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FOREWORD
SABARIMANIKANDAN.M AP/AERO
SEMESTER VII
08AH701
UNIT I
ROCKETS SYSTEM
3 0 0 100
10
Ignition System in rockets types of Igniters Igniter Design Considerations Design Consideration of liquid
Rocket Combustion Chamber, Injector Propellant Feed Lines, Valves, Propellant Tanks Outlet and Helium
Pressurized and Turbine feed Systems Propellant Slash and Propellant Hammer Elimination of Geysering
Effect in Missiles Combustion System of Solid Rockets.
UNIT II
13
Airframe Components of Rockets and Missiles Forces Acting on a Missile While Passing Through
Atmosphere Classification of Missiles methods of Describing Aerodynamic Forces and Moments Lateral
Aerodynamic Moment Lateral Damping Moment and Longitudinal Moment of a Rocket lift and Drag
Forces Drag Estimation Body Upwash and Downwash in Missiles Rocket Dispersion Numerical
Problems.
UNIT III
10
One Dimensional and Two Dimensional rocket Motions in Free Space and Homogeneous Gravitational Fields
description of Vertical, Inclined and Gravity Turn Trajectories Determination of range and Altitude Simple
Approximations to Burnout Velocity.
UNIT IV
Rocket Vector Control Methods Thrust determination SITVC Multistaging of rockets Vehicle
Optimization Stage Separation Dynamics Separation Techniques.
UNIT V
TOTAL : 45
Text Books
1.
2.
Sutton, G.P., et al., Rocket Propulsion Elements, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1993.
Mathur, M., and Sharma, R.P., Gas Turbines and Jet and Rocket Propulsion, Standard Publishers,
New Delhi 1998
Reference Books
1.
2.
Cornelisse, J.W., Rocket Propulsion and Space Dynamics, J.W., Freeman & Co. Ltd., London, 1982.
Parket, E.R., Materials for Missiles and Spacecraft, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., 1982.
UNIT-1
ROCKET SYSTEMS
TYPES OF IGNITER:
The types of igniters which are commonly used are,
Gaseous Igniter
Liquid igniter
Solid igniter
GASEOUS IGNITER:
It is the old and primitive type of igniter which is not used now. In this type of igniter
the reactive gaseous mixtures are held in a very thin tube with high pressure. It is hazardous in
nature and reliable. Directional control can be done by using burst dampers.
Example for gaseous igniters is shock tube.
LIQUID IGNITER:
Liquid igniter is of two types. Theyare,
Liquid- Liquid type , which is known as hypergolic igniter
Liquid Solid type, which is known as hybrid igniter
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPERGOLIC LIQUIDS:
OXIDIZER
KEROSINE
RFNA
HYDRAZINE
CHLOROFLUORINE
AMMONIA
OXYGEN
ClO3F
Purity of materials
Initial temperature and pressure.
t = A/
where ,
t = Time
A= Minimum possible ignition delay
E = Temperature coefficient
R = Universal Gas constant
T =Temperature
SOLID ROCKET IGNITER:
Solid rocket igniters are broadly classified as follows,
dvedgeldv
SOLID IGNITER
UNCONFINED IGNITER
NOZZLE IGNITER
TOTALLY CONFINED
IGNITER
FILM IGNITER
BAG
IGNITER
PYROCORE
CONDUCTING
FILM IGNITER
JELLY ROLL
POWDER CAN
IGNITER
BASKET
IGNITER
PYROGEN
ALCO JET
BAG IGNITER:
ADVANTAGES:
It is very easy to fabricate
The cost of production is very low.
DISADVANTAGE:
This particular system is very far from meeting the requirements of modern high performance
rocket motors.
POWDER CANIGNITER:
It consists of a film coated pyrotechnic and a binder. Then the film is rolled over a rod with a
squib support at the front and back. Addition to that a rubber support is given externally. Ignition is
generally started at the squib. In jelly roll the ignition transfers layer by layer. Productive cover is
used to tight the main charge.
ADVANTAGES:
These igniters are nozzle insertables.
They make efficient use of motor fuel volume.
The hardware weight is low.
DISADVANTAGES:
They are very fragile and not suitable for large rocket motor
They are difficult to manufacture and the principle of operation is complex.
They produce high shocks.
UNCONFINED IGNITERS:
Actually they are confined. They are unconfined only relative to others.
FILM IGNITER:
The film igniteris produced by painting an ignitable fuel oxidizer binder mixture directly ontothe
propellant surface. The film normally contains,
Fine metal powder aluminium powder
Per chlorate oxidizer - ammoniumper chlorate
Polymeric binder.
The film can be activated by the conventional pyrotechnic igniter. It permits the use of low
conventional ignition system and has often be used an aid to ignite the systems which handle
materials difficult to ignite.
CONDUCTING FILM IGNITER:
It contains the strips of pyrotechnic material applied directly to the propellant, which can
overlay of circuit leads. It consists of the application of thin strips within the perpendicular overlay of
actuation circuitry. A typical pyrotechnic mixture consists of metal powder,per chlorateoxidizer ,
silver conductor and the polymeric binder. Aluminium foils are used as protective layer of conducting
film igniter.
ADVANTAGES:
These igniters produce low pressure peaks
They make efficient use of space
They are intensive to electromagnetic radiation
DISADVANTAGES:
This system makes available in the wide choice of configuration allowing for some flame pattern
control.
ADVANTAGES:
This igniter is made efficiently strong to withstand environmental conditions.
Proper control of length and port area can furnish a controlled flame pattern and give medium
to fast ignition with low ignition charge.
DISADVANTAGES:
PYROGEN:
A pyrogenigniter consists of small nozzle pressure chamber containing high energy fast
burning rocket propellant usually having a complex geometry.
Essentially it is a rocket motor within a rocket motor. The design is especially used in very
large motor.
ALCOJET:
There are two tubes in this igniter .In the annular space between the two tubes, we have main
charge. Booster charge present inside the tube. The booster charge is first ignited. The ignition passes
through the perforations in the inner wall to the main charge. There are perforations in the outer tube
through which flame comes out. Since there is a control, it is a ballistically controlled igniter.
LIVE IGNITERCOMPONENTS:
The important components of a live igniterare ,
Firing console
Squib
Transfer charge
Booster charge
Main charge
Motor grain
SQUIB :
The squib is the primary element for ignition that affects the conversion of electrical impulse
from the control console to chemical reaction in the rocket motor.
The squib consists of the following parts,
1. INERT COMPONENTS :
Circuit element
Base or body
10
IGNITER DESIGNCONSIDERATION :
The data to be considered while designing an igniterare,
IGNITABILITY BOMB:
The ignitability bomb is a device used to determine the relative ignitability of the propellants at
various pressures under the direct fire of ignition materials.
INJECTORS :
An injector or ejector is a system of admitting the fuel into the combustion engine. Its function is
similar to a carburettor.
PRIMARY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CARBURATOR AND AN INJECTOR:
In an injector the fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under
high pressure while a carburettor relies on suction created by intake air rushing through a venturi to
draw the fuel into the airstream.
FUNCTION OF AN INJECTOR:
The injectors are mainly used to meter the flow of the liquid propellant to the combustion
chamber which causes the liquids to be broken into small droplets. This process is known as
atomization. It also helps to distribute and mix the propellant in a correctly proportionate mixture of
fuel and oxidizer, which results in uniform propellant mass flow.
INJECTION HOLE PATTERNS:
The injectionhole pattern on the face of the injector is closely related to the internal manifolds or feed
passages. These hole patterns provides the distribution of propellant from the injector inlet to all the
injection holes.
11
INJECTORS
IMPINGING
STREAM TYPE
DOUBLETIMPIN
IMPINGING
STREAMPATTERN
TRIPLET
IMPINGIN
GSTREAM
PATTERN
COAXIAL HOLLOW
POST INJECTOR
NON IMPINGING
(or) SHOWER
HEAD
SHEET (or)
SPRAY TYPE
SELF IMPINGING
STREAM PATTERN
STREAM
IMPINGING STREAM PATTERN :
The types of impinging stream pattern are ,
Doublet impinging stream pattern
Triplet impinging stream pattern
Self impinging stream pattern
These impinging stream type multiholes injectors are commonly used with oxygen hydrocarbon and
storable propellants.
