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FRACTURES OF STEEL
This issue opens a series of articles devoted to fractures of structural steels. Their publication is expedient for
several reasons. Firstly, analysis of fracture surfaces is an effective and widely used method for evaluating the quality
of steels. Secondly, beginning with the works of D. K. Chernov the kind of fracture has become a feature for studying
the effect of heat treatment on the structure of steels and later for evaluating the effect of test conditions (temperature,
loading rate, and nature of stress state) on the kind of fracture. Thirdly, starting from the second half of the last century
and till today systematic publications on kinds of fracture have been absent in the literature. We associate this fact with
the fundamental nature of the works in this direction published in reference books in the 1930 1960s. At the same
time, the data bank accumulated in the recent decades makes it possible to create a general classification of kinds of
fracture and thus systematize the data on their structure, morphology, and relationship to the structure and mechanical
properties of steel.
UDC 620.184.6:669.14.018.298
The kinds of fracture of standard process samples and impact specimens obtained due to single static or impact bending are classified in accordance with the conditions and causes of their formation. Group I of fractures in this classification is considered, namely, fiber and crystalline fractures of structural steels, their characteristics, conditions and causes of formation, and interrelation with mechanical properties. Every kind of
fracture is illustrated.
INTRODUCTION
Depending on the conditions and causes of formation,
fractures are divided into three groups according to the morphology of their surfaces.
The first group includes all varieties of fiber (ductile)
and crystalline (brittle) fracture the formation of which is
caused by different structures of the metal (Fig. 1).
The second group includes fractures the deviation of the
structure of which from the fiber and crystalline patterns are
caused by inhomogeneity of the structure of the metal.
These deviations are initiated by
chemical microscopic inhomogeneity (dendrite fracture, cleavages in dendrite fracture, slaty fracture, light bands
in fracture);
chemical macroscopic inhomogeneity (white spots in
fracture, black fracture);
action of high temperatures on the metal (naphthalic,
intergranular, spiky, buckwheat, and grain-boundary oxidized fractures).
171
Fractures
of structural steel
group I
Fiber fractures
(ductile)
Dry fiber
fractures
Fiber-streak
fractures
Crystalline fractures
(brittle)
Inhomogeneous
fiber fractures
Fiber fractures
with pits
Coarse-crystal
fractures
Fiber-flake
fractures
Fine-crystal
fractures
Porcelain-like
fractures
Velvet
fractures
Mixed fractures
Mechanical
properties of steel
172
A. A. Ezhov et al.
TABLE 1. (Continued )
Fracture characteristic
Mechanical
properties of steel
Fig. 2. High-density fiber fracture. Rolled steel. The high side tightening indicates a high fracture toughness of the steel. The pattern is
typical for metal produced by remelting (steel 30KhNM, water hardening from 860C, tempering at 650C).
173
TABLE 1. (Continued )
Fracture characteristic
Mechanical
properties of steel
Fiber-flake fracture
The inhomogeneous surface formed in fracture is
characterized by the presence of flakes with smooth
and even surface, which are extended along the direction
of deformation (Fig. 6). The pattern appears on the
surface when the metal fails in a plane parallel to the
rolled surface.
Fig. 6. Fiber-flake fracture. Rolled steel
38KhN3M (hardening from 830C, tempering at 650C).
Surface formed due to
intragrain ductile fracture
with less manifested features
of plastic strain than in fiber
fracture (Figs. 7 and 8).
As distinct from fiber fracture this pattern is accompanied by lower deformation
of grains.
The fracture is lusterless;
its gray color is lighter than
in fiber fracture. The tightening is inconsiderable.
Steels with
dry fiber fracture display
lower plasticity
compared to
thouse with
fiber fracture.
Dry fiber
fracture provides
high structural
strength.
174
A. A. Ezhov et al.
Mechanical
properties of steel
Crystalline fractures
General characteristic
Fracture surface consisting of flat lustrous facets of light-gray color without
features of macroscopic plastic strain
(Figs. 9 and 10).
Is typical for cast and deformed steels.
Appears in cleavage fracture of individual crystallites (grains), which causes
considerable reflectivity of the fracture
and ensures characteristic metallic luster.
Tightening is either absent or very low.
Fig. 10. Crystalline fracture. Rolled steel (grain size Nos. 10 11).
Test temperature ttest = 196C (steel 40KhNM, austenization at
950C).
175
TABLE 2. (Continued )
Fracture characteristic
Fine-grained fracture
Is formed under the following conditions:
Crystalline fracture of steels with grain size correspond excess (above that necessary for full hardenability)
ing to No. 10 and larger. Possesses a hardly visually disalloying of structural steels with enhanced carbon content
cernible crystalline structure.
(over 0.4%) with chromium, manganese, silicon, vanadium,
Is typical for high-strength structural steels tempered
niobium, and titanium;
at low temperature and possessing fine-grained structure
enhanced content of harmful admixtures and hydrogen
in cast and deformed states at enhanced carbon content.
in the metal;
Fine-grained fractures are classified into porcelain-like
too short duration or too low temperature of high-temfracture (Fig. 11) for steels with grain size corresponding
perature tempering;
to Nos. 10 12 and velvet fracture (Fig. 12) for steels
Fine-grained fracture can be prevented by using vacuum
with grain size corresponding to No. 13 and finer.
refining and remelting processes for steels with enhanced
Porcelain-like fracture has a smooth surface of lightcarbon content.
gray color with porcelain-like appearance.
Velvet fracture has a smooth surface of gray color
with dull metallic play reminiscent of velvet.
Mechanical
properties of steel
Steels with
fine-grained
fracture possess diminished ductility
and impact
toughness
at a high
strength level.
Mixed fractures
Fig. 13. Fiber fractures in cast steel with crystalline regions of different shape and location. Steel 25KhN3M
hardened from 850C after tempering at 600C (a) and
630C (b ): a) crystalline regions in the form of individual bands; b ) individual small crystalline regions.