Linux

This article is about the operating system. For the Distributions oriented toward desktop use typically inkernel, see Linux kernel. For other uses, see Linux clude X11, a Wayland implementation or Mir as the
(disambiguation).
windowing system, and an accompanying desktop environment such as GNOME or the KDE Software Compilation; some distributions may also include a less resourcei
[4][5]
Linux (pronounced
/lnks/ LIN-ks
or, less
[5][6]
frequently, /lanks/ LYN-ks
) is a Unix-like and intensive desktop such as LXDE or Xfce. Distributions
[7]
mostly POSIX-compliant computer operating system intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environ(OS) assembled under the model of free and open-source ments from the standard install, and instead include other
software development and distribution. The dening software to set up and operate a solution stack such as
component of Linux is the Linux kernel,[8] an operating LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone
system kernel rst released on 5 October 1991 by Linus may create a distribution for any intended use.
Torvalds.[9][10] The Free Software Foundation uses the
name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which
has led to some controversy.[11][12]

1 History

Linux was originally developed as a free operating system for personal computers based on the Intel x86 ar- Main article: History of Linux
chitecture, but has since been ported to more computer
hardware platforms than any other operating system.[13]
Thanks to its dominance on smartphones, Android, which
is built on top of the Linux kernel, has the largest installed 1.1 Antecedents
base of all general-purpose operating systems.[14] Linux,
in its original form, is also the leading operating system
on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe
computers and supercomputers,[15][16] but is used on only
around 1.5% of desktop computers[17] with Linux-based
Chrome OS taking about 5% of the overall and nearly
20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales.[18] Linux also runs
on embedded systems, which are devices whose operating system is typically built into the rmware and is
highly tailored to the system; this includes smartphones
and tablet computers running Android and other Linux
derivatives,[19] TiVo and similar DVR devices, network
routers, facility automation controls, televisions,[20][21]
video game consoles, and smartwatches.[22]
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent
examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The underlying source code may be used, modied
and distributedcommercially or non-commercially
by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such
as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux
is packaged in a form known as a Linux distribution, for
both desktop and server use. Some of the popular mainstream Linux distributions are Debian, Ubuntu, Linux
Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, Arch Linux and Gentoo, together with commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux and
SUSE Linux Enterprise Server distributions. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities
and libraries, and usually a large amount of application
software to fulll the distributions intended use.

Linus Torvalds, principal author of the Linux kernel

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in
the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie,
1

1 HISTORY

Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.[23] First released in

1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language as
it was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (with exceptions
to the kernel and I/O). The availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to dierent computer platforms easier.

kernel development took place on Linux systems.[31]

GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components,
because it was advantageous to use the freely available
code from the GNU Project with the edgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be
reused in other projects as long as they also are released
under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[32] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the
Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating
system.[26]

Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, AT&T was required to license the operating systems source code to anyone who
asked.[24] As a result, Unix grew quickly and became
widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses.
In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs; freed of the
legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began 1.3
selling Unix as a proprietary product.

Naming

The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman,

had the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible
software system composed entirely of free software.
Work began in 1984.[25] Later, in 1985, Stallman started
the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early
1990s, many of the programs required in an operating
system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix
shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although
low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and
the kernel were stalled and incomplete.[26]
Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been
available at the time (1991), he would not have decided
to write his own.[27]
Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD,
OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of
Linux. Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created 5.25-inch oppy discs holding a very early version of Linux
Linux.[28]
MINIX was created by a computer science professor Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention Freax, a
Andrew S. Tanenbaum and released in 1987 as a minimal portmanteau of free, freak, and x (as an allusion
Unix-like operating system targeted at students and oth- to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, he
ers who wanted to learn the operating system principles. stored the les under the name Freax for about half of a
name Linux,
Although the complete source code of MINIX was freely year. Torvalds had already considered the [33]
but
initially
dismissed
it
as
too
egotistical.
available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free
software until the licensing changed in April 2000.[29]

1.2

Creation

In order to facilitate development, the les were uploaded

to the FTP server (ftp.funet.) of FUNET in September
1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds coworker at the Helsinki
University of Technology (HUT) who was one of the
volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time,
did not think that Freax was a good name. So, he
named the project Linux on the server without consulting Torvalds.[33] Later, however, Torvalds consented to
Linux.

In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious about operating systems[30] and
frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which at the time
limited it to educational use only.[29] He began to work
on his own operating system kernel, which eventually be- To demonstrate how the word Linux should be procame the Linux kernel.
nounced ( i /lnks/ LIN-ks[4][5] ), Torvalds included an
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on audio guide ( listen ) with the kernel source code.[34]
MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also Another variant of pronunciation is /lanks/ LYNused on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux ks.[5][6]

1.5

1.4

Current development

Commercial and popular uptake

3
wearables. Linux gaming is also on the rise with Valve
showing its support for Linux and rolling out its own gaming oriented Linux distribution. Linux distributions have
also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government of Brazil.[45]

1.5 Current development

Torvalds continues to direct the development of
the kernel.[46] Stallman heads the Free Software
Foundation,[47] which in turn supports the GNU
components.[48] Finally, individuals and corporations
develop third-party non-GNU components. These thirdUbuntu, a popular Linux distribution
party components comprise a vast body of work and may
include both kernel modules and user applications and
Main article: Linux adoption
Adoption of Linux in production environments, rather libraries.
Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute
the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in
the form of Linux distributions.