In this type of injectors, the propellants are injected through a number of separate holes in
impingement forms thin liquid fans that aids the atomization of liquids into droplets.
Impinging hole injectors are also used like a cell impinging patterns.
The two liquid stream forms like a fan which breaks into droplets. For uneven volume flow the
triplet pattern seems to be more effective.
12
Nonimpinging (or) shower head injector employs non-impinging stream of propellants usually emerge
in normal to the face of the injector.
It releases the fuel and oxidizer on turbulence and diffusion to achieve good mixing.
13
Sheet (or) spray type injectors give cylindrical, conical or other types of spray sheets , these
sprays generally intersect and thereby promote mixing and atomization .
By varying the width of the sheet (through an axially movable sleeve) it is possible to throttle the
flow over a wide range without excessive reduction in the pressure drop.
This type of variable area concentric tube injector was used on the descent engine of the lunar
excursion module.
THE COAXIAL HOLLOW POST INJECTOR:
The coaxial hollow post injector has been used for liquid oxygen and gaseous hydrogen injectors.
It works well when the liquid hydrogen has absorbed heat from cooling jackets and has been
gasified.This gasified hydrogen flows at a high speed of 330m/s.
The liquid oxygen flows far slowly at a speed of 33m/s ,and the differential velocity cause a shear
action which helps to break up the oxygen stream into small droplets .
14
Here L is the length of the cylinder AL/At is the chamber contraction ratio, and Lc is the length of the
conical frustum.
CHAMBER VOLUME - DEFINITION:
The chamber volume is defined as the volume up to the nozzle throat section and it includes
the cylindrical chamber and converging cone frustum of the nozzle.
The volume and shape of a combustion chamber are selected after evaluating various
parameters. Some of them are as follows,
1. The volume has to be large enough for adequate mixing, evaporation and complete
combustion of propellants.
2. Chamber volume varies for different propellants with the time delay necessary to vaporize
and activate the propellants and with the speed of the propellant combination.
3. When the chamber volume is too small, combustion is incomplete and the performance is
poor.
4. With higher chamber pressure or with highly reactive propellants and with injectors that give
improved mixing, a smaller chamber volume is usually permissible.
5. The chamber volume and diameter can influence the cooling requirements. If the chamber
volume and diameter are large, the heat transfer rates to the wall will be reduced, the area
exposed to heat will be large, and the walls are somewhat thicker.
6. All inert components should have a minimum mass. The thrust chamber mass is a function of
the chamber dimensions, chamber pressure, and nozzle area ratio, and the method of cooling.
7. Manufacturing consideration favour simple chamber geometry, such as a cylinder with a
double cone bow tie shaped nozzle, low cost materials and simple fabrication process.
15
/
1 + /
Where,
a = velocity of propagation of pressure pulse
E = Modulus of elasticity of pipeline material
K = Bulk modulus of elasticity of propellant
D =Diameter of propellant feed line
t = wall thickness of feedline
Fig: Propellant hammer in the pipe line due to sudden closure of valve
16
changes in the momentum of the fluid in the feed line is caused by the opening or closing of valves in
the line result in pressure peaks analogous to the propellant hammer ,such situation occurs during the
rocket engine start , during the initial bleed of the rocket engine or rocket engine set down . This
situation fall under two categories.
1. Valve opening
2. Valve closure
17
Liquid dropout will not occur when the liquid surface remains stationary. This problem can be
avoided by contouring the outlet so that the axial component of velocity along a stream line adjacent
to the wall of outlet is equal to the average velocity which is obtained by dividing the flow rate by the
cross sectional area.
18
Vortexing is a phenomenon which is similar to the coriolisforce effects in bath tubs being emptied and
can be augmented if the vehicle spins or rotates during flight.
Typically a series of internal baffles is often used to reduce the magnitude of vortexing in
propellant tanks with modest side acceleration. vortexing can greatly increase the unavailable or
residual propellant , and thus cause a reduction in vehicle performance .
OUTAGE:
The amount of liquid oxidizer or propellant present in the tank at the time of completing the
operation of vehicle is called as an outage.
GEYSERING EFFECT :
The term geysering is applied to the phenomenon which occurs in a liquid propellant
system, a column of liquid in long vertical lines is expelled by the release of bubbles.
If the bubbles will swarm causing the creation of slow moving mass or a single large bubbles
travels at faster velocity causing more and more bubble formation and decrease the column static
pressure rapidly.
19
The pressure surging produced due to geysering can be large and damage the fluid lines, wall
supports and the line supports.
Geysering can be also results from the action of the release of super heat and reduced pressure
boiling in a saturated or superheated liquid column.
PROPELLANT SLOSH:
SLOSH-DEFINITION:
Slosh refers to the movement of liquid inside an object, which is typically undergoing motion.
EXPLANATION:
Sometimes the liquid contains in the propellant tank may oscillate back and forth and this liquid
motion is generally referred as propellant slosh.Propellants slosh generally occurs in space craft tanks,
rockets (especially in upper stages), then cargo slosh in ships and trucks transporting liquids (for
example oil and gasoline)
20
In the missiles the dynamic excitation during the powered flight is strongly offered by the sloshing
motion of the liquids in the tanks.
The associated frequencies during sloshing can be accurately determined for the design of autopilot
because they may be within the autopilot effective control frequency.
The effect of propellant slosh in the structural dynamics of the missile is generally idealized
mathematically based knowledge. The fundamental mode of propellant motion plays a very
significant role inthe study of structural dynamics.
METHOD TO AVIOD PROPELLANT SLOSH:
The propellant is replaced for analytical purposes by a mass mounted within the tank, a frictional
guide which is perpendicular to the tank axis. The motion of the equivalent mass along the guide is
restrained by a mass less spring.
There are several types of slosh suppression devices has been employed successfully to increase the
damping of liquid sloshing induced by vehicle motions. The devices include rigid ring baffles (Of
various geometries and orientation), cruciform baffles, deflectors, flexible flat ring baffle, floating
can, positive expulsion bags and diaphragms. Gel, packed fibres, and foams have been employed in
non space applications, but are not now being used for space vehicles.
21
The gas pressure feed system is quite simple. An inert gas is separately carried at a pressure much
higher than the injection pressure; this is used to exert the required pressure in the propellant tanks.
22
Pressure for injection can also be generated within the propellant tank by introducing a small
quantity of a gas, which reacts exothermally with the propellant, this produces high pressure gas
required to force the propellant into the combustor.
23
The turbines derive the power from the expansion of hot gases .The gases are generated separately by
the gas generator. Figure above depicts a general arrangement of a turbo pump system. In order to
achieve flexibility in choosing the design and operating parameters the fuel and oxidizer pumps can
be separately by their turbines.
The turbine operates on a separate gas stream generated from the propellants in an independent gas
generator. A pressurizing gas can be used to increase the pressure of the propellants at the pump
suctions to avoid cavitation and the resulting instability in pump operation.
Generally turbine speeds are high , therefore propellant pumps can be driven at optimum speeds
through reduction gear with an additional weight penalty. The working gas for the turbine can also be
generated at optimum temperature and pressure. The generator also has its own injection and ignition
systems. The flow of propellants to the gas generator occurs due to the action of pressurizing gases. If
the gas pressurization is not employed to the propellants can be bled from the delivery lines of the
pumps. The propellant flow required for driving the turbines is of the order of 1.5 to 5% of the main
flow. The turbine exhaust is also expanded through an exhaust nozzle to provide an additional thrust.
24
25
Now a days there are two most cooling methods are commonly used. They are, Active cooling system
and Passive cooling system.
