R73-22

DSR 73801
DSR 80004

RALPH M. PARSOLIJS LABORATORY

FOR WATER RESOURCES AND HYDRODYNAMICS

Department of C i v i l Engineering
Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology

THE MECHAiJICS OF SUBMERGED MULTIPORT DIFFUSERS

FOR BUOYANT DISCHARGES I N SHALLOW WATER

Gerhar d J i r k a
and
Donald R. F. Harleman

Report No. 169

March, 1973

r e d mder t h

support

Stone and Webster E n g i n e e r i n g Corporation

Boston, M a s s a c h u s e t t s
'

and

Long I s l a n d L i g h t i n g Company
H i c k s v i l l e , New York
and
N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation
Engineering E n e r g e t i c s Program
Grant No. GK-32472

ABSTRACT
A submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r i s a n e f f e c t i v e device f o r d i s p o s a l
of water c o n t i P n i n g h e a t o r o t h e r d e g r a d a b l e wastes i n t o a n a t u r a l body
of water. A h i g h degree of d i l u t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d and t h e environment a l impact of c o n c e n t r a t e d waste can b e c o n s t r a i n e d t o a small area.

An a n a l y t i c a l and experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s conducted f o r t h e

purpose of developing p r e d i c t i v e methods f o r buoyant d i s c h a r g e s from submerged r n u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s . The f o l l o w i n g p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d :
A m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r w i t h given l e n g t h , n o z z l e s p a c i n g and v e r t i c a l a n g l e
of n o z z l e s is l o c a t e d on t h e bottom of a l a r g e body of water of uniform
depth. The ambient water i s u n s t r a t i f i e d and may b e s t a g n a n t o r have a
uniform c u r r e n t which runs a t an a r b i t r a r y a n g l e t o t h e a x i s of t h e d i f f u s e r . The g e n e r a l c a s e of a d i f f u s e r i n a r b i t r a r y depth of water and
a r b i t r a r y buoyancy i s t r e a t e d . However, emphasis i s p u t on t h e d i f f u s e r
i n s h a l l o w r e c e i v i n g water w i t h low buoyancy, t h e t y p e used f o r d i s c h a r g e
of condenser c o o l i n g w a t e r from thermal power p l a n t s .
A m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r w i l l produce a g e n e r a l three-dimensional
flow f i e l d . Y e t t h e predominantly two-dimensional flow which i s p o s t u l a t e d t o e x i s t i n t h e c e n t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e three-dimensional d i f f u s e r
cad b e a n a l y z e d as a two-dimensional "channel model", t h a t i s a d i f f u s e r
s e c t i o n bounded by w a l l s of f i n i t e l e n g t h and openings a t b o t h ends
i n t o a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r . Matching of t h e s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e f o u r d i s t i n c t
flow r e g i o n s which can b e d i s c e r n e d i n t h e channel model, namely, a
buoyant j e t r e g i o n , a s u r f a c e impingement r e g i o n , an i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c
jump r e g i o n and a s t r a t i f i e d c o u n t e r f l o w r e g i o n , y i e l d s t h e s e r e s u l t s :
The n e a r - f i e l d zone is s t a b l e only f o r a l i m i t e d range of j e t d e n s i m e t r i c
Froude numbers and r e l a t i v e depths. The s t a b i l i t y i s a l s o dependent on
t h e j e t d i s c h a r g e angle. It i s o n l y i n t h i s l i m i t e d range t h a t p r e v i o u s
buoyant j e t models assuming an unbounded r e c e i v i n g water are a p p l i c a b l e
t o p r e d i c t d i l u t i o n s . Outside of t h e parameter range which y i e l d s
s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e d i f f u s e r - i n d u c e d d i l u t i o n s are essenfrictional effects
t i a l l y determined by t h e i n t e r p l a y of two f a c t o r s :
i n t h e f a r - f i e l d and t h e h o r i z o n t a l momentum i n p u t of t h e j e t d i s c h a r g e .
Three f a r - f i e l d flow c o n f i g u r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e , a counter flow system,
a s t a g n a n t wedge system and a v e r t i c a l l y f u l l y mixed flow, which i s t h e
extreme c a s e of s u r f a c e and bottom i n t e r a c t i o n .
A three-dimensional model f o r t h e diffuser-induced flow f i e l d i s
developed. Based on equivalency of f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s , t h e p r e d i c t i o n s
of t h e two-dimensional channel model c a n b e l i n k e d t o t h e three-dimensional d i f f u s e r characteristics. Diffusers with an unstable near-field
produce three-dimensional c i r c u l a t i o n s which l e a d t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n a t
t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e : e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l of t h e s e c i r c u l a t i o n s i s p o s s i b l e
through h o r i z o n t a l nozzle o r i e n t a t i o n .

The diffuser in an ambient cross-current is studied experimentally.