2 Design

Nexus 5 running Android

A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s.
Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel,
which handles process control, networking, access to the
peripherals, and le systems. Device drivers are either
integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules
that are loaded while the system is running.[49]

Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide

much of the systems higher-level functionality. The
GNU userland is an important part of most Linux-based
systems, providing the most common implementation of
the C library, a popular CLI shell, and many of the common Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by
most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation
of the X Window System.[50] More recently, the Linux
community seeks to advance to Wayland as the new disToday, Linux systems are used in every domain, from play server protocol in place of X11; Ubuntu, however,
embedded systems to supercomputers,[16][36] and have develops Mir instead of Wayland.[51]
secured a place in server installations often using the
Installed components of a Linux system include the
popular LAMP application stack.[37] Use of Linux disfollowing:[50][52]
tributions in home and enterprise desktops has been
growing.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] Linux distributions have
A bootloader, for example GNU GRUB, LILO,
also become popular in the netbook market, with many
SYSLINUX, Coreboot or Gummiboot. This is a
devices shipping with customized Linux distributions inprogram that loads the Linux kernel into the comstalled, and Google releasing their own Google Chrome
puters main memory, by being executed by the
OS designed for netbooks.
computer when it is turned on and after the rmware
Linuxs greatest success in the consumer market is perinitialization is performed.
haps the mobile device market, with Android being one
An init program, such as the traditional sysvinit and
of the most dominant operating systems on smartphones
and very popular on tablets and, more recently, on
the newer systemd, OpenRC and Upstart. This is the
than being used only by hobbyists, started to take o
rst in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community,
where organizations such as NASA started to replace
their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use followed when Dell and IBM, followed by
Hewlett-Packard, started oering Linux support to escape Microsoft's monopoly in the desktop operating system market.[35]

DESIGN

rst process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at

the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes
such as system services and login prompts (whether
graphical or in terminal mode).
Software libraries, which contain code that can be
used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable les, the dynamic linker
that manages use of dynamic libraries is known as
ld-linux.so. If the system is set up for the user to
compile software themselves, header les will also
be included to describe the interface of installed libraries. Beside the most commonly used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc),
there are numerous other libraries.
C standard library is the library needed to run
standard C programs on a computer system,
with the GNU C Library being the most commonly used. Several alternatives are available, Bash, a shell developed by GNU[53] and widely used in Linux
such as the EGLIBC (which was used by Debian for some time) and uClibc (which was designed for uClinux).
desktop environments, such as the K Desktop Envi Widget toolkits are the libraries used to build ronment (KDE), GNOME, Cinnamon, Unity, LXDE,
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for software Pantheon and Xfce, though a variety of additional user inapplications. Numerous widget toolkits are terfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on
available, including GTK+ and Clutter (soft- the X Window System, often simply called X. It proware) developed by the GNOME project, vides network transparency and permits a graphical appliQt developed by the Qt Project and led cation running on one system to be displayed on another
by Digia, and Enlightenment Foundation Li- where a user may interact with the application; however,
braries (EFL) developed primarily by the certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network.[54] Several popular X
Enlightenment team.
display servers exist, with the reference implementation,
User interface programs such as command shells or X.Org Server, being the most popular.
windowing environments.
Several types of window managers exist for X11, includ-

2.1

User interface

The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a

command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems.
For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, although the CLI is available through
terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console.
CLI shells are the text-based user interfaces, which use
text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in
Linux is the GNU Bourne-Again Shell (bash), originally
developed for the GNU project. Most low-level Linux
components, including various parts of the userland, use
the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for
automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides
very simple inter-process communication.

ing tiling, dynamic, stacking and compositing. Window

managers provide means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interact
with the X Window System. Simpler X window managers such as dwm or ratpoison provide a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such as
FVWM, Enlightenment or Window Maker provide more
features such as a built-in taskbar and themes, but are
still lightweight when compared to desktop environments.
Desktop environments include window managers as part
of their standard installations, such as Mutter (GNOME),
KWin (KDE) or Xfwm (xfce), although users may choose
to use a dierent window manager if preferred.

Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of 2014, Wayland
has not received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland
does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the
role of the display server, window manager and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces Wayland, while GNOMEs Mutter and KDEs KWin are
are the GUI shells, packaged together with extensive being ported to Wayland as standalone display servers.

3.1

Community

Enlightenment has already been successfully ported to Linux based distributions are intended by developers
Wayland since version 19.
for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere
to POSIX,[59] SUS,[60] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards
where possible, although to date only one Linux distribu2.2 Video input infrastructure
tion has been POSIX.1 certied, Linux-FT.[61][62]
Main article: Video4Linux

Free software projects, although developed through

collaboration, are often produced independently of each
Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit
for handing video input devices: V4L2 API for video redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale
streams and radio, and DVB API for digital TV projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone
projects and make it available all at once in the form of a
reception.[55]
Linux distribution.
Due to the complexity and diversity of dierent devices,
and due to the large amount of formats and standards han- Many Linux distributions, or distros, manage a remote
dled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to collection of system software and application software
better t other devices. Also, a good userspace device packages available for download and installation through
library is the key of the success for having userspace ap- a network connection. This allows users to adapt the opplications to be able to work with all formats supported erating system to their specic needs. Distributions are
maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer
by those devices.[56][57]
organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is
responsible for the default conguration of the installed
Linux kernel, general system security, and more gener3 Development
ally integration of the dierent software packages into
a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package
manager such as apt, yum, zypper, pacman or portage to
install, remove and update all of a systems software from
one central location.
1970