26
Regenerative cooling
Film cooling
Transpiration cooling
Dump cooling
REGENERATIVE COOLING:
It is one of the most efficient and sophisticated means of cooling. This method is used in
many of the large rocket engines. The thrust chamber and nozzle wall contains passages through
which one of the propellants, usually the fuel flows. The passages may either formed by a simple,
double wall construction, by composing the thrust chamber and nozzle of a bundle of coolant tubes, or
by milling out the coolant ducts in the wall of the chamber and nozzle. The coolant passing at high
pressures through the ducts then it is injected into the combustion chamber. In some cases, if the
coolant is at a super critical pressure, it is possible to use the absorbed energy to drive a turbo pump
unit before the coolant is injected into the combustion chamber.
The size of the coolant ducts and coolant flow rate are determined by the following considerations:
the total amount of heat absorbed should not raise the bulk temperature to the boiling point, or to such
a level that propellant decomposition takes place, the local heat transfer rate should not exceed the
maximum nucleate boiling heat transfer rate, the pressure in the cooling jacket should not become too
low.
Coolant boiling is accomplished with the formation of large vapor bubbles and a strong decrease in
density and cooling capacity. Moreover, a blockage of the flow may occur. Propellant decomposition
may form deposits on the hot walls of the cooling jacket, thus effectively reducing the conductivity of
the wall, and hence the heat transfer rate.
Local nucleate boiling strongly increases the heat transfer rate, however if film boiling takes place, an
insulating vapor film at the wall reduces the possible heat flexures strongly. If the fluids are at super
critical pressures, neither boiling nor nucleate or film boiling will occur and high heat transfer rates
are possible.
27
Film cooling method is suited when it is used with the combination of other methods
such as regenerative cooling or insulation cooling. Pure film cooling permits a relatively simple
chamber and nozzle design. The coolant is injected along the gas side wall surface by means of
tangential slots. The coolant forms a cool boundary layer between the gas side wall surface and hot
gases. As this boundary layer gradually mixes with the main flow, its temperature rises and
downstream of the slot new coolant has to be injected.
DUMP COOLING:
Dump cooling resembles regenerative cooling, but after having performed its cooling
function, the coolant is dumped overboard at the nozzle exit. Many o the restrictions for
Regenerativecooling also hold for dump cooling. The heated, gasified coolant can be accelerated to
supersonic speeds thus providing a small extra thrust. The method is especially suited for low pressure
engines, using low molecular weight propellants, but yields a performance loss as compared to
regenerative cooling. On the other hand, the construction is simpler as compared to regeneratively
cooled engines.
28
This method is not a real method of cooling by itself; it is mostly used in combination
with other cooling techniques such as, heat sink, radiation and regenerative cooling. A very special
material is pyrolytic graphite. This material has high and low conductivity directions. While the
conductivity parallel to the layer planes is in the order of 2x103 w/m.k, the conductivity perpendicular
to the layer plane is only 5.75w/m.k. this make it is possible to conduct the heat in preferred
directions, and so to avoid the heating of critical parts.
HEAT SINK COOLING:
Heat sink cooling is mostly used in solid rockets. The method consists of applying a piece
of solid material with good conductivity and a high specific heat capacity to certain hot spots. The
heat sink absorbs the heat from the hot gases, thereby raising its own temperature but keeping the wall
relatively cool. This method is only suitable for short duration applications, but is sometimes used in
combination with insulation cooling for small liquid rocket engines.
ABLATIVE COOLING:
Ablative cooling consists of covering hot gas side of the engine wall with a material that decomposes
endo thermally at high temperatures, while forming a insulating char layer. It is often used in
combination with radiation and insulation cooling and chosen for upper stage motors and reaction
control engines for the sake of simplicity. It is also an effective means to keep the temperature of
variable thrust motors within an acceptable range. Regenerative cooling often poses a problem for
variable thrust motors, because of the variable chamber pressure and flow rate. Therefore, ablative
cooling offers a simple and efficient way to keep the engine wall relatively cool.
RADIATION COOLING:
Radiation cooling is often used in upper stage engines and reaction control engines in
combination with insulation and ablative cooling. The hot walls radiate the heat to the surroundings.
29
30
(Typical solid propellant grain configurations and the corresponding thrust-time curves)
BASIC CONCEPTS:
A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain (propellant charge), and
igniter.
The grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing
exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, while
producing thrust from the
exhaust gases.
IGNITION PROCESS:
Solid propellant ignition consist of a series of complex rapid events, which
starts on receipt of a signal and include heat generation, transfer of the heat from the igniter to the
motor grain surface, spreading the flame over the entire burning surface area, filling the chamber free
volume with gas and elevating the chamber pressure without series abnormalities such as over
pressure, combustion oscillation, damaging shock waves, hang fire extinguishment and chuffing.
31
Satisfactory attainment of equilibrium chamber pressure with full gas flow depends on:
32
additional
surface area. As the star points are burned up, the
area and thrust are reduced.
surface
Casing:
The casing may be constructed from a range of materials. Cardboard is used for model
engines. Steel is used for the space shuttle boosters. Filament wound graphite epoxy casings are used
for high performancemotors.
Nozzle:
A Convergent Divergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce
thrust. Sophisticated solid rocket motors use steerable nozzles for rocket control.
Advantages:
Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant
rockets.
High propellant density makes for compact size as well.
These features plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for
military applications.
These features plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for
military applications whenever large amounts of thrust are needed and cost is an issue.
33
Disadvantages:
Relative to liquid fuel rockets, solid fuel rockets have lower specific impulse.
The propellant mass ratios of solid propellant upper stages is usually in the .91 to .93
range which is as good or better than that of most liquid propellant upper stages but
overall performance is less than for liquid stages because of the solids' lower exhaust
velocities.
Solid rockets cannot be throttled in real time.
Solid fuel rockets are intolerant to cracks and voids.
COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
Combustion instability occurs when normal velocity (Vn) is not equal to the combustion velocity or
flame velocity(Vf).
There are 2 types of combustion instability:
1) Set of acoustic resonance, which can occur with any rocket motor.
2) Vortex shedding phenomenon, which only with particular type of propellant grains.
These two types of problems, mainly occurs only when the rocket combustion is not
controlled. It causes excessive pressure vibration forces or excessive heat transfer.
The combustion in liquid rocket is never perfectly smooth, there are some fluctuations
of pressure, temperature, and velocities are present.
ROUGH COMBUSTION:
Rough combustion is defined as the Combustion that gives greater pressure fluctuation at a
chamber wall location whichoccurs at completely random intervals is called rough combustion.
POGO OSCILLATION:
Periodic variations of thrust, caused by combustion instability or longitudinal vibrations of
structures between the tanks and the engines which modulate the propellant flow, are known as "pogo
oscillations" or "pogo", named after the Pogo stick.
Three different types of combustion instabilities occur. Some of them are,
CHUGGING:
Chugging, the first type of combustion instability occurs mostly from the elastic nature of the feed
systems and due to low frequency in the feed system which ranges from 100-400 HZ. This can cause
cyclic variation in thrust, and the effects can vary from merely annoying to actually damaging the
payload or vehicle. Chugging can be minimized by using gas-filled damping tubes on feed lines of
high density propellants.
BUZZING:
This is the intermediate type of instability and its frequency ranges from 400-1000HZ. This can be
caused due to insufficient pressure drop across the injectors. It generally is mostly annoying, rather
34
DETAILED ANSWERS:
1. Classify the different types of igniters with neat sketches.
2. What is an injector? What is the main difference between an injector and a carburettor?
Classify its various types with neat sketches.
3. Distinguish between Helium pressure feed system and centrifugal pump feed system.
Pictorially represent Helium pressure feed system and explain in detail.
4. Elaborately explain the propellant pump feed system with an appropriate sketch.
5. What are the important design considerations in the section of liquid rocket combustion
chamber volume and shape? List and explain them briefly.
6. What is the need for cooling a thrust chamber? What are the different methods of cooling of
thrust chambers? Explain them briefly and draw appropriate sketches wherever necessary.
7. What is propellant slosh? Discuss its effects on flight vehicles and explain how it is
controlled?