Different extreme regimes of diffuser behaviour can be described. Performance is dependent on the arrangement of the diffuser axis with respect to the crossflow direction.
Experiments are performed in two set-ups, investigating both twodimensional slots and three-dimensional diffusers. Good agreement between
theoretical predictions and experimental results is found.
The results of this study are presented in form of dilution graphs
which can be used for three-dimensional diffuser design or preliminary
design if proper schematization of the ambient geometry is possible.
Design considerations are discussed and examples are given. For more
complicated ambient conditions, hydraulic scale models are necessary.
The results of this study indicate that only undistorted scale models
simulate the correct areal extent of the temperature field and the interaction with currents, but are always somewhat conservative in dilution
prediction. The degree of conservatism can be estimated. Distorted
models are less conservative in predicting near-field dilutions, but
exaggerate the extent of the near-field mixing zone.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This s t u d y w a s supported by Stone and Webster Engineering Corporat i o n , Boston, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , and Long I s l a n d L i g h t i n g Compnay, H i c k s v i l l e ,
New York, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e

system f o r t h e N o r t h p o r t Generating S t a t i o n l o c a t e d on Long I s l a n d

(DSR 73801).

The a u t h o r s wish t o thank Messrs. B. Brodfeld and D. H.

Matchett of Stone and Webster f o r t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n throughout t h e s t u d y .

A d d i t i o n a l funds f o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t w e r e provided by t h e
N a t i o n a l Science Foundation, Engineering E n e r g e t i c s Program, Grant
No. GK-32472 (DSR 80004).

The p r o j e c t o f f i c e r i s D r . Royal E. Rostenbach.

The assistance of graduate s t u d e n t s a n d t h e s t a f f of t h e R. M.

Parsons Laboratory f o r Water Resources and Hydrodynamics i n c a r r y i n g o u t
the experimental program i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

P a r t i c u l a r mention

i s made of M. Watanabe, D. H. Evans, E. E. A d a m s , Graduate Research A s s i s t a n t s ; E. McCaffrey, DSR S t a f f ( I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ) ; R. Milley, Machinist

and S. E l l i s , u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t .

The m a n u s c r i p t w a s typed by

K. Emperor, S. W i l l i a m s and S . Demeris.

The r e s e a r c h work w a s conducted under t h e t e c h n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n

of D. R. F. Harleman, P r o f e s s o r of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g .

The material

contained i n t h i s r e p o r t w a s submitted by G. J i r k a , Research A s s i s t a n t ,

i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e requirement f o r t h e degree of Doctor of
Philosophy a t M. I. T.

FOREWORD

The r e s e a r c h c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s r e p o r t i s p a r t of a continuing
r e s e a r c h e f f o r t by t h e Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory f o r Water Resources
and Hydrodynamics on t h e e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s of w a s t e h e a t d i s p o s a l from
e l e c t r i c power g e n e r a t i o n by means of submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s .

The

g u i d i n g o b j e c t i v e of t h e r e s e a r c h program i s t h e development of predict i v e m o d e l s f o r d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e which form t h e b a s i s of sound engineeri n g design compatible w i t h environmental requirements.

I n addition,

s i t e - r e l a t e d s t u d i e s concerned w i t h optimized d i f f u s e r d e s i g n under

s p e c i f i c ambient c o n d i t i o n s are conducted.
Previous r e p o r t s r e l a t e d t o submerged d i f f u s e r s t u d i e s are:
11

Thermal D i f f u s i o n of c o n d e n s e r Water i n a River During Steady and

Unsteady Flows" by Harleman, D. R. F., H a l l , L. C . and C u r t i s , T. G.,
M.I.T. Hydrodynamics L a b o r a t o r y Technical Report No. 111, September 1968.
11

A Study of Submerged M u l t i - p o r t D i f f u s e r s f o r Condenser Water Discharge

w i t h Application t o t h e Shoreham Nuclear Power S t a t i o n " by Harleman,
D. R. F., Jirka, G. and Stolzenbach, K. D., M.I.T. P a r s o n s Laboratory
f o r Water Resources and Hydrodynamics T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t No. 139, August
1971.
11

I n v e s t i g a t i o n of a Submerged, S l o t t e d P i p e D i f f u s e r f o r Condenser Water

Discharge from t h e Canal P l a n t , Cape Cod Canal" by H a r l e m a n , D . R. F.,
J i r k a , G., Adams, E. E. and Watanabe, M., M.I.T. Parsons Laboratory f o r
Water Resources and Hydrodynamics T e c h n i c a l Report No. 141, October 1971.
"Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n of Submerged M u l t i p o r t D i f f u s e r s f o r Condens e r Water Discharge w i t h A p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e Northport E l e c t r i c Generation
S t a t i o n " by Harleman, D. R. F., Jirka, G. and Evans, D. H . , M.I.T. Parsons
Laboratory f o r Water Resources and Hydrodynamics, T e c h n i c a l Report No. 165,
February 1973.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I.

11.

INTRODUCTION

11

1.1 Historical Perspective

12

1.2

Basic Features of Multiport Diffusers

for Buoyant Discharges

13

1.3

Objectives of this Study

15

1.4 Summary of the Present Work

17

CRITICAL REVIEW OF PREVIOUS PREDICTIVE MODELS FOR

SUBMERGED MULTIPORT DIFFUSERS

19

2.1

Investigations of Buoyant Jets

19

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4

19
21
26
29

2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.2

2.3

111.