1980

1990

2000

9.1

NetBSD

BSD family

6.0.1

OpenBSD
BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution)
Bill Joy

SunOS

Time

2010

FreeBSD

5.3

4.4

4.1.4
Darwin
NextStep 3.3

Mac OS X

Xenix OS

10.8.4

Apple

Microsoft/SCO

3.1 Community

GNU/Hurd K16

GNU
Richard Stallman
Minix

GNU/Linux

3.10.9

Linus Torvalds

3.2.1

Andrew S. Tanenbaum
Research UNIX
Bell Labs: Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie, et al.

10.5
Commercial UNIX

See also: Free software community and Linux User

Group

UnixWare
Univel/SCO

AT&T

Solaris
Sun Microsystems

11 11/11

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user

communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a wellknown example. Others maintain a community version
Simplied history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with
similar architecture and concepts (as part of the POSIX standard) Fedora and SUSE does with openSUSE.
System III & V family

11i v3

HP-UX

7.1 TL1

AIX
IBM

IRIX

6.5.30

SGI

but does not share non-free source code with the original Unix or
MINIX.

Main articles: Linux distribution and Free software

In many cities and regions, local associations known as

Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They
hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation
to new users. Many Internet communities also provide
support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open-source projects have
IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being
LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specic
support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu,
Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing
lists; commonly there will be a specic topic such as usage or development for a given list.

The primary dierence between Linux and many other

popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux
kernel and other components are free and open-source
software. Linux is not the only such operating system,
although it is by far the most widely used.[58] Some free
and open-source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived
from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft
itself. The most common free software license, the GNU
General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and
is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components
from the GNU Project.
There are several technology websites with a Linux

HARDWARE SUPPORT

focus.
Print magazines on Linux often include in terms of terminal programming or QuickBASIC or
cover disks including software or even complete Linux Turbo BASIC programming in the form of QB64.
distributions.[63][64]
A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes
Although Linux distributions are generally available with- traditional specic-purpose programming languages tarout charge, several large corporations sell, support, and geted at scripting, text processing and system conguracontribute to the development of the components of the tion and management in general. Linux distributions supsystem and of free software. An analysis of the Linux ker- port shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs
nel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 also have an embedded programming language to support
to January 2010 was developed by programmers working conguring or programming themselves. For example,
for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to volunteers regular expressions are supported in programs like grep,
and 7% unclassied.[65] Major corporations that provide or locate, while advanced text editors, like GNU Emacs,
contributions include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Mi- have a complete Lisp interpreter built-in.
crosystems (now part of Oracle), SUSE, and Nokia. A Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl,
number of corporations, notably Red Hat, Canonical, and Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as
SUSE, have built a signicant business around Linux dis- common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and
tributions.
Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and develThe free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel
are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen
as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for
business users. A number of companies also oer a
specialized business version of their distribution, which
adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.

opment kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBMs J2SE RE, as well
as many open-source projects like Kae and JikesRVM.

GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments

and provide a framework for developing applications.
These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget
toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated
development environments available including Anjuta,
Code::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState
Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans,
Another business model is to give away the software in and Qt Creator, while the long-established editors Vim,
order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the nano and Emacs remain popular.[66]
computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M,
Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.6 freely
copyable (but not modiable). As computer hardware 4 Hardware support
standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more dicult for hardware manufacturers to prot from this tactic,
Hardware
as the OS would run on any manufacturers computer that
Linux kernel
shared the same architecture.
Human-MachineInterface

Distributed Computing

Keyboard & Mouse

also Braille, Touch-Display, Speech recognition,
Graphics tablet, 3D-Mouse, Wii nunchak, etc.

3.2

Programming on Linux

Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the
GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Go and Fortran. Many programming languages have a cross-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for example PHP, Perl,
Ruby, Python, Java, Go, Rust and Haskell. First released in 2003, the LLVM project provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel
C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. BASIC in the form of Visual Basic is supported
in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and

Touch-Display
Attitude sensor, Motion sensor,
Speech recognition

Speech recognition
Attitude sensor
Motion sensor

Display, Sound
Vibration

Desktop Computer
Workstation
Home Computer
Desktop replacement laptop
Thin client

Mobile computer
Note-/ Net-/ Smartbook
Tablet
Smartphone
PDA / Handheld game console

Wearable Computer
Wristwatch
Virtual Retina Display
Head-mounted display

Embedded Computer
remote
(SSH, HTTP,
Serial, I2C, ...)

Real-time computing
(RTC)

Customer-premises equipment
Measurement Equipment
Laboratory Equipment
Layer3-Switches
other embedded systems

Linux Process Scheduler

Linux Security Modules
Linux Network scheduler
Network stack
Netlter
Linux device drivers
Linux le system drivers

Routing daemons

Software Development
Package management systems

CAD, CAM & CAE Software

Oce
Image Processing
Desktop Publishing (DTP)

Windowing Systems

Distributed computing

High-performance computing
(HPC)

Graphical User Interfaces

(Shells)

(SSH, HTTP, ...)