8. What are problems generally faced by a designer while designing the liquid propellant tank
outlet design? Explain them briefly
9. Explain the phenomenon, propellant hammer in a liquid propellant rocket engine with an
appropriate sketch.
10. What is geysering effect? When and where does it occur? Explain your answer with a neat
sketch.
11. Define combustion instability and explain briefly about the various types of combustion
instability.
12. Elucidate the combustion mechanism of a solid propellant rocket.
36
UNIT-2
AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES
MID SECTION:
In most missile configurations, the mid section is in cylindrical shape. The shape is advantageous
from the stand points of drag, ease of manufacturing, and the load carrying capability. The zero-lift
drag of a cylindrical body is caused by skin friction force only. At low angle of attack, a very small
amount of normal force is developed on the body, this results from the carryover from the nose
section.
BOAT TAIL:
The tapered portion of the aft section of a body is called the boat tail. The purpose of boat tail is to
decrease the drag of a body which has a squared off base. The mid section has relatively large base
pressure and consequently high drag values because of large base area. By boat tailing the rear
portion of the body, the base area is reduced and thus the base drag is reduced. However, the decrease
in base drag may be partially nullified by the boat tail drag.
FINS:
The purpose of putting fins on the rocket is to provide stability, provide lift and control the flight path
of the missile. The plan form of fins of a rocket is of different types. They are of clipped tip delta,
rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal etc.
39
The modified double wedge has relatively low drag and comparatively stronger than the latter
one.
3. Biconvex:
The biconvex causes considerable drag but it is the strongest of the three designs. The
biconvex shape has a slight advantage in minimum drag for unit cross sectional strength
in addition to the absence of sharp corner. The sharp corners affect the flow conditions
over the surface. The biconvex section also provides larger wedge angles at the leading
and trailing edges.
SUPERSONIC WING PLAN FORMS:
40
(c)
(a) CONVENTIONAL
Canard control
Wing control
Tail control
Unconventional control
41
(c) V-TAIL
Canard control is also quite commonly used, especially on short-range air-to-air missiles.
The primary advantage of canard control is better maneuverability at low angles of attack, but canards
tend to become ineffective at high angles of attack because of flow separation that causes the surfaces
to stall. Since canards are ahead of the centre of gravity, they cause a destabilizing effect and require
large fixed tails to keep the missile stable. These two sets of fins usually provide sufficient lift to
make wings unnecessary.
1. a.SPLIT CANARD:
A further subset of canard control missiles is the split canard. Split canards are a
relatively new development that has found application on the latest generation of short-range
air-to-air missiles. The term split canard refers to the fact that the missile has two sets of
canards in close proximity, usually one immediately behind the other. The first canard is fixed
while the second set is movable.
The advantage of this arrangement is that the first set of canards generates
strong, energetic vortices that increase the speed of the airflow over the second set of canards
making them more effective. In addition, the vortices delay flow separation and allow the
canards to reach higher angles of attack before stalling. This high angle of attack performance
gives the missile much greater maneuverability compared to a missile with single canard
control.
42
Wing control was one of the earliest forms of missile control developed, but it is
becoming less commonly used on today's designs. Most missiles using wing control are longer-range
missiles. The primary advantage of wing control is that the deflections of the wings produce a very
fast response with little motion of the body. This feature results in small seeker tracking error and
allows the missile to remain locked on target even during large maneuvers.
The major disadvantage is that the wings must usually be quite large in order to
generate both sufficient lift and control effectiveness, which makes the missiles rather large overall. In
addition, the wings generate strong vortices that may adversely interact with the tails causing the
missile to roll. This behaviour is known as induced roll, and if the effect is strong enough, the control
system may not be able to compensate.
TAIL CONTROL:
43
The surface of a missile that create a jet exhaust perpendicular to the vehicle surface
and produce an effect similar to thrust Unconventional control systems is a broad category that
includes a number of advanced technologies. Most techniques involve some kind of thrust vectoring.
Thrust vectoring is defined as a method of deflecting the missile exhaust to generate a component of
thrust in a vertical and/or horizontal direction. This additional force points the nose in a new direction
causing the missile to turn. Another technique that is just starting to be introduced is called reaction
jets. Reaction jets are usually small ports in vectoring.
These techniques are most often applied to high off-boresight air-to-air missiles to provide
exceptional maneuverability. The greatest advantage of such controls is that they can function at very
low speeds or in a vacuum where there is little or no airflow to act on conventional fins. The primary
drawback, however, is that they will not function once the fuel supply is exhausted.
Note that most missiles equipped with unconventional controls do not rely on these
controls alone for maneuverability, but only as a supplement to aerodynamic surfaces like canards and
tail fins.
Classification of Missile
Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode,
Range, Propulsion, Warhead and Guidance Systems.
Type:
1. Cruise Missile
2. Ballistic Missile
Launch Mode:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Surface-to-Surface Missile
Surface-to-Air Missile
Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile
Air-to-Air Missile
44
Air-to-Surface Missile
Sea-to-Sea Missile
Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile
Anti-Tank Missile
Range:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Propulsion:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Solid Propulsion
Liquid Propulsion
Hybrid Propulsion
Ramjet
Scramjet
Cryogenic
Warhead:
1. Conventional
2. Strategic
Guidance Systems:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Wire Guidance
Command Guidance
Terrain Comparison Guidance
Terrestrial Guidance
Inertial Guidance
Beam Rider Guidance
Laser Guidance
RF and GPS Reference
(i) Cruise Missile: A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled (till the time of impact)
guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose
primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target. They fly within the
earths atmosphere and use jet engine technology. These vehicles vary greatly in their speed and
ability to penetrate defences.Cruise missiles can be categorised by size, speed (subsonic or
supersonic), range and whether launched from land, air, surface ship or submarine.
Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as:
1) Subsonic cruise missile
45
(iv) Scramjet: Scramjet is an acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. The difference
between scramjet and ramjet is that the combustion takes place at supersonic air velocities
through the engine. It is mechanically simple, but vastly more complex aerodynamically than a
jet engine. Hydrogen is normally the fuel used.
(v) Cryogenic: Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures, most
frequently liquid hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Cryogenic propellants
require special insulated containers and vents which allow gas to escape from the evaporating
liquids. The liquid fuel and oxidizer are pumped from the storage tanks to an expansion chamber
and injected into the combustion chamber where they are mixed and ignited by a flame or spark.
The fuel expands as it burns and the hot exhaust gases are directed out of the nozzle to provide
thrust.
48
(vi) Beam Rider Guidance: The beam rider concept relies on an external ground or ship-based
radar station that transmits a beam of radar energy towards the target. The surface radar tracks
the target and also transmits a guidance beam that adjusts its angle as the target moves across the
sky.
(vii) Laser Guidance: In laser guidance, a laser beam is focused on the target and the laser
beam reflects off the target and gets scattered. The missile has a laser seeker that can detect even
miniscule amount of radiation. The seeker provides the direction of the laser scatters to the
guidance system. The missile is launched towards the target, the seeker looks out for the laser
reflections and the guidance system steers the missile towards the source of laser reflections that
is ultimately the target.
(viii) RF and GPS Reference: RF (Radio Frequency) and GPS (Global Positioning System) are
examples of technologies that are used in missile guidance systems. A missile uses GPS signal
to determine the location of the target. Over the course of its flight, the weapon uses this
information to send commands to control surfaces and adjusts its trajectory. In a RF reference,
the missile uses RF waves to locate the target.
FORCES ACTING ON A MISSIE WHILE PASSING THROUGH ATMOSPHERE:
49
DERIVATION:
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
DRAG ESTIMATION:
The drag of the rocket vehicle can be split into following components,
WAVE DRAG:
Wave is mainly due to the presence of shock waves and dependent on the Mach number.
The wave drag is connected with the shock wave, and hence occurring only at supersonic
speeds.
1. The amount of wave drag for the conical body is estimated as,
Where, is the half wedge angle. Both wave drag coefficients are strongly dependent on
and decrease with increasing Mach numbers.