General Characteristics
Round Buoyant Jets
Slot Buoyant Jets
Lateral Interference of Round Buoyant
Jets
Effect of the Free Surface
Effect of Ambient Density Stratification
Effect of Crossflow

37
38
38

One-Dimensional Average Models for Horizontal

Diffuser Discharge into Shallow Water

39

2.2.1
2.2.2

39
42

The Two-Dimensional Channel Case

The Three-Dimensional Case

Appraisal of Previous Knowledge About the

Characteristics of a Multiport Diffuser

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

TWO-DDIENSIONAL CHANNEL MODEL

46
50

50

3.1 Basic Approach

3.2

Problem Definition; Two-Dimensional Channel Model 53

3.3

Solution Method

3.4

Dominant Flow Regions

55

59

J'

Page
3.4.1

Buoyant Jet Region

3.4.1.1
3.4.1.2

3.4.1.3
3.4.1.4
3.4.2

3.4.3

3.4.4

72
75

3.4.2.1
3.4.2.2
3.4.2.3

89

General Solution
Special Cases
Vertical Flow Distribution
Prior to the Hydraulic Jump

81
93

Hydraulic Jump Region

95

3.4.3.1
3.4.3.2

95

General Solution
Solution for Jumps with Low
Velocities and Weak Buoyancy

Stratified Counterflow Region

3.4.4.3
3.4.4.4

Approximations and Governing

Equations
Simplified Equations, Neglecting Surface Heat Loss and
Interfacial Mixing
Head Loss in Stratified Flow
Special Cases

98

102
102
109
117
120

Mafchfng of Solutions

124

3.5.1

124

Governing Mon-Dimensional Parameters

Theoretical Predictions: Diffusers with no Net

Horizontal MomcDtum
3.6.1
3.6.2

3.7

67

81

3.4.4.2

3.6

59

Surface Impingement Region

3.4.4.1

3.5

Approximations and Governing

Equations
Dependence of the Entrainment
on Local Jet Characteristics
Initial Conditions: Zone of
Flow Establishment
Solution of the Equations

59

127

The Near-Field Zone

The Far-Field Zone

127
131

3.6.2.1
3.6.2.2
3.6.2.3

131
134
134

Interaction with Near-Field

Interfacbl Friction Factor
Solution Graphs

Theoretical Predictions: Diffusers with Net

Horizontal Momentum
7

140

3.7.1
3.7.2

3.8

IV

The Near-Field Zone

The Far-Field Zone

141
141

3.7.2.1
3.7.2.2
3.7.2.3

141
145
147

Summary

148

THREE-DIMENSIONAL ASPECTS OF THE DIFFUSER INDUCED

FLOW FIELD
4.1

Relating the Two-Dimensional Channel Model

to the Three-Dimensional Flow Field

4.1.1

4.1.2
4.2

158
15a

4.1.1.1
4.1.1.2

158
162

Equivalency Requirements
Model for the Three-Dimensional
Flow Distribution

Diffusers with Net Horizontal Momentum

169
169

Diffusers with No Net Horizontal Momentum 170

4.2.1.1
4.2.1.2

4.2.2

157

Diffusers with No Net Horizontal

Momentum

Diffuser Induced Horizontal Circulations

4.2.1

v.

Possible Flow Conditions

Solution Bethod
Solution Graphs

Generating Mechanism
Control Methods

170
163

Diffusers with Net Horizontal Momentum

177

4.2.2.1
4.2.2.2

177
179

Generating Mechanism
Control Methods

EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES

180

5.1

Basic Considerations for Diffuser Experiments

180

5.1.1
5.1.2

180
183

5.2

Experimental Program
Experimental Limitations

The Flume Set-Up

185

5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4

185
190
190
191

Equipment
Experimental Procedure
Experimental Runs
Data Reduction
8

Page

5.3

The Basin Set-Up

192

5.3.1
5.3.2

192
198
199

5.3.3
5.3.4
5.4

6.1

6.2

6.3

COMPARISON

200
202

Diffusers with No Net Horizontal Momentum

202

6.1.1
6.1.2

202
205

Two-Dimensional Flume Experiments

Three-Dimensional Basin Experiments

Diffusers with Net Horizontal Momentum

216

6.2.1
6.2.2

Two-Dimensional Flume Experiments

Three-Dimensional Basin Experiments

216
218

Conclusions: Diffusers Without Ambient Crossflow

229

DIFFUSERS IN AMBIENT CROSSFLOW:

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

232

7.1

Basic Considerations

232

7.2

Method of Analysis

233

7.3

Flume Experiments:

7.4

Three-Dimensional Basin Experiments

243

7.4.1
7.4.2

243
248

7.5
VIII.

199

Experiments by Other Investigators

DIFFUSERS WITHOUT AMBIENT CROSSFLOW:

OF THEORY AM, FXPERIMENTS

VI.