Pool of free and open-source and

proprietary software

remote

Web server solution stacks (LAMP)

Supercomputer
Computer Cluster
Mainframe computer

Desktop UI
Touch UI

Wearable UI

Video processing software

3D computer graphics
Computer animation
Motion graphics

Digital Audio Workstation

DJ Mixing Software
Video games
Home cinema solutions

Debian software archives: 37,000

software packages

Linux is ubiquitously found on various types of hardware.

See also: List of Linux-supported computer architectures

Linux kernel is a widely ported operating system kernel;
it runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures, including the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the
IBM mainframes System z9 or System z10 covering devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[67]
Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less
mainstream architectures; for example, the ELKS ker-

5.1

Desktop

nel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the Clinux kernel fork may run
on systems without a memory management unit. The
kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system,
such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and
Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable
music players, and mobile phones.

default GNOME Shell and Ubuntu Unity), and the KDE

Plasma Desktop.
No single ocial Linux desktop exists: rather desktop environments and Linux distributions select components from a pool of free and open-source software with
which they construct a GUI implementing some more or
less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has its
human interface guidelines as a design guide, which gives
the humanmachine interface an important role, not just
when doing the graphical design, but also when considering people with disabilities, and even when focusing on
security.[71]

There are several industry associations and hardware

conferences devoted to maintaining and improving
support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as
FreedomHEC. Over time, support for dierent hardware
has improved in Linux, resulting in any o-the-shelf pur- The collaborative nature of free software development alchase having a good chance of being compatible.[68]
lows distributed teams to perform language localization
of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-eective. For
5 Uses
example, the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix
distribution became available signicantly before Microsoft translated Windows XP into Sinhalese. In this
See also: Linux range of use
case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in
developing the localized system by combining the knowlBeside the Linux distributions designed for generaledge of university professors, linguists, and local develpurpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may
opers.
be specialized for dierent purposes including: computer
architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specic region or language, target- 5.1.1 Performance and applications
ing of specic user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a
Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only controversial topic; for example in 2007 Con Kolivas acfree software. As of 2015, over four hundred Linux dis- cused the Linux community of favoring performance on
tributions are actively developed, with about a dozen dis- servers. He quit Linux kernel development out of frustributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[69] tration with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then

Desktop

Desktop widgets

Plasma 2

Enlight. DR19

Cinnamon

2D Application

Media Application

3D Application

possibly adaptations to Wayland/Mir

possibly adaptations to Wayland/Mir

possibly adaptations to Wayland/Mir

User Interface Toolkits (in the form of libraries):

Cairo-Dock

GNOME Shell

Desktop Shells:

GTK+
Pango
ATK
Clutter
Cairo (Xr)

Widgets for
Unity and Plasma
Ubuntu

Qt

EFL

SDL

libwayland-client

libwayland-client

libwayland-client

GNUstep
wxWidgets
FLTK
...

Android

Unity

5.1

libwayland-client
libX/libXCB

libwayland / COGL

gave a tell all interview on the topic.[72] Since then a

signicant amount of development has focused on improving the desktop experience. Projects such as Upstart
and systemd aim for a faster boot time; the Wayland and
Mir projects aim at replacing X11 while enhancing desktop performance, security and appearance.[73]

Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example, Mozilla Firefox,
OpenOce.org/LibreOce and Blender have downloadLinux kernel,
able versions for all major operating systems. FurtherLinux kernel
more, some applications initially developed for Linux,
CPU & GPU
Hardware
such as Pidgin, and GIMP, were ported to other operating
systems (including Windows and Mac OS X) due to their
Visible software components of the Linux desktop stack include the display server, widget engines, and some of the more popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary
[74]
such
widespread widget toolkits. There are also components not di- desktop applications are also supported on Linux,
as Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake in
rectly visible to end users, including D-Bus and PulseAudio.
the high-end eld of animation and visual eects; see the
See also: Desktop environment and Linux adoption: List of proprietary software for Linux for more details.
Measuring desktop adoption
There are also several companies that have ported their
own or other companies games to Linux, with Linux also
The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers being a supported platform on both the[75]popular Steam
and laptops has been increasing over the years.[70] Cur- and Desura digital-distribution services.
rently most distributions include a graphical user envi- Many other types of applications available for Microsoft
ronment, with the two most popular environments being Windows and Mac OS X also run on Linux. Commonly,
GNOME (which can utilize additional shells such as the either a free software application will exist which does the
kms (Kernel Mode Setting)
drm (Direct Rendering Manager)

? kdbus ?

unetwork

NetworkManager

packagekitd

GLib

GObject
Glib
GModule
GThread
GIO

Alternative display servers:

PulseAudio-d

libinput

evdev

glibc
Clibc

systemd

libwayland-server

Wayland Compositor

(contains udev)

weston, clayton, mutter, KWin

udisks

System daemons:

avahi-daemon

System libraries:

D-Bus-Daemon

Display server:

kmod-fs-ext4

libxserver

X-Server

window
manager

X.Org
Xfree86
X-Win32
X11.app

metacity
mutter
KWin
Compiz

netlter

device drivers & other modules

radeon nouveau lima etna_viv freedreno tegra-re

Keyboard & Mouse

Touch-Screen
BrailleDisplay

cache coherent L2-Caches

main memory

ALSA: emu20k1, ctx, hda... kmod-ltq-atm-vr9

ath9k

UMTS/CDMA/LTE
GPS-receiver
G-sensor

libmir-serv

mir
mir

SF

window
manager

SurfaceFlinger

Compiz

SELinux
TOMOYO
Smack
AppArmor

Ethernet
802.11-(abc)
Bluetooth

libhybris

window
manager
AWM

libbionic

binder ashmem pmem

wakelocks logger ...