59
These coefficients are based on the wetted area as a reference area. For most large
rockets, one may assume the boundary layer to be turbulent. Transition from laminar to
turbulent takes place around Re=106 based on body length, so that for small vehicles, still
a major portion of the boundary layer may be laminar. Surface roughness may cause a
transition from laminar to turbulent at lower Reynolds number.
INDUCED DRAG:
Induced drag is a result of the development of lift.
In a subsonic case, the induced drag, based on the projected wing area, Sw, is
BASE DRAG:
Base drag is strongly affected by the shape of the vehicle, and the presence of a jet.
The total drag is found by the addition of all components. It turns out that the total drag
coefficient can be well approximated for preliminary calculations by,
INTERFERENCE DRAG:
Interference drag is due to the interaction of various flow fields.
60
gravity Inaccuracies
Launcher deflection
The thrust force of the rocket engine: because of the tolerance in rocket engine design,
propellant properties, and manufacturing
Thrust and fin misalignments: It is an important source of dispersion in case of unguided
rockets.
Atmospheric disturbances such as wind profile, tail wind, cross wind, and gusts, variation
in atmospheric density.
61
Short answers:
1. What are the airframe components of a missile?
2. Name the different types of nose cones in a missile
3. What are the advantages of ogival fore body?
62
BRIEF ANSWERS:
1. Explain the various airframe components and various aerodynamic controls of a missile.
Draw sketches wherever necessary.
2. Explain the forces acting on a missile while passing through the atmosphere. Elucidate
your answer with a neat sketch.
3. What are the different types of drag which acts on a missile in atmosphere? Clearly
explain what wave drag is. What is its relative importance in the total drag estimation of a
supersonic missile? How is wave drag coefficient estimated for double wedge, modified
double wedge and biconvex profiles of supersonic airfoils?
4. With the help of a neat sketch clearly explain how fins impart stability to a rocket in
flight which is in atmosphere.
5. What are the various wings cross sectional shapes that are generally used for supersonic
missiles? Sketch such shapes and mention their advantages and limitations.
6. With a neat sketch clearly explain the lateral aerodynamic moment of a rocket and briefly
elucidate the variation of lateral aerodynamic moment coefficient variation with angle of
attack. How does thus variation affects the stability of the rocket flight?
7. With a neat sketch clearly explain the longitudinal aerodynamic moment of a rocket.
8. List any four basic aerodynamic design considerations for the development of air to air
missiles. What factors limits the range of such missiles?
9. Classify the various types of missiles.
10. What is rocket dispersion? How it is classified? What are the important factors that cause
dispersion? How it can be minimized?
63
UNIT 3
ROCKET MOTION IN FREE SPACE AND IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
NEWTON'S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every point mass in the
universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (Separately it was
shown that large spherically symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were
concentrated at their centers.) This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by
what Newton called induction.
Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line
intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
where:
64
As we will only consider nominal trajectory, the thrust is assumed to act along the x-axis,
i.e,Fx=Fy=0, while its application point will be assumed to lie on the x axis, ye=ze=0. The thrust F and
aerodynamic force Fa are given by,
65
The gravitational field strength g, and the position vector, Rcm of the centre of mass are resolved into
components along the inertial axes
By using the equation and the relation between the unit vectors in both reference frames,
66
Letting
be the velocity components of the centre of mass along the X and Z axes
respectively, and nothing that the pitch rate q, is related to the pitch angle , by
This instantaneous mass of the rocket follows from the differential equation
The above equations are the complete equations for two dimensional rocket motion. This system of
equations is still rather complicated. The aerodynamic forces are dependent on velocity and position;
the gravitational components are in general dependent on the position, while the thrust is dependent
on the position owing to the atmospheric pressure term. In general, analytic solution of these
equations is not possible.
TSIOLKOVSKY ROCKET EQUATION (OR) IDEAL ROCKET EQUATION (OR)
EQUATION OF OBERTH
The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation, describes the motion of
vehicles that follow the basic principle of a rocket: a device that can apply acceleration to itself (a
thrust) by expelling part of its mass with high speed and move due to the conservation of momentum.
The equation relates the delta-v (the maximum change of speed of the rocket if no other external
forces act) with the effective exhaust velocity and the initial and final mass of a rocket
For any such maneuver (or journey involving a number of such maneuvers):
where:
is the initial total mass, including propellant,
is the final total mass,
is the effective exhaust velocity(
where
is the specific impulse of a
time period and is Standard Gravity),
is delta-v - the maximum change of speed of the vehicle (with no external forces acting),
refers to the natural logarithm function.
This equation was independently derived by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky towards the end of the
19th century and is widely known under his name or as the 'ideal rocket equation'.
Derivation
where
and
Solving yields:
and, using
Assuming
and
or equivalently
or
or
69
where
is the mass fraction (the part of the initial total mass that is spent as reaction mass).
Applicability
The rocket equation captures the essentials of rocket flight physics in a single short equation. It also
holds true for rocket-like reaction vehicles whenever the effective exhaust velocity is constant; and
can be summed or integrated when the effective exhaust velocity varies. It does not apply to non
rocket systems, such as aero braking, gun launches, space elevators, launch loops, and in tether
propulsion.
ROCKET PARAMETERS:
The mass ratio is the very important parameter in determining the ideal velocity of the rocket. Mass
ratio is defined as the ratio between the initial and final mass of the rocket.
Mass ratio = M0/M1
Next to the mass ratio we can also define some of the other dimensionless quantities.
We divide the initial mass (M0) of the rocket into three parts. They are,
1. Payload mass(Mu)
2. Propellant mass(Mp)
3. Structural mass (Mc)
Therefore we also define the initial mass and final mass as,
Initial mass,M0 = Mu+Mp+Mc
Final mass, M1 = Mu +Mc
1. PAYLOAD MASS ():
Payload ratio is defined as the ratio between payload mass to the initial mass of the rocket. It
is defined by the symbol .
70
Propellant ratio is defined as the ratio between useful propellant mass to the initial mass of the
rocket.
3. STRUCTURAL EFFICIENCY ():
Structural efficiency is defined as the ratio of structural mass to the summation of propellant
mass and structural mass. It is denoted by the symbol .
NOTE:
1. Mass ratio , is always larger than 1.But in gravitation less field it is less than 1.
2. The payload ratio, structural efficiency and propellant ratio are always less than 1.
3. In general the range of these parameters for a single stage rocket is,
It can be checked easily that the various parameters are related by,
Apart from the mass parameters, the two other rocket parameters which relate the mass and thrust are,
1. The Specific thrust ():
71
In order to evaluate the above integral we have to know V as a function of time, m=m(t), has
to be known.
For burnout range we have to derive expressions for two different propellant
consumptions.
The first one yields a constant thrust and the second one yields the constant specific
thrust.
There are two cases in case of burn out range. They are,
1. Constant Thrust
2. Constant Specific Thrust
Consequently the instantaneous mass of the rocket during thrusting is given by,
72
IMPULSIVE SHOT:
For a fixed 0 the burning time increases with increasing specific
impulse, and increasing mass ratio.
The burning time decreases if 0 increases, and tb0 if 0.
In that case all the propellant is consumed instantaneously. This is
called an impulsive shot.
The velocity as a function of time is given by (for zero initial velocity)
Substitute the velocity equation in eqn no1, and evaluate the integral which
leads to
Ad using thrust to weight ratio equation, the range can be written as,
Where,
73
We see that the burnout range is proportional to the square of the specific
impulse and inversely proportional to the thrust to weight ratio.
For an impulsive shot sb =0. If the function pb approaches unity.
DIMENSIONLESS ACCELERATION:
It is defined as,
The figure gives the dimensionless burnout range, sb/g0Isp2, as a function of and also
depicts the range as a function of instantaneous mass ratio M0/ (M0-m0t).
CASE 2: CONSTANT SPECIFIC THRUST:
In this case,
74
So
In this case, the specific impulse can be interpreted as a burning time, namely the burning
time of the rocket with mass ratio=e and a constant specific thrust of unity. As the
acceleration is constant and equal to g00, velocity and range are given by
It can be verified easily that, in the case of constant specific thrust, burning time and burnout
range are larger than the corresponding quantities in the case of constant thrust with the same
initial specific thrust.