VII

Equipment
Experimental Procedure
Experimental Runs
Data Reduction

Perpendicular Diffuser

Diffusers with No Net Horizontal Momentum

Diffusers with Net Horizontal Momentum

Conclusions: Diffusers with Ambient Crossflow

237

256

APPLICATION OF RESULTS TO DESIGN ANTI HYDRAULIC

SCALE MODELING OF SUBMERGED MULTIPORT DIFFUSERS

260

8.1 Site Characteristics

26 1

8.2

Diffuser Design for Dilution Requirement

263

8.2.1
8.2.2

263
265

Glossary of Design Parameters

Design Objectives

Page
8.2.3

Design Procedure
8.2.3.1
8.2.3.2

8.3

IX

Example: Diffuser in a
Reversing Tidal Current System
Example: Diffuser in a Steady
Uniform Current

267
268
276

The Use of Hydraulic Scale Models

27 9

8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4

280
283
284
287

Modeling Requirements
Undistorted Models
Distorted Models
Boundary Control

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

288

9.1 Background

288

9.2

Previous Predictive Techniques

289

9.3

Summary

289

9.3.1
9.3.2

289
294

Diffusers Without Ambient Crossflow

Diffusers With Ambient Crossflow

9.4

Conclusions

295

9.5

Recommendations for Future Research

298

LIST OF REFERENCES

300

LIST OF F I G W S

303

LIST OF TABLES

308

GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS

309

10

I.

INTRODUCTION

In managing the waste water which accrues as a result of man's

domestic and industrial activities different methods of treatment, recycling and disposal are used.

The choice of a specific scheme of waste

water management is determined by economic and engineering considerations,

such as costs and available technology, and by considerations of environmental quality, each scheme having a certain impact on the natural environment.

In many instances the discharge of water containing heat or other

degradable wastes into a natural body of water is a viable economic and
engineering solution.

"Water quality standards'' have been established

to regulate the adverse effects of such discharges on the receiving

water.

These standards are based on existing scientific knowledge of

the biological, chemical and physical processes which occur in response

to the waste water discharge.

The standards have the objective of pre-

serving or enhancing the use of the natural water body for a variety of
human needs.
A common feature of all water quality standards, as set forth by

various legal authorities, is a high dilution requirement: Within a

limited mixing zone the waste water has to be thoroughly mixed with the
receiving water.

The purpose of this requirement is to constrain the

impact of concentrated waste water to a small area.

It is against this background that the increasing application of

submerged multiport diffusers as an effective device for disposal of
waste water must be understood.

A submerged multiport diffuser is

essentially a pipeline laid on the bottom of the receiving water.

11

The

waste water i s d i s c h a r g e d i n t h e form of round t u r b u l e n t j e t s through

p o r t s o r n o z z l e s which are spaced a l o n g t h e p i p e l i n e .

The r e s u l t i n g d i s -

t r i b u t i o n of c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e d i s c h a r g e d w a s t e materials w i t h i n t h e
r e c e i v i n g w a t e r depends on a v a r i e t y of p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

A clear

understanding of t h e s e processes i s needed s o t h a t p r e d i c t i v e models c a n

be developed which form t h e b a s i s of a sound e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n .

1.1 H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

F o r several decades many c o a s t a l c i t i e s have u t i l i z e d submerged

m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s f o r t h e d i s c h a r g e of m u n i c i p a l sewage w a t e r .
worthy a s p e c t s of t h e s e "sewage d i f f u s e r s ' ' are:

Note-

1 ) Water q u a l i t y s t a n -

dards d i c t a t e d i l u t i o n requirements i n t h e o r d e r of 100 and h i g h e r when

sewage w a t e r i s d i s c h a r g e d .

A s a consequence t h e s e d i f f u s e r s are l i m i t e d

t o f a i r l y deep w a t e r (more t h a n 100 f e e t deep).

2 ) The buoyancy of t h e

The relative d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e between

d i s c h a r g e d water i s s i g n i f i c a n t .

sewage water and ocean water i s a b o u t 2.5%.

Only i n v e r y r e c e n t y e a r s have m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s found a p p l i c a t i o n f o r t h e d i s c h a r g e of heated condenser c o o l i n g water from t h e r m a l
power p l a n t s .

The main impetus h a s come from t h e implementation of

Depending on the water q u a l i t y classi-

s t r i n g e n t temperature standards.

f i c a t i o n of t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r and on t h e c o o l i n g water t e m p e r a t u r e rise

d i l u t i o n s between about 5 and 20 are r e q u i r e d w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d mixing

area.

T h i s d i l u t i o n requirement f r e q u e n t l y r u l e s o u t r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e

d i s p o s a l schemes, such as d i s c h a r g e by means of a s u r f a c e c a n a l o r a

s i n g l e submerged p i p e .

On t h e o t h e r hand, m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s can b e

placed i n r e l a t i v e l y shallow water ( c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n 100 f t . deep)

and s t i l l a t t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d d i l u t i o n s .