(Android-forked)

USES

functions of an application found on another operating

KDE Plasma (KDE 4)
system, or that application will have a version that works
LXDE
on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games like
Dota 2 and Team Fortress 2. Furthermore, the Wine
MATE (GNOME 2)
project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run
unmodied Windows applications on Linux. It is spon Pantheon
sored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers,
Sugar
which produces a commercial version of the software.
Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the
Trinity (KDE 3)
Wine project.[76][77] CrossOver, a proprietary solution
based on the open-source Wine project, supports run Unity
ning Windows versions of Microsoft Oce, Intuit appli Xfce
cations such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such
as World of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no
5.2 Netbooks
Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop pub[78]
[79][80][81]
lishing and professional audio,
there is equivLinux distributions have also become popular in the
alent software available on Linux.
netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS
Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized
Linux distributions installed.[82]
5.1.2 Components and installation
Besides externally visible components, such as X window
managers, a non-obvious but quite central role is played
by the programs hosted by freedesktop.org, such as DBus or PulseAudio; both major desktop environments
(GNOME and KDE) include them, each oering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit
(GTK+ or Qt). A display server is another component,
which for the longest time has been communicating in
the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the X.Org Server and
Xlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led
to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland.
Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is
typically done through the use of package managers such
as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum
Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands
of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux
is available from the ocial repositories. Alternatively,
users can install packages from unocial repositories,
download pre-compiled packages directly from websites,
or compile the source code by themselves. All these
methods come with dierent degrees of diculty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed
in modern distributions and is not a method specic to
Linux.
Samples of graphical desktop environments
Cinnamon
Common Desktop Environment (CDE)
Enlightenment
GNOME Shell (GNOME 3)

In 2009, Google announced its Google Chrome OS, a

minimal Linux based operating system which application
consists only of the Google Chrome browser, a le manager and a media player.[83] The netbooks that shipped
with the operating system, termed Chromebooks, started
appearing in the market in June 2011.[84]

5.3 Servers, mainframes and supercomputers

Web cache

Linux kernel

Squid
Polipo
Trac server

AppArmor
SELinux
Smack
TOMOYO

Process Scheduler

Web server
Apache
Cherokee
Lighttpd
Nginx

CGI scripting
Perl
PHP
Python

Database
MariaDB
MySQL
Drizzle

Netlter

Environment: CCC

Hardware
CPU
&
RAM

Crackers
Botnets for DDoS-attacks
cracking attempts
...

Attacks
stave o

Network scheduler
NIC
device
driver
kmod-fs-ext4
kmod-fs-btrfs
Lustre
...

Competitors

&
Requests

Linux network stack

compete for customers

serve

Networking
hardware

Internet
Responses

Customers

low latency

Storage
SATA
SAS
RAID
iSCSI
NAS

want attendance

Botnets
DDoS-Attacks

Broad overview of the LAMP software bundle, displayed here

together with Squid. A high-performance and high-availability
web server solution providing security in a hostile environment.

Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area;
Netcraft reported in September 2006, that eight of the ten
most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers.[85] Since June 2008, Linux
distributions represented ve of the top ten, FreeBSD
three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;[86] since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top
ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten.[87]
Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the
LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache,

5.5

Embedded devices

MariaDB/MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has vor of Tizen, an operating system targeted at mobile deachieved popularity among developers, and which is one vices as well as in-vehicle infotainment (IVI). Tizen is a
of the more common platforms for website hosting.[88]
project within The Linux Foundation. Several Samsung
Samsung Gear 2 beLinux distributions have become increasingly popular on products are already running Tizen,
[95]
ing
the
most
signicant
example.
Samsung Z smartmainframes in the last decade partly due to pricing and
[96]
phones
will
use
Tizen
instead
of
Android.
[16]
the open-source model. In December 2009, computer
giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market As a result of MeeGos termination, the Mer project
and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[89]
forked the MeeGo codebase to create a basis for mobile[97]
In July 2012, Jolla anLinux distributions are also commonly used as operating oriented operating systems.
nounced
Sailsh
OS,
their
own
mobile
operating system
systems for supercomputers; in the decade since Earth
built
upon
Mer
technology.
Simulator supercomputer, all the fastest supercomputers
have used Linux. As of November 2014, 97% of the Mozillas Firefox OS consists of the Linux kernel, a
worlds 500 fastest supercomputers run some variant of hardware abstraction layer, a web standards based runLinux,[90] including the top 80.[91]
time environment and user interface, and an integrated
web browser.[98]

5.4

Smart devices

Canonical has released Ubuntu Touch, its own mobile

operating system that aims to bring convergence to the
user experience on the operating system and its desktop counterpart, Ubuntu. The operating system also provides a full Ubuntu desktop when connected to an external monitor.[99]

5.5 Embedded devices

See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices
Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux

Android smartphones

Several operating systems for smart devices, such as

smartphones, tablet computers, smart TVs, and in-vehicle
infotainment (IVI) systems, are based on Linux. Major
platforms for such systems include Android, Firefox OS,
Mer and Tizen.
Android has become the dominant mobile operating system for smartphones, during the second quarter of 2013,
79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[92]
Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, and
Android smart TVs and in-vehicle infotainment systems
have also appeared in the market.