75
If we choose the X-axis of the inertial system to coincide with the flat earth surface and
the Z-axis vertical, then gx=0 and gz= -g0, where it is assumed that motion takes place near the
surface of the earth. Then the equation of transitional motion become,
76
There are two cases in case of homogeneous gravitational field. They are,
1. Vertical Flight
2. Inclined Flight (or) Constant Pitch Angle
CASE1: VERTICAL FLIGHT:
If during the whole flight =900, and if we have zero initial horizontal velocity, the
trajectory will be straight line parallel to the z-axis. In that case Vz equals to the total
velocity V, and the equation of motion simplifies to
As initial conditions we will choose a zero velocity and altitude at t=0. Equation 1 can be
integrated independently of the mass flow program, leading to
We see that, in order to determine V as a function of time. Even the burn out velocity in this
case is dependent on the thrust program because the burning time depends on it. Again we
will assume a constant thrust, in which case the mass flow is given by,
For this case the burning time is already derived in burn out range derivation. Then we find the
velocity as a function of time
77
CULMINATION TIME:
Maximum altitude is reached at V=0. For 01 this will always occur for t>tb and we find
for the culmination time.
78
Fig: The burnout and culmination altitudes for vertical ascent in a homogeneous
gravitational field and in vacuum
From the figure above there is an optimal thrust to weight ratio, yielding a maximum value of the
burnout altitude. The optimal value of 0 is found by differentiating the expression for hb with respect
to 0 and setting the result equal to zero. Apart from the solution 0, which yields a maximum
burnout altitude, this leads to
79
From burn out range derivation we derive burn out velocity. From that we use burn out
velocity ,
We see that gravity losses increase with increasing pitch angle 0, and increasing burning time
tb.
The flight path angle between the velocity vector and the X-axis and positive if Vz is
positive follows from,
The angle of attack, i.e. the angle between the longitudinal axis of the roc ket and the velocity
vector is given by,
We see that, in general flight path angle and angle of attack will not be constant and the
trajectory will be curved. Only in the case that ln M0/M1 is proportional to the flight path
angle and the angle of attack is constant and the resulting trajectory will be a straight line.
If we consider a constant thrust then the velocity components, the flight path angle and
the angle of attack follows a function of time by substitution of
80
Sub the above in equations Vx, Vy and tan equations. We then find that during powered flight
increases and the trajectory is curved upwards. By taking the limit for t0
Consequently, the angle of attack decreases during powered flight. Its initial value is given
by,
After burnout, decreases and increases. Then the trajectory is curved downwards.
Culmination altitude is reached if =0, or equivalently if Vz=0, leading to,
81
The coordinates for the culmination point are obtained by substitution of t=tc in the above
equations.
Where
It is convenient in this case to use the total velocity V and the flight path angle as dependent
variables instead of Vx and Vz and the summation yields,
The differential equation for is found by multiplication of eqn of motion eqn by Vz and by
Vx and subtract the results we get,
The equations for the gravity turn, in general, cannot be solved analytically. However some
special cases exist which allow for analytical solutions. These are constant specific thrust and
constant pitch rate.
83
If V0 and 0 are initial velocity and initial flight path angle respectively, then the above two
equations can be combined and can be written as,
KICK ANGLE:
In preliminary trajectory calculations the pitch over period is represented mathematically
by an instantaneous rotation of both vehicle and velocity vector over an angle 0, called the
kick angle. The flight path angle then is,
84
The velocity factor and the time factor for the gravity turn with constant specific thrust
in a homogeneous gravitational field
Substitution of V =V(,0,V0) from above two equation and changing to the variable q,
defined as
85
(1)
And the equations of motion become
86
(2)
(3)
Differentiation of equation 2yields,
(4)
Equation (4) can be satisfied either if cos = 0, which means that we have a vertical ascent
with zero pitch rate or if
(5)
By combining the (2) and (4) eqn we see that the specific thrust is determined by,
(6)
As according to eqn (1)
(7)
Eqn (6) can be integrated, leads to
(8)
thus as burnout,
(9)
Which determines b . the burning time follows from
(10)
87
(11)
By using the equations we find
(12)
(or)
(13)
So in this case gravity losses amount to 50% of the ideal velocity. This is the consequence of
low thrust (<2) and the resulting large burning time. The trajectory is obtained by integrating
(14)
(15)
These equations can be also integrated analytically.
SHORT ANSWERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
ANSWER IN DETAIL:
1. State the equations of motion of a rocket
2. Derive the equation of Oberth in terms of ideal velocity and mass ratio of a rocket
(Or)
Derive Tsiolkovsky Rocket equation (or) ideal rocket equation in terms of mass ratio
3. Derive an expression for burnout range in terms of specific impulse, mass ratio and
thrust to weight ratio of a rocket. Assume the rocket develops a constant thrust
4. Derive an expression for the burnout range in case of constant specific thrust
5. Obtain an expression for burnout altitude and culmination altitude attained by a
sounding rocket. Thrust developed by the rocket is constant. Aerodynamic effects can
be neglected. Assume the rocket motion is in homogeneous gravitational field
6. Explain what is homogeneous gravitational field and also obtain an expression for a
rocket in vertical flight
7. A rocket unit undergoes an inclined trajectory with constant pitch angle. The rocket
develops constant thrust and its motion is in a homogeneous gravitational field.
Derive expressions for burnout velocity and burnout altitude and culmination time.
Show that the restical component of velocity is zero at culmination. Neglect the
aerodynamic forces in the derivation
89
1. BOOST PHASE:
The boost phase is the phase of the flight that is powered by a rocket motor. At this phase the
rocket undergoes a constant acceleration to attain its maximum velocity.
The boost phase can be sub divided into,
1. Open loop phase and
2. Closed loop phase (or) guidance phase.
The open loop phase is pre programmed and consists of vertical takeoff, during which the rocket
is rolled such that the thrust vector plane coincides with the desired plane of motion followed by
the subsequent pitch over and gravity.
The closed loop phase consists of computation of steering commands from the vehicles actual
location, velocity and the coordinates of the desired point.
90
JET VANES
JET AVATORS
HINGE/GIMBAL SCHEME
SWIVELLING NOZZLES/MOVABLE NOZZLES
SECONDARY FLUID INJECTION THRUST VECTOR CONTROL(SITVC)
91
Jet vanes are the pairs of heat resistant, aerodynamic wing shaped surfaces submerged in the
exhaust jet of a fixed rocket nozzle. This method is used both in liquid and solid rocket motors.
This was the first method used for controlling the thrust vector. When the vanes deflections
are larger they cause extra drag. In German-V2 four graphite vanes are used.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is a proven technology
2. Low actuation power is needed for this method
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Erosion of jet vanes takes place
2. Thrust loss is of 0.5% to 3%
2. JET AVATORS:
92
It is used in liquid type of rocket motors. In hinge type, the whole engine is pivoted on a
bearing and thus the thrust vector is rotated.
For small angles this scheme has negligible losses in specific impulse and it is used in many
vehicles.
It requires a flexible set of propellant piping (bellows) to allow the propellant to flow from the
tank of the vehicle to the movable engine.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is simple and proven technology.
2. Low torque and low power is needed.
3. Only very small thrust loss.
93
It is used in solid type of rocket motors. Movable nozzles are one of the mechanical types
and are most efficient. They do not significantly reduce thrust or specific impulse and are weight
competitive with other mechanical types.
The movable nozzle consists of a molded multilayer bearing (which acts as a seal), a load
transfer bearing and a visco elastic flexure.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is a proven technology
2. No sliding (or) moving seals
3. Predictable actuation power
DISADVANTAGES:
1. High torque at low temperature is needed
2. Needs continuous load to maintain seal.
94
SIDE INJECTION
The injection of secondary fluid through the wall of the nozzle into the main gas stream has
the effect of forming oblique shocks in the nozzle diverging section. It causes an unsymmetrical
distribution of the main gas flow which produces a side force.