12

The economic advantage i n

keeping t h e conveyance d i s t a n c e from t h e s h o r e l i n e s h o r t might b e subs t a n t i a l , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n l a k e s , e s t u a r i e s o r c o a s t a l waters w i t h extended s h a l l o w n e a r s h o r e zones.

acteristics:

"Thermal d i f f u s e r s " have t h e s e char-

1) They may b e l o c a t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y shallow water.

buoyancy of t h e d i s c h a r g e d water i s low.

2) The

Relative d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s

are i n the o r d e r of 0.3% corresponding t o a t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l of

about 20"F, an a v e r a g e v a l u e f o r t h e r m a l power p l a n t s .
Due t o t h e s e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s , r e g a r d i n g depth of t h e re-

c e i v i n g w a t e r and buoyancy of t h e d i s c h a r g e , t h e r e i s a pronounced

d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e mechanics of "sewage d i f f u s e r s " and "thermal d i f f u s e r s " .
Consequently, p r e d i c t i v e models which have been e s t a b l i s h e d and v e r i f i e d
f o r t h e class of "sewage d i f f u s e r s " f a i l t o g i v e c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n s
when a p p l i e d f o r t h e class of "thermal d i f f u s e r s " .
1.2

Basic F e a t u r e s of M u l t i p o r t D i f f u s e r s f o r Buoyant Discharges

The performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r , t h a t i s
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of v e l o c i t i e s , d e n s i t i e s and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which
r e s u l t when t h e d i f f u s e r is o p e r a t i n g , are i n f l u e n c e d by many p h y s i c a l
processes.

-- d i v i d e d
I1

These p r o c e s s e s may be c o n v e n i e n t l y

-- y e t

somewhat l o o s e l y

i n t o two groups.

Near-field"

p r o c e s s e s are d i r e c t l y governed by t h e geometric,

dynamic and buoyant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i f f u s e r i t s e l f and of t h e

ambient w a t e r i n t h e immediate d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y .

are:

Significant features

T u r b u l e n t j e t d i f f u s i o n produces a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n j e t t h i c k -

n e s s ( " j e t spreading") and a simultaneous r e d u c t i o n of v e l o c i t i e s and

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e j e t s through e n t r a i n m e n t of ambient w a t e r .

The

t r a j e c t o r y of t h e j e t s i s determined by t h e i n i t i a l a n g l e and by i n f l u e n c e

13

of buoyancy c a u s i n g a r i s e towards t h e s u r f a c e .

Before s u r f a c i n g t h e

j e t s p r e a d i n g becomes s o l a r g e t h a t l a t e r a l i n t e r f e r e n c e between a d j a -

cent j e t s forms a two-dimensional

jet along t h e d i f f u s e r line.

Upon

impingement on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r t h e j e t i s transformed
i n t o a h o r i z o n t a l l y moving buoyant l a y e r .
c r u c i a l importance.

S t a b i l i t y of t h i s l a y e r i s of

I n s t a b i l i t i e s r e s u l t i n re-entrainment of a l r e a d y

mixed water i n t o t h e j e t d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s .

I n addition t o these b a s i c

processes, ambient c o n d i t i o n s such as c r o s s - c u r r e n t s and e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l

d e n s i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n can have a s t r o n g e f f e c t on t h e n e a r - f i e l d .
11

Far-field''

p r o c e s s e s i n f l u e n c e t h e motion and d i s t r i b u t i o n of

mixed w a t e r away from t h e n e a r - f i e l d zone.

The mixed water i s d r i v e n

by i t s buoyancy a g a i n s t i n t e r f a c i a l f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e as d e n s i t y
c u r r e n t s , t h u s a flow away from t h e d i f f u s e r i s g e n e r a t e d .

Conversely,

a flow toward t h e d i f f u s e r a g a i n s t i n t e r f a c i a l and bottom f r i c t i o n i s

s e t up as t h e t u r b u l e n t e n t r a i n m e n t i n t o t h e j e t s acts l i k e a s i n k f o r
ambient water.

Furthermore t h e convection of t h e mixed water by ambient

c u r r e n t s and t h e d i f f u s i o n by ambient t u r b u l e n c e and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n

r e d u c t i o n through time-dependent decay p r o c e s s e s may b e important processes.
The e f f i c i e n c y of t h e n e a r - f i e l d p r o c e s s e s ( n o t a b l y j e t mixing)
i n reducing t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t h e d i s c h a r g e d water i s dominant o v e r
f a r - f i e l d p r o c e s s e s which u s u a l l y act o v e r a l o n g e r t i m e scale.

How-

ever, t h e r e i s a c o u p l i n g between n e a r and f a r - f i e l d p r o c e s s e s , nearf i e l d p r o c e s s e s a f f e c t i n g t h e f a r - f i e l d and v i c e versa.

Thus i n g e n e r a l ,

a t o t a l p r e d i c t i o n of t h e performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a r n u l t i p o r t
d i f f u s e r must i n c l u d e t h i s coupling.

14

Y e t i n s p e c i a l cases t h e c o u p l i n g e f f e c t may b e s o weak t h a t t h e

n e a r - f i e l d p r o c e s s e s may b e assumed n o t t o b e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e f a r - f i e l d .
D i f f u s e r s i n deep water w i t h high buoyancy of t h e d i s c h a r g e ("sewage
diffusers") f a l l i n t o t h i s category.