The Jolla Phone has the Linux-based Sailsh OS

is often used in embedded systems. In the nonmobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority of customer-premises equipment (CPE) hardware
Cell phones and PDAs running Linux on open-source runs some Linux-based operating system. OpenWrt is
platforms became more common from 2007; examples a community driven example upon which many of the
include the Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973, and the OEM rmwares are based.
Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later For example, the popular TiVo digital video recorder
acquired by HP) produced a new Linux-derived operat- also uses a customized Linux,[101] as do several network
ing system, webOS, which is built into its line of Palm rewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco/Linksys.
Pre smartphones.
The Korg OASYS, the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha
Nokia's Maemo, one of the earliest mobile operating systems, was based on Debian.[93] It was later merged with
Intel's Moblin, another Linux-based operating system, to
form MeeGo.[94] The project was later terminated in fa-

Motif XS/Motif XF music workstations,[102] Yamaha

S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers,
Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module, and
Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux

10

USES

5.6 Gaming
Main article: Linux gaming
There had been several games that run on traditional
desktop Linux, and many of which originally written for
desktop OS. However, due to most game developers not
paying attention to such a small market as desktop Linux,
only a few prominent games have been available for desktop Linux. On the other hand, as a popular mobile platform, Android has gained much developer interest and
there are many games available for Android.
In-car entertainment system of the Tesla Model S is based on
Ubuntu[100]

On 14 February 2013, Valve released a Linux version of Steam, a popular game distribution platform on
PC.[104] Many Steam games were ported to Linux.[105]
On 13 December 2013, Valve released SteamOS, a gaming oriented OS based on Debian, for beta testing, and
has plans to ship Steam Machines as a gaming and
entertainment platform.[106] Valve has also developed
VOGL, an OpenGL debugger intended to aid video game
development,[107] as well as porting its Source game engine to desktop Linux.[108] As a result of Valves eort,
several prominent games such as DotA 2, Team Fortress
2, Portal, Portal 2 and Left 4 Dead 2 are now natively
available on desktop Linux.
On 31 July 2013, Nvidia released Shield as an attempt to
use Android as a specialized gaming platform.[109]

5.7 Specialized uses

Due to the exibility, customizability and free and opensource nature of Linux, it becomes possible to highly tune
Linux for a specic purpose. There are two main methods for creating a specialized Linux distribution: building
from scratch or from a general-purpose distribution as a
base. The distributions often used for this purpose include Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu (which is itself based on
Debian), Arch Linux, Gentoo, and Slackware. In contrast, Linux distributions built from scratch do not have
general-purpose bases; instead, they focus on the JeOS
philosophy by including only necessary components and
avoiding resource overhead caused by components considered redundant in the distributions use cases.
5.7.1 Home theater PC

Nokia X, a smartphone that runs Linux kernel

A home theater PC (HTPC) is a PC that is mainly used as

an entertainment system, especially a Home theater system. It is normally connected to a television, and often
an additional audio system.

OpenELEC, a Linux distribution that incorporates the

media center software Kodi, is an OS tuned specically
for an HTPC. Having been built from the ground up adis also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the hering to the JeOS principle, the OS is very lightweight
WholeHogIII console.[103]
and very suitable for the conned usage range of an

11
HTPC.

5.7.5 Teaching

There are also special editions of Linux distributions

Linux distributions have been created to provide handsthat include the MythTV media center software, such as
on experience with coding and source code to students,
Mythbuntu, a special edition of Ubuntu.
on devices such as the Raspberry Pi. In addition to producing a practical device, the intention is to show students
how things work under the hood.
5.7.2 Digital security
Kali Linux is a Debian-based Linux distribution designed
for digital forensics and penetration testing. It comes preinstalled with several software applications for penetration testing and identifying security exploits.[110]
5.7.3

6 Market share and uptake

Main article: Linux adoption
See also: Usage share of operating systems

System rescue

Many quantitative studies of free/open-source software

focus on topics including market share and reliability,
with numerous studies specically examining Linux.[114]
The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of
servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux
was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[115] Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of
Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom
GParted Live a Debian-based distribution devel- from vendor lock-in.[116][117]
oped by the GParted project.