The secondary fluid can be stored in liquid or gas from a separate hot gas generator, a direct bleed
from the chamber, or the injection of a catalyzed monopropellant.
When the deflections are small, this is a low loss scheme, but for large moments (large side
force), the amount of secondary fluid becomes excessive.
This scheme has found application in few large solid propellant rockets such as Titan-III
ADVANTAGES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It is a proven technology
Components are reusable
Light weight and compact
Low actuation power is needed
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Toxic liquids are needed for high performance
2. It requires excessive maintenance
3. Toxic fumes with some propellants may pollute atmosphere.
THRUST TERMINATION:
The engine thrust must be cut off, the instant that proper velocity is achieved to conserve fuel
and or the rocket obtained a desired orbit. The thrust termination in liquid propellant rocket engines is
easily accomplished by closing the fuel valve.
But in solid propellant motors the problem is more difficult. One method to terminate the thrust
in solid motor is the rupture disks, which vent the combustion chamber, reducing the thrust to zero.
95
96
In some solid propellant rocket motors, TMC has been used without varying the throat area by
reducing the mass flow into the chamber. As a result of the reduced mass flow, the chamber pressure
decreases too. This may cause irregular combustion, or even extinguishments. Apart from this, the
exhaust velocity is also lowered. Two possible systems without these adverse effects are the
translating inlet nozzle and the pintle nozzle. Both systems vary the throat to modulate the thrust. The
translating nozzle is primarily designed for two different thrust magnitudes. In the figure port A is
either closed or fully opened. If the port A is closed, the sustain throat is the only way through which
propulsive gases can leave the rocket engine. If port A is opened, an extra boost flow can leave the
combustion chamber and the boost throat acts as a nozzle throat.
The pintle nozzle employs a centre body that can move in an axial direction; thereby
continuously vary in throat area. The central body, which holds the movable pintle, is mounted on the
nozzle inlet. It is of course, possible to combine TVC and TMC to obtain real thrust vector control, i.e
both magnitude and direction of the thrust can be varied.
Another TMC device that should be mentioned in this section is the extendable exit cone. If
during powered flight under expansion losses become unacceptably large, one can increase the thrust
by lengthening the exit cone. This may be done by moving aft an extension to the divergent part of the
nozzle. This concept was planned for the space shuttle engine but has be abandoned to keep the
mechanism simple.
MULTISTAGING OF ROCKETS:
Most modern, high performance rockets particularly those used in space applications are
multistage rockets. The Saturn-V, moon rocket is a perfect example of a multistage vehicle. This
rocket uses three distinct stages in order to send its payload of astronauts and equipments towards the
moon.
REASONS FOR MULTISTAGING:
1. To improve performance by eliminating dead weight during powered flight.
2. To maintain acceleration within reasonable limits by reducing thrust in mid flight.
97
Before entering into the multi staging of rockets we have to distinguish a stage and a sub rocket.
STAGE:
A stage (which is also known as a step), is a complete propulsion unit with motor, propellant feed
system, tanks, propellant together with control equipment, which is discarded completely when all the
propellant of that stage is consumed.
SUB ROCKET:
A sub rocket is a complete rocket vehicle, consisting of one or more stages together with a
payload and the guidance and control system.
MUTISTAGING OF ROCKETS:
The figure above shows a three stage rocket. In this stage we have three stages and three sub
rockets. The first sub-rocket is the complete rocket vehicle. The second sub-rocket is the first sub
rocket minus the first stage. The third sub-rocket, finally, is the second sub rocket minus the second
stage, or equivalently the payload plus the third stage.
In general for a N-stage rocket,
Sub rocket 1
= complete rocket
99
The burn out of the first stage generally occurs within the upper regions of the atmosphere
(i.e) 45km to 60km, to minimize the energy lost due to the aerodynamic forces. The ignition
of the second stage must be done as quickly as possible after the first stage burnout.
There are two techniques of separation are avail within the atmosphere. They are,
a. FIRING IN THE HOLE TECHNIQUE
b. ULLAGE ROCKET TECHNIQUE
a. FIRING IN THE HOLE TECHNIQUE:
Firing in the hole staging is also known as vented inter stage separation or hot
separation.
This technique involves the firing of the upper stage motor before the thrust level of the
lower stage motor has decayed to zero (i.e. before the actual separation takes place).
DRAWBACKS:
1. Care must be taken
2. Adequate ventilation holes are provided in the structure of the lower stage
separation bay to prevent an excessive build up of pressure from the jet efflux
which might cause the rupture of lower stage tanks.
3. In practice even though burnout conditions have been reached, the tanks still
usually consists of unusable propellant, which may cause hazard.
4. There is a risk of tank rupture by direct jet impingement. So the upper surfaces of
the tank should be stronger and hence heavier which imposes additional weight
penalty.
100
DRAW BACK:
1.
Joint rotation
Simultaneity
Reliability
Confinement of debris
Low shock levels
Weight
Cost.
The selected separation system should also meet all the functional requirements viz,
1)
ACTUATOR:
The actuator system as the word indicates actuates the triggering of the separation
event. Thus, there is a delay between actuating the trigger and physical separation. Usually actuators
are either
a)
b)
Electric or
Pyro based.
2)
types;
a)
b)
Ball & lock system consists of upper & lower stages adopter rings held together by steel
balls which in turn are held by a retainer ring. The retainer ring is provided with escape holes for
balls.
In the locked condition, the holes in the retainer ring are given an angular offset. During release,
pyro-thrusters rotate the retainer ring which nullifies the offset. A stopper limits retainer ring
rotation.
Helical compression springs positioned between the flanges impart the required
differential separation velocity.
The lower stage outer ring is provided with through holes for the balls in the locked
condition and the upper stages adapter ring is provided with conical ball seat, the radial component
103
Multistage launch vehicles use clamp band joint for separation of upper stages & payload
fairing. The necessary preload on clamp is given by tensioning two steel band segments placed over
the clamps & connected by two tension bolts & nuts.
In this type of joint the tapered interfaces flanges are held together by a series of
aluminum clamps made of m250 steel circumferentially positioned. These clamps are preloaded
using two steel band segments through two connecting bolts & nuts under tension pyro-cutters
severe the connecting bolts when separation of the joint is required.
.
2. COLLET MECHANISM:
The collect mechanism consists of a collect housing / cylinder with a piston holding the
finger spread out in locked position. The mechanism can carry tensile loads when in locked position.
When gas pressure is introduced in to the cylinder bore it acts on piston causing it to move forward
& allowing the collect fingers to collapse due to their strain energy. This action permits separation
of the vehicle from the spent stages.
The device is capable of resisting high tensile loads and it can withstand the flight dynamic
loads. It withstand a maximum temperature Gradient from 80 K 353 K .This system has to be
protected from excessive aerodynamic Heating using cowlings & it has to be made waterproof for
reliable operation.
This system provides a debris free clean separation.
1.
Explosive Bolt:
In the explosive bolt, the pyro charge is electrically initiated to severe the bolt at notches
provided at separation planes.
2.
Frangible nut:
In frangible nut pyro activation causes the nut to open out and to release the studs engaged in
nut threads.
JETTISONING DEVICES:
These systems have been used to provide the required relative separation velocity to
the separating bodies. Energy required for jettisoning the systems are provide by employing anyone
of the following type of thrusters,
Spring thrusters
Pneumatic thrusters
Rocket thrusters
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SPRING THRUSTERS:
In spring thrusters, springs are packed and compressed to the required energy level. Disc
springs depending or coil springs are employed depending on the jettisoning requirements; high
energies are met with disc springs.
The advantage of spring thrusters is that spring energy characteristics can be evalued prior
to the assembly of the system and once assembled jettisoning spring force is always available for the
function. Thus, separate command is not needed for the actuation and is highly reliable.
To draw back with the spring thrusters is that they are heavier compared to the other types
of jettisoning system. For smaller mass with lower energy requirements spring thrusters is an ideal
choice whereas for large size boosters with higher jettisoning energy requirements their use is not
recommended.
2.