These d i f f u s e r s produce a s t a b l e

s u r f a c e l a y e r which moves away from t h e d i f f u s e r as a d e n s i t y c u r r e n t .

Near-field d i l u t i o n s a r e t h e n p r i m a r i l y caused by j e t entrainment and
t h e d i f f u s e r c a n b e analyzed as a series o f round i n t e r a c t i n g j e t s i n
i n f i n i t e water.

T h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h e b a s i s o f most e x i s t i n g p r e d i c t i v e

models f o r d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e s .
On t h e o t h e r hand, d i f f u s e r s i n s h a l l o w water w i t h low buoyancy
("thermal d i f f u s e r s " ) may n o t c r e a t e a s t a b l e s u r f a c e l a y e r .

Subsequent-

l y , a l r e a d y mixed w a t e r g e t s r e - e n t r a i n e d i n t o t h e j e t s t o such a d e g r e e
t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e d buoyancy f o r c e of t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r i s s u f f i c i e n t t o
overcome t h e f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s i n t h e f a r - f i e l d .
composite a n a l y s i s o f n e a r - f i e l d

Hence i n t h i s c a s e a

and f a r - f i e l d must b e undertaken i n

developing p r e d i c t i v e models.
T h i s c o n t r a s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two t y p e s of d i f f u s e r s

i s q u a l i t a t i v e l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1-1.

Examples are shown f o r ver-

t i c a l and n o n - v e r t i c a l d i s c h a r g e s w i t h o u t ambient c u r r e n t s .

As a n ex-

treme case of t h e n o n - v e r t i c a l d i s c h a r g e i n s h a l l o w water a uni-direct i o n a l flow of ambient water toward t h e d i f f u s e r and of mixed water away
from t h e d i f f u s e r i s e s t a b l i s h e d ( s e e F i g u r e 1 - l d ) .

1.3

O b j e c t i v e s of t h i s Study
T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s concerned w i t h t h e development of p r e d i c t i v e

methods f o r buoyant d i s c h a r g e s from submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s .

following p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n i s considered:

15

The

A multiport diffuser with

L
'

-e

L-

Q)

3".
d

16

given l e n g t h , n o z z l e s p a c i n g and v e r t i c a l a n g l e of n o z z l e s i s l o c a t e d on
t h e bottom of a l a r g e body of water of uniform d e p t h .

The ambient water

i s u n s t r a t i f i e d and may b e s t a g n a n t o r have a uniform c u r r e n t which runs

a t an a r b i t r a r y a n g l e t o the axis of t h e d i f f u s e r .
A l l of t h e n e a r - f i e l d p r o c e s s e s b u t o n l y p a r t of t h e f a r - f i e l d
p r o c e s s e s (excluding e f f e c t s of ambient t u r b u l e n c e and decay p r o c e s s e s )
a r e taken i n t o account.
. This s t u d y a d d r e s s e s t h e g e n e r a l case of a d i f f u s e r i n a r b i t r a r y

depth of water and a r b i t r a r y buoyancy.

However, s p e c i a l emphasis i s p u t

on t h e d i f f u s e r i n s h a l l o w r e c e i v i n g water w i t h low buoyancy, t h e type

f r e q u e n t l y used f o r d i s c h a r g e of condenser c o o l i n g water from thermal
power p l a n t s .

The s t u d y i s

not concerned w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c s

of t h e d i f f u s e r p i p e (manifold d e s i g n problem).
A p p l i c a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s a n t i c i p a t e d
f o r various aspects :

-- Economical d e s i g n o f t h e d i f f u s e r s t r u c t u r e .
-- Design t o m e e t s p e c i f i c water q u a l i t y requirements.

-- E v a l u a t i o n

of t h e impact i n r e g i o n s away from t h e d i f f u s e r ,

such as t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t o t h e c o o l i n g

water i n t a k e of thermal power p l a n t s .

-- Design
1.4

and o p e r a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c scale models.

Summary of the P r e s e n t Work

An a n a l y t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s conducted.
I n Chapter 2 a c r i t i c a l review of e x i s t i n g p r e d i c t i o n techniques
f o r m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s i s given.
Chapter 3 p r e s e n t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r t h e s t u d y of

17
I

diffusers without ambient crossflow:

Recognizing the predominantly two-

dimensional flow pattern which prevails in the centerportion of a diffuser, predictive models are developed for a two-dimensional'khannel
model", i.e. a diffuser section is bounded laterally by walls of finite
length. This conceptualization allows the analysis of vertical and
longitudinal variations of the diffuser-induced flow field.
Chapter 4 discusses three-dimensional aspects of diffuser discharge.

Through a quantitative analysis regarding far-field effects

(frictional resistance in the flow away zone) the length of the twodimensional channel model is linked t o the three-dimensional diffuser
length.

Thus the theoretical predictions developed for the two-dimen-

sional channel model become applicable to the general three-dimensional

case.