Linux Live CD sessions have long been used as a tool

for recovering data from a broken computer system and
for repairing the system. Building upon that idea, several Linux distributions tailored for this purpose have
emerged, most of which use GParted as a partition editor,
with additional data recovery and system repair software:

Desktops and laptops According to web server statistics, as of March 2015, the estimated market share
SystemRescueCD a Gentoo-based distribution
of Linux on desktop computers is around 1.5%. In
with support for editing Windows registry.
comparison, Microsoft Windows has a market share
of around 91.5%, while Mac OS covers around
7%.[17]
5.7.4 In space
Parted Magic a commercial Linux distribution.

stats that use the top

SpaceX uses multiple redundant ight computers in a Web servers W3Cook publishes[118]
one
million
Alexa
domains,
which as of May
fault-tolerant design in the Falcon 9 rocket. Each Merlin
2015
estimate
that
96.55%
of
web servers run
engine is controlled by three voting computers, with two
Linux,
1.73%
run
Windows,
and 1.72% run
physical processors per computer that constantly check
[119]
FreeBSD.
W3Techs
publishes
stats that use the
each others operation. Linux is not inherently faulttop
ten
million
Alexa
domains,
which
is updated evtolerant (no operating system is, as it is a function of the
[120]
ery
month
and
as
of
May
2015
estimates
that
whole system including the hardware), but the ight com32.6%
of
web
servers
run
Windows,
with
the
rest
[111]
puter software makes it so for its purpose.
For ex[121]
being
Linux
or
Unix.
IDC's
Q1
2007
report
inibility, commercial o-the-shelf parts and system-wide
dicated
that
Linux
held
12.7%
of
the
overall
server
radiation-tolerant design are used instead of radiation
market at that time;[122] this estimate was based on
hardened parts.[111] As of June 2015, SpaceX has made
the number of Linux servers sold by various compa19 launches of the Falcon 9 since 2010, out of which
nies, and did not include server hardware purchased
18 have successfully delivered their primary payloads
separately that had Linux installed on it later. In
to Earth orbit, including some support missions for the
September 2008, Microsofts CEO Steve Ballmer
International Space Station.
stated that 60% of web servers ran Linux, versus
In addition, Windows was used as an operating system
40% that ran Windows Server.[123]
on non-mission critical systemslaptops used on board
the space station, for examplebut it has been replaced Mobile devices Android, which is based on the Linux
with Linux; the rst Linux-powered humanoid robot is
kernel, has become the dominant operating system
also undergoing in-ight testing.[112]
for smartphones. During the second quarter of
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory has used Linux for a number of years to help with projects relating to the construction of unmanned space ight and deep space exploration"; NASA uses Linux in robotics in the Mars rover,
and Ubuntu Linux to save data from satellites.[113]

2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used

Android.[92] Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more than 60%
of tablet sales as of 2013.[124] According to web
server statistics, as of December 2014 Android has a

12

COPYRIGHT, TRADEMARK, AND NAMING

market share of about 46%, with iOS holding 45%, It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all
and the remaining 9% attributed to various niche the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[143]
platforms.[125]
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.[144] UsFilm production For years Linux has been the plat- ing the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that
form of choice in the lm industry. The rst this distribution required about eight thousand man-years
major lm produced on Linux servers was 1997s of development time. According to the study, if all this
Titanic.[126][127] Since then major studios includ- software had been developed by conventional proprietary
ing DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, means, it would have cost about $1.48 billion (2015 US
and Industrial Light & Magic have migrated to dollars) to develop in the United States.[144] Most of the
Linux.[128][129][130] According to the Linux Movies source code (71%) was written in the C programming
Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops language, but many other languages were used, includat large animation and visual eects companies use ing C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran,
Linux.[131]
and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of
all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux
Use in government Linux distributions have also kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the
[144]
gained popularity with various local and national total.
governments. The federal government of Brazil In a later study, the same analysis was performed
is well known for its support for Linux.[132][133] for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in
News of the Russian military creating its own 2007).[145] This distribution contained close to 283 milLinux distribution has also surfaced, and has come lion source lines of code, and the study estimated that it
to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[134] The Indian would have required about seventy three thousand manstate of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating years and cost US$8.16 billion (in 2015 dollars) to dethat all state high schools run Linux on their velop by conventional means.
computers.[135][136] China uses Linux exclusively
as the operating system for its Loongson processor
family to achieve technology independence.[137]
In Spain, some regions have developed their own
Linux distributions, which are widely used in
education and ocial institutions, like gnuLinEx in
Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. France
and Germany have also taken steps toward the
adoption of Linux.[138]

Copyright, trademark, and naming

See also: GNU/Linux naming controversy and SCOLinux controversies

Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public
License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under
this license, must make the originating source code (and
any modications) available to the recipient under the
same terms.[139] Other key components of a typical Linux
distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but
they may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU
Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of
the X Window System uses the MIT License.

The name Linux is also used for a laundry detergent made by

Swiss company Rsch.

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[3] Initially, nobody registered
it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr.
led for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some
aected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[146]
The licensing of the trademark has since been handled
by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he
trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from
using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing
[147]
Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,
favor of oering a free, perpetual
version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[140][141] He specically but later changed this in
[148]
worldwide
sublicense.
dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit
the use of the software in digital rights management.[142] The Free Software Foundation prefers GNU/Linux as the

13
name when referring to the operating system as a whole,
because it considers Linux to be a variant of the GNU
operating system, initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman,
president of the Free Software Foundation.[11][12]
A minority of public gures and software projects other
than Stallman and the Free Software Foundation, notably
Debian (which had been sponsored by the Free Software
Foundation up to 1996[149] ), also use GNU/Linux when
referring to the operating system as a whole.[101][150][151]
Most media and common usage, however, refers to this
family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many
large Linux distributions (for example, SUSE Linux and
Red Hat). As of May 2011, about 8% to 13% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the
range depending on whether GNOME is considered part
of GNU), as determined by counting lines of source code
making up Ubuntus Natty release; meanwhile, about
9% is taken by the Linux kernel.[152]

See also
Comparison of Linux distributions
Comparison of open source and closed source
Comparison of operating systems
Comparison of X Window System desktop environments
Criticism of Linux
Linux Documentation Project

List of games released on Linux

[5] Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing (June 2006).

