
and all engine motion also suffer. considerably. B all as t
will, no doubt, reduce t his considerably by preventing t he
sand fl ying- as it does a t present ; but t here will always
bo a cer tam amount of sand on wind y days. Putting
petroleum on the line, which has, I believe, been tried
with success in A meri0!1-1 would be of no use here, as after
th e fi rs t Stt.ndstorm t he line would be as bad as e ver, apar t
from the considerat ion of the cost of bringing the p etroleum to the udan.
U nskilled labour can be obtained fairly easily, but is
not ver y good.
killed labour is at p resen t all imported,
and is consequently dear . The nati ves are, however,
coming for ward fairly well and show a w ish to learn
trades ; there are about fi fty apprentices in t he H alfa
workshops learning various trade at the pr{'sent momen t .
T o sum up generally, it mus t be said tha t m uch re ma ins t o be done to the l ine before it ca.n be considered
as 'finished. 'l'he work, howe ver, is now being taken in
hand, and in the course of a year or so should be completed.

AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS.*
W. C. KJ~RNO'r, M .A., ~I.C. E.,
M . Ins t. C. E .
AusrnAT~l A is about 2500 miles long hy 2000 miles broad.
Its climate is temperat e in t he south and tropical in t he
north. It prod uces wool, whC'n,t, horses, cattle', sheep, dairy
produce, s ugar, coal, gold, and other metals. P opultttion,
:3,800,000 a t presen t, and s teadily increasing. D ivided
in to fi ve s tates, w hich, with the adjoining ishtnd of T asmania, are uni ted to form the Commonwealth of Australi a.
A const m nge r uns round most of its perimeter. Out!!ido
this is a comparatively nar row s trip of us ually fer t ile
count ry, with good rainfall and shor t swift rivers, navigable only near t heir mout hs. I nside is a vast shallow
bnsin, with small rainfn.ll, often a rid surface, and long
tortuous rivers, precariously na vigable, which in some
cas{'S ultimately reach t he sea., b ut in ma ny others lose
thenaselvt'S in swarups
The inland basin is useful for
pn toral purp oses in th e eastern portions, but in t he
wes t er n is a nearly valueless desert, which, however, has
imp or tant t owns in it at p laces where gold abounds.
R ailway making corumenoed at ydney and lV[elbourne,
the two largest cities (npw p ossessing 500,000 inhabitants
each), soon after 1850. ~Iel~ourne, together with . some
ot~er parts, acting under ad vice, ~cl opted th e Gft. 3 1.n., or
I n sh, gauge.
ydney, after bavmg agteed to G ft . .3 m.,
went back t o 4 ft . H~ m . ~ueensland, soru ewh at la ter,
adopted 3 ft. 6 in. ; so d1d T asmania, and W ester n
Aus tralia . T hus a most un fortunate confusion of gauges
has come in to exis tence.
T here are now 12,554 miles of tate railways in A ustralia, of which 3725 are 5 ft . 3 in. ; 2811, 4 ft. 8~ in. ;
5970, 3 ft . 6 in. ; and 48 miles, 2ft. Gin.; as well as a bout
1000 miles of private line, mostly 3 ft. 6 in.
G-radcs.- In crossing the coast range and its spurs,
severe grades and high summ~t levels occur: .The '~C'stcrn
line of New ou th \ Vales n scs 3:300 f t. m 30 miles, requiring long continuou.s grad~ of 1 in 33, a nd.in one CR;Se
nearly two miles of 1 m 30. r he nor t hern bne of VIctoria rises 1880 ft . in 42 miles, havin~ long grades of 1 in
50. The line from Adelaide to Bris bane, 1Jid M elbour ne
and ydney, crosses t he coast r!l'rage six times, and roa?hes
a sumn1it level of 4473 ft . Of 1ts tott11l let1gth, 1783 miles,
134 are a bove 3000 ft ., 409 above 2000 ft ., tm d nen,rly 800
above 1000 ft.-grades asc_e ndi~1g ~nd _descendi1~g 1000 f_t.
in 10 to 12 miles, and havmg m chnatwns of l m 50, 1 m
40 and even in on e instance 1 in 30 occur .
Grades h ave in some cases b een recen tly improved, but
t his cannot be done where they are con tm uous for many
m iles, as is t he case at some of the most d ifficult p arts
C'n1vcs.- I n Vict oria forty chain curves aro usual on
main lines but in New outh ' Vales tmd Rout h A ust rali a omv~s as sharp as 12, and eve1~ 10, chain~~ occur ~t
mountainous pa rts. On t he 3 ft . 6 m. gauge fi ve cham
curves are usual.
Permanent Way.- The double-headC'd rail origina lly
used has for many years been given up, and a steelra1l
By

Profe...~or

[SEPT.