Chapter 4 also discusses the control of horizontal circulations

induced by the diffuser action.

The experimental facilities and procedures are described in
Chapter 5.

Experiments were performed both on two-dimensional models

("channel models") and three-dimensional models.

In Chapter 6 experimental results for diffusers without ambient
crossflow are reported and compared to theoretical predictions.
The effect of a uniform ambient crossflow on diffuser performance
is studied in Chapter 7.

This part is mainly experimental; however,

limiting cases of crossflow influence are discussed theoretically.

Diffuser arrangements with the diffuser axis either perpendicular or
parallel to the crossflow direction were tested.
The application of the results to practical problems of diffuser
design and operation of hydraulic scale models is discussed in Chapter 8.

18

11- C R I T I C &

REVIEW O F PREVIOUS PREDICTIVE MODELS FOR

SUBMERGED MULTIPORT DIFFUSERS

E x i s t i n g p r e d i c t i v e techniques f o r the a n a l y s i s of submerged
m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s f a l l i n t o two r e s t r i c t e d groups:

F i r s t , buoyant j e t

models d e s c r i b e t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s governing buoyant j e t s i n an inf i n i t e body of water.

I n a p p l y i n g t h e s e models i t i s u s u a l l y t a c i t l y

(without p r o o f ) assumed t ha t t h e e f f e c t of t h e f i n i t e w a t e r depth can b e

n e g l e c t e d and a s t a b l e flow away from t h e l i n e of s u r f a c e impingement

exists.

There i s a l a r g e amount of l i t e r a t u r e on buoyant j e t s .

t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s are reviewed.

Only

Secondly, one-dimen-

s i o n a l average models f o r h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e assume full ver-

t i c a l mixing downstream o f t h e d i f f u s e r and are v a l i d o n l y f o r shallow

r e c e i v i n g water.

2.1

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f Buoyant J e t s
2.1.1

General Characteristics

Turbulent buoyant j e t s ( a l s o c a l l e d f o r c e d plumes) are examples of

f l u i d motion w i t h shear-generated free t u r b u l e n c e .

S p e c i a l cases of t h e

t u r b u l e n t buoyant j e t are t h e simple non-buoyant j e t , d r i v e n by t h e

momentum of f l u i d d i s c h a r g e d i n t o a homogeneous medium, and t h e s i m p l e
plume, emanating from a c o n c e n t r a t e d s o u r c e of d e n s i t y d e f i c i e n c y and
d r i v e n by buoyancy f o r c e s .
Dominating t r a n s p o r t p r o c e s s e s governing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of flow
q u a n t i t i e s are convection b y the mean v e l o c i t i e s , a c c e l e r a t i o n i n the
d i r e c t i o n of the buoyancy f o r c e and t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n by t h e i r r e g u l a r
eddy motion w i t h i n t h e j e t .

19

Main p r o p e r t i e s of the j e t f l o w f i e l d and their i m p o r t a n t implic a t i o n s on p o s s i b l e methods of a n a l y s i s are (Abramoyich (1963) , Schlicht i n g (1968) ) :

1) Gradual s p r e a d i n g of the j e t width.

The j e t w i d t h i s

s m a l l compared t o t h e d i s t a n c e from the s o u r c e a l o n g

the axis of the j e t .

T h i s a l l o w s t o make t h e t y p i c a l
Convection by mean t r a n s -

boundary l a y e r assumptions:

verse v e l o c i t i e s can b e n e g l e c t e d compared t o c o n v e c t i o n

by mean axial v e l o c i t i e s .

Diffusion i n t h e axial direc-

t i o n i s small compared t o d i f f u s i o n i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e
direction.

2) Self-similarity of t h e flow.

The t r a n s v e r s e p r o f i l e s

of v e l o c i t y , m a s s and heat a t d i f f e r e n t a x i a l d i s t a n c e s
a l o n g t h e j e t a r e s i m i l a r t o each o t h e r .

Local j e t

q u a n t i t i e s can b e e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n of c e n t e r l i n e
q u a n t i t i e s and j e t w i d t h .

3) F l u c t u a t i n g t u r b u l e n t q u a n t i t i e s are s m a l l compared
t o mean c e n t e r l i n e q u a n t i t i e s .

4 ) For j e t s i s s u i n g i n t o unconfined r e g i o n s p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t s are n e g l i g i b l e .
I f semi-empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e l a t i n g the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e
Of

the j e t t o i t s mean p r o p e r t i e s (such as the mixing l e n g t h h y p o t h e s i s )

a r e invoked, a s i m i l a r i t y s o l u t i o n

t9

the s i m p l i f i e d g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n s

w i t h s p e c i f i e d boundary c o n d i t i o n s i s p o s s i b l e .
S c h l i c h t i n g (1968) f o r s i m p l e j e t s .

T h i s is shown by

The s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e s the s p e c i f i -

c a t i o n of one e x p e r i m e n t a l l y determined c o n s t a n t and y i e l d s t h e f u n c t i o n

20

of the similarity profile and gross jet characteristics as a function

of longitudinal distance.