Linux. Retrieved September 15, 2009.
[6] Safalra (14 April 2007). Pronunciation of 'Linux'".
Safalras Website. Retrieved September 15, 2009.
[7] Conicts between ISO/IEC 9945 (POSIX) and the Linux
Standard Base. opengroup.org. 2003-07-29. Retrieved
2014-04-27.
[8] Eckert, Jason W. (2012). Linux+ Guide to Linux Certication (Third ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 33. ISBN 978-1111541538. Retrieved April 14,
2013. The shared commonality of the kernel is what denes Linux; the diering OSS applications that can interact with the common kernel are what dierentiate Linux
distributions.
[9] Linus Benedict Torvalds (5 October 1991). Free
minix-like kernel sources for 386-AT. Newsgroup:
comp.os.minix. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
[10] What Is Linux: An Overview of the Linux Operating
System. Linux Foundation. April 3, 2009. Retrieved
August 15, 2011.

[13] Barry Levine (26 August 2013). Linux' 22th [sic] Birthday Is Commemorated - Subtly - by Creator. Simpler
Media Group, Inc. Retrieved 10 May 2015. Originally
developed for Intel x86-based PCs, Torvalds hobby has
now been released for more hardware platforms than any
other OS in history.

List of operating systems

Loadable kernel module
Linus Torvalds Possible NSA approach

[14] "NetMarketShare:Mobile/Tablet Operating System Market Share.

Usage share of operating systems

10

[4] Re: How to pronounce Linux?".

Newsgroup:
comp.os.linux.
23 April 1992.
Usenet:
1992Apr23.123216.22024@klaava.Helsinki.FI.
Retrieved January 9, 2007.

[12] Linux and the GNU System. Gnu.org. Retrieved 1

September 2013.

List of Linux distributions

[15] Computerworld, Patrick Thibodeau. IBMs newest

mainframe is all Linux. Retrieved February 22, 2009.

Notes

[1] Linux trademark is owned by Linus Torvalds

ministered by the Linux Mark Institute.

[3] U.S. Reg No: 1916230. United States Patent and

Trademark Oce. Retrieved April 1, 2006.

[11] GNU/Linux FAQ. Gnu.org. Retrieved 1 September

2013.

Linux Foundation

[2] The Linux Kernel Archives: Frequently asked questions. kernel.org. September 2, 2014. Retrieved
September 4, 2015.

[3]

and ad-

References

[1] Linux Online (2008). Linux Logos and Mascots.

Archived from the original on August 15, 2010. Retrieved
August 11, 2009.

[16] Lyons, Daniel (March 15, 2005). Linux rules supercomputers. Forbes. Retrieved February 22, 2007.
[17] Desktop Operating System Market Share. Netmarketshare.com. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
[18] Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols. Chromebook shipments leap
by 67 percent. ZDNet. Retrieved September 29, 2015.
[19] Linux Devices (January 2010). Trolltech rolls complete Linux smartphone stack. Archived from the original on 2012-05-25. Retrieved September 29, 2009.

14

[20] Sony Open Source Code Distribution Service. Sony

Electronics. Retrieved October 8, 2011.
[21] Sharp Liquid Crystal Television Instruction Manual
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[22] IBM (October 2001). Linux Watch (WatchPad)". Retrieved June 18, 2015.
[23] Ritchie, D.M. (October 1984), The UNIX System: The
Evolution of the UNIX Time-sharing System, AT&T Bell
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UNIX was born in 1969 ...
[24] Origins and History of Unix, 19691995. Faqs.org. Retrieved November 9, 2010.
[25] About the GNU Project Initial Announcement.
Gnu.org. 23 June 2008. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
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[28] Linksvayer, Mike (1993). The Choice of a GNU Generation An Interview With Linus Torvalds. Meta magazine. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
[29] MINIX is now available under the BSD license, April 9,
2000, minix1.woodhull.com
[30] Torvalds, Linus. What would you like to see most
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[31] Linus Torvalds (14 October 1992). Chicken and
egg:
How was the rst linux gcc binary created??".
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1992Oct12.100843.26287@klaava.Helsinki.FI.
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[32] Torvalds, Linus (5 January 1992). Release notes for
Linux v0.12. Linux Kernel Archives. Retrieved July 23,
2007. The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple
of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft,
removing the you may not distribute it for money condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed
so that it conrms to GNU pending approval of the
persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances
(I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the
same) mail me. Otherwise The GNU copyleft takes effect since the rst of February. If you do not know the gist
of the GNU copyright read it.
[33] Torvalds, Linus and David Diamond, Just for Fun: The
Story of an Accidental Revolutionary, 2001, ISBN 0-06662072-4
[34] Torvalds, Linus (March 1994).
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12

12
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

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Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0