3, I 901.

of Vignoles pa tter n s ubstit uted; 100 lb. per yard is ~:~tan

dard for busy s ubur ban linos ; 80 l b. for main lines ; and
GO lb. for branch lines is common on t he wider gauge .
T he line a rf' w ll made, wit h good stono balla t and
heavy eucaly ptus sleepers. A cr idcnts from derailment
are rare.
rt1uctu?cs.- Tn t he eastC'rn colonies large use is made
of the local t imber for bridgf's, culverts, and 'iriaducts, but
t~ere are man.Y fin t' iron and s~eel ~ridges oYer the larger
l'lvers. T he H a wkesbury Bndge m New . . outh Wales,
the Albert B ridge in Queensland, and t h<> M mvltbool and
lVIelton Viaducts and Echuca B ridge in V ict oria, a re note
worthy.
Tunnels are not numerous. N ew Sout h \Vales possesses the greates t number and leng th
T unnels are
l\ lways substan tially lined, and give but li ttle trouble.
.... tations usually of En glis h type. P errunnent stations
arc not yet built in :Melbour ne or ydney, hut are about
t o be C011Struoted.
igml-ll ing appliances of English t ype.
I nterlocking points and sigmt ls usual at important sta ti ons
ttnd junction s.
Locomotiuc.~. -Owi ng to scvt'ri ty of grades and character
of t raffic, p ower is requi red ra ther t han sp eed ; hence
small wheels _and coupling nr<: ~eneral. 'l'h~ Yi ~to_ri<t.
standard engm es arc four or s1x-coupled, w1t h m 1de
cylinders. Those of N ew "'outh \ Vtdes, four, six, or eight
coupled with outside cylinders and leading bogie.
ixcoupled engines of 56 tons, not including the tender, and
inch cating over 1000 horse-power, arc used for express
trains on the heavy grades. On the ::l ft . 6 in. lines outEide cylinder engines, with ~m all wheels, from six to eightcoupled, a re general. American engi nes are used to some
ex tent, especially on sharp curves ; but E nglish, or
locally-mttde engines of English t ype . are usunJly prefen ed as beinS' more economical in point of fuel consumption and repa1rs. The W cstinghouse brake is general.
One privat e line in T nsmanil\ ust's the Abt rack on a
1 in 16 gm de. t he gtt.uge being :3 ft. 6 in.
Passenge'r Can-,iagcs.- U sually of European t ype, with
steel underframes and four or six-wheeled bo!ries. The
later ones on t he broador gauges hn,vo a corridor a t one
side, lavatories and sanitary con veniences, and are lit
with Pintsch gns.
leeping cars of t he Pullman t ype
are used in N ew outh \ Vales, and of the 1\![ann type
between :iYlelbourno ~l-nd Adelaide.
Goods Stock. - Usually of English type on four wheels,
but occaRionally double-bogie vehi cles are een.
pecial
wagons for carrying s heep, cattle, frozen meat, and dairy
produce are used. T he \Ves tingh ou~ e brake is usually
fitted.
Su.bwrbanRail'Ways.- Th e hugest suburban syst em is at
1\1elbourne. T he principal st a tion has 500 trains in and
t he same number out each day. '. fhe accommodation is
good, and the fares very low : 4~d. nrst-clas.') return t o a
poin t 3 miles from t own, and 1s. nrst-class ret ur n to
one 9 miles ou t being rel?resenta tive fares. In one Rp ecial
case the charges for 9 mtles are only 4~d. fi rst ret ur n n.nd
3d. second.
A d?ninist1ation.- Australi an railways are usually made
and wor ked by the ttttc. 'l' he system is g('ner n.lly approved, in spite of certa in clangers and mistakes in the
past. E ach ;:;ystem has a Commissioner at its h ead, who
is a p er mn.nent officinl of very high Stltnding .
The a verage cost per mile of A ustralittn railways up to
datP, and perct:'ntage of net revenue to capital, is as
follows :
Percentag~
Co!it per 1\[ ile. I et R even ue.

12,:300
3.07
Victoria


3.G:3
N ew South w~l ('S
1:3,700
7,500
3.90
outh Ans tralilt
...
2.G7
6,900
Queensland .. .
...
5.81
5,000
W est A ustralia
...
1.11
8,200
T asmania
...
I u con olu ion, Aus tralian rail ways , despite minor
defects, are s ubst an tial, safe, and cfficif'n t, and of immense
value to the communities they ser ve.

...

GoLD IN lVlANTSOHURTA.- Tbere appears t o be every

prospect of the R ussian Government securing comparatively free hands as far as exploiti ng 1\'[an t ohm-inn gold nelds is concern ed. Unless, indeed, t he Chine..,e au thorities should make unexpected difficulties., Ru ia will, in
th e course of a year or two, be p osses eel of ver y ex tensive and, i t is thought, very rich goldfields, which can be
approached from '.f ungaroi, V ladi vostock, and from the
Chinese E ast R ailway. P eoplo are ver y sang uine about
t he yield of gold in that locali ty.

T HE UnAr~ I RON I Nnu TRY. - Du ring the fi rst half of

t he presen t year there app ~trs to be no r eduction in the
prod uction of pig iron in t he U rnl, in spite of the unsatisfact or y st a te of this branch of the iron industry ; in fact,
some iron works have evon in creased their ou t put. A
ra tional development of t he Uml iron ind ust r y is m uch
hampered by t he erra ti c mode in which many :iron masters conduct t heir works ; t hoy do not , for in tance
ptty sufficim1 t a t ten tion t o spccin.Ii t ics, but all seem to
cater for a t ransitor y d emt\nd. If an increa eel demnnd
for rails springs up, they all go in for roll ing mills for rails,
&c. The works which n.ro ex periencing t he greatest
clifficulties a t presen t are tho e who simply manufacture
pig iron, partly because they do not specialise enough and
pnrtly because they do not . ufficiontly know the market .
\Vork thn.t , fur t her, handle their pig iron are more
favourably po. itionecl, inasmuch t ha.t manufactured iron
and teel, on the whole, rneets wi th tt bot ter demand than
pig iron. A better organisation of the whole U rnl iron
* Abstract of paper read before tho I1_1ternation~l Engi- ind ustry is much needed, and would undoubtedly have
neering Congress, G lnsgow l HOl. Sect10n I . : H ailwttys. t he hest rcsul ts.