ROCKET THRUSTERS:
Rocket thrusters are used for jettisoning higher diameter massive boosters where the
associated energy requirements are higher. The advantage of the rocket thrusters is that it can store
much higher energy for a given weight of thrusters.
3.
PNEUMATIC THRUSTERS:
In this type, the working medium is pressurized nitrogen gas. These thrusters are light in
weight as the working medium is gas. The energy stored depends on the initial pressure and stroke
length and there for by changing the pressure stored energy also can be varied. The pressure
holding characteristics of the rolling diaphragm and joints is the limiting factor for the stored energy.
Pneumatic thrusters do not require separate command for actuation as the jettisoning force
is always available. I
In pneumatic thrusters design must be simple, relatively steady operation process, less disturbances
no exhaust ports are required and heat insulation is required.
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ANSWER ELABORATELY:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is a Thrust Vector Control? Explain the methods by which TVC can achieved.
Briefly explain what is meant by Thrust Magnitude Control.
Explain the various systems which are employed in stage separation.
What is a multistage rocket? Briefly explain its nomenclature with a neat sketch also explain
its types.
5. Elucidate the various stage separation techniques involved in stage separation dynamics.
6. Elucidate the various stage separation systems which are involved in stage separation
dynamics
7. Explain the optimization of a multistage rocket.
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UNIT-5
MATERIALS FOR ROCKETS AND MISSILES
THE EFFECT OF SPACE ENVIRONMENT ON MATERTIALS:
The space environment presents in several materials problem, not ordinarily experienced
by engineering principles. The energy spectrum of major constitutions of space radiations such that,
any radiation induced changes in materials will be due ti ionisation and excitation processes. The
coupling of these effects near the vacuum environment will produce effects, not necessarily
experienced under separate exposures.
Organic compounds are very susceptible to the ionisation excitation processes and the mutation
is generally proportional to the total energy absorbed. On the other hand metals and most inorganic
compounds are little affected by ionization mechanism. Thus ultra violet radiation in space will affect
mainly unshielded organic compounds. Most of such compounds are black to ultra violet radiation
and therefore damage will be confined to the exposed surfaces only.
In operation within the geomagnetic radiation belt the concentration rates will be high enough to
affect organic compounds adversely. Structural metals however will not be affected to any
appreciable extent by this radiation. Most organic structural materials require large dose of irradiation
before macro changes occur. Therefore they may be protected for years by very light shielding.
In general it can be assumed that a material will be stronger in a vacuum environment does not
affect the structure of the material. The absence of atmosphere is most drastic in the effect of the
fatigue characteristics of the material.
Friction and wear of moving surfaces is both a mechanical and chemical process. Such barriers
are usually reinforced by the physical assistance of a hydro dynamically established and maintained
film of fluid lubricant.
At the low pressures that exist in space liquid lubricants will evaporate. Use of low vapour
pressure fluids can be made for moderate life systems. For high temperatures long life operation
especially under radiation exposure, only solid lubricants become practical. The facing surfaces are
separated by a solid film having a very low vacuum pressure. Sometimes even ball and roller bearings
are subjected to sliding and the films sometimes may wear out. In the hard vacuum of space when the
lubricant film fails the surfaces will become clean and this results in the bearings become rough and
may become static.
AERODYNAMIC HEATING:
DEFINITION:
Aerodynamic heating is a phenomenon due to the result of friction between the rapidly moving
vehicle and the surrounding air. It is a well known phenomenon for re-entry vehicles, but it may also
important for launch vehicles.
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EXPLANATION:
In the ballistic missile the airframe components of the missile experiences high temperature due
to aerodynamic heating. In the case of short range missiles, materials can withstand up to the
temperature limit of 300C. But ballistic missile nose cone has war head, which has to protect. During
re entry, the missile enters the atmosphere at a mach number of 8. At that stage there will be a
boundary layer formation leading to a sharp velocity gradient. So there is a reduction in kinetic energy
from the surface of boundary layer. This kinetic energy of flow has been connected into internal
energy of the flow. This results in rise in temperature of fluid and at surface of nose cone. The
temperature of the fluid is maximum and the heat is transferred from fluid to solid surface. So this
temperature of solid surface depends on free stream Mach number. At very high mach, when
temperature exceeds 800K, molecules start vibrating and separate into atoms at 2000K. At around
700K, even N2 dissociate into charged ions (plasma). So nose cone is surrounded by hot plasma and
there is no transmission. This makes the guidance and control system ineffective.
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CERAMIC MATERIALS:
Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials made from compounds of a
metal and a non metal. Ceramic materials may be crystalline or partly crystalline. They are formed by
the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Clay was one of the earliest materials used to produce ceramics, but many different ceramic
materials now used in domestic, industrial and building products. Ceramics materials tend to be
strong, stiff, brittle, chemically inert, and non conductors of heat and electricity.
TYPES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS:
The types of ceramic materials are,
1. Crystalline ceramics
2. Non crystalline ceramics.
1. CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS:
Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of
processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories - either
make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the
desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include
shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), slip casting,
tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, etc.), injection moulding, dry
pressing, and other variations.
2. NON-CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS:
Non-crystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The
glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like
viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mold. If later heat-treatments cause this glass
to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-ceramic.
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Air-to-surface missile:
For IR homing, quartz or Arsenic trisulphide glass molded to shape or fabricated with stainless steel
heat sink at the tip. For some active homing, fiberglass reinforced resin impregnated RADOME
molded and the warhead would be encased in steel or aluminum alloys.
Fore bodies:
In all cases the structure would be of aluminum alloys or steel.the most commonly used material is
the aluminum alloy.
Rear bodies:
Same as the fore body except that where the rear body consists of propulsion system or its
components like combustion chamber, steel and steel alloys are used. If weight reduction is required
in aft position, magnesium alloy may be used in boat tail section.
Wings and fins:
Normally aluminum alloy plates at required geometric shapes were used. Reinforced fiber glass resin
impregnated composite structures can also be used for this application. In this case metal inserts
would be need for leading edges if the missile speed were high.
Nozzles:
Mostly steel with graphite or molybdenum inserts with or without ceramic coatings were used.
MEDIUM RANGE TACTICAL MISSILE:
Same as for short range tactical missiles except that the greater portion of the structure will be made
of steel. Jettisioning devices, boosters are mainly made of fiberglass reinforced resin impregnated
structures.
Generally aluminum alloy, titanium alloy, stainless steel, inconel, hastalloys, ceramic coatings were
used in medium range tactical missiles.
LONG RANGE MISSILES:
NOSE SECTION:
Inter Continental Ballistic Missile warheads are encased in austenitic stainless steel types of AISI 321
type with ablative coatings. For drag type re entry bodies with payload at electronic equipment are
well insulated and encased in stainless steel or fiberglass reinforced impregnated composite structures
with ablative coatings. In the case of fiberglass reinforced structures, they must be stiffened by a skin
of stainless steel of austenitic type on the inside surface. For glide type re entry bodies like manned
capsules, the construction would be of space structures with materials either stainless steel or
composites with radiation or micro meteoroid shields.
MAIN BODIES:
Generally of austenitic stainless steel of type AISI 347 or AISI 327 with critical parts made of chrome
molybdenum vanadium ferritic steel are used. Sometimes titanium or boron fiber reinforced structures
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What are the factors to be considered for the material selection in rockets?
What are the factors to be considered for the material selection in spacecraft?
What is meant by aerodynamic heating?
What is known as TPS? Give examples.
What is an ablative material and where it can be used in rockets and missiles?
What are the properties and applications of ceramic materials?
Define the term thermal shock.
What are the metallic materials that are used in rocket nozzles
What are the parts of a rocket which are exposed to high temperatures?
What is meant by ablation?
BRIEF ANSWERS:
1. What is aerodynamic heating? Clearly explain how to avoid aerodynamic heating
phenomena?
2. Explain the various metallic materials that can be used for different parts of rockets and
missiles
3. Explain briefly about ceramic materials and explain the applications of such materials in
rockets and missiles.
4. Elaborately explain the term thermal shock
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