An alternate approach, somewhat more convenient to

use,

is the a

priori specification of similarity functions. The governing equations

can then be integrated in the transverse direction.

The resulting set

of equations shows only dependence on the axial coordinate.

Again, full

solution requires an experimentally determined coefficient. The coefficient either refers to the rate of spreading (method first described by
Albertson et.al. (1950) ) or to the rate of entrainment (first described
by Morton et.al. (1956) ), both coefficients being related to each other.
In general, these coefficients are not constants, being different for
single jet and plumes, Usage of the integral technique for buoyant jet
prediction is common to models described in the following sections.

2.1.2

Round Buctyant J e t s

The schematics of a round buoyant jet are shown in Figure 2-1.

After an initial zone of flow establishment the jet motion becomes selfsimilar. Experimental data show that a Gaussian profile can usually
be well fitted to the observed distribution of velocity, density deficiency and mass:

c(s,r)

cc(s)

(,*I
!

21

Fig. 2-1:

Schematics of a Round Buoyant Jet

22

where
=

srr

axial and transverse coordinates

= axial velocity

ii
m

U
C

centerline axial velocity

nominal jet width

ambient density

density in the jet

density in jet centerline

spreading ratio between velocity and mass

concentration of some discharged material

C
C

centerline concentration

Pa
p

PC

T h e spreading ratio X accounts for the fact that experimental observa-

tions show in general stronger lateral diffusion ( ~ > 1 )for BcaIai quantities such as mass or heat than for velocities.

With the specification

of the velocity profile a volume flux is determined as

The entrainment concept as formulated by Morton et.al. assumes a

transverse entrainment velocity ve at the nominal jet boundary b to be
related to the centerline velocity as
v

(2- 5 1

-a u

where a is a coefficient of proportionality (entrainment coefficient).

With this assumption the change in volume flux follows as

23

dQ
=
ds

2% a;c

(2-6)

Using the p r o f i l e assumptions (2-1)?

vation

(2-2)

and (2-31,

i n t e g r a t e d conser-

e q u a t i o n s f o r the v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l momentum and f o r m a s s

can b e w r i t t e n .
S o l u t i o n t o the system of o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s w i t h
i n i t i a l d i s c h a r g e c o n d i t i o n s y i e l d s t h e shape of t h e j e t t r a j e c t o r y and
v a l u e s of

Gc

p c , cc and b along the t r a j e c t o r y .

T h i s approach forms t h e b a s i s of many buoyant j e t t h e o r i e s s i n c e

Morton e t . a l . (1956).

The t h e o r i e s , however, d i f f e r on s p e c i f i c assump-

t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t a

Examination of e x p e r i -

mental d a t a shows t h a t a i s c l e a r l y a f u n c t i o n of t h e l o c a l buoyant

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e j e t which c a n b e e x p r e s s e d i n an a v e r a g e f a s h i o n
by a l o c a l Froude number FL

The v a l u e of a i s dependent on the f o r m of t h e s i m i l a r i t y p r o f i l e .

For G a u s s i a n p r o f i l e s as s p e c i f i e d above, d a t a by A l b e r t s o n e t . a l .
s u g g e s t f o r the s h p l e j e t (FL

=)

0.057

and d a t a by Rouse et.al.

-f

(1952) f o r t h e plume (FL s m a l l )

0.082
24

(1950)

Buoyant j e t s tend t o the c o n d i t i o n o f a s i m p l e plume f a r away from

the s o u r c e when the i n i t i a l momentum becomes small i n comparison t o t h e

buoyancy induced momentum.

Accordingly, Morton (1959) and Fan and

Brooks (1966) assumed oc = 0.082 c o n s t a n t throughout t h e j e t .

For j e t s

w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l i n i t i a l momentum a certain e r r o r i s i n h e r e n t .
Using the i n t e g r a t e d energy c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n Fox (1970)
showed t h a t the dependence of t h e e n t r a i n m e n t c o e f f i c i e n t on FL as
a

a p

a+1

(2-10)
FL2

f o r t h e case of v e r t i c a l d i s c h a r g e

(0, = 90").

For n o n - v e r t i c a l d i s -

charge H i r s t (1971) extended Fox's argument t o show

a2 (A)

a =

+1

(2-11)

sin8

FL

where 8 is t h e l o c a l a n g l e of t h e j e t t r a j e c t o r y .
(2-10)

I n b o t h Equations

and (2-11) a1 can b e determined from t h e simple j e t ( F L - + w )

from

Equation (2-8) and a 2 i s found as a u n i q u e f u n c t i o n of t h e s p r e a d i n g

r a t i o A.
Buoyant j e t models based on the i n t e g r a l technique b u t w i t h speci f i c a t i o n of a c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e s p r e a d i n g rate were developed by
Abraham (1963).

S i m i l a r t o the e n t r a i n m e n t c o e f f i c i e n t the s p r e a d i n g

rate i s found t o b e v a r i a b l e i n buoyant j e t s , approaching a c o n s t a n t

v a l u e f o r the l i m i t i n g cases of s i m p l e j e t and plume.

In the analysis

of t h e v e r t i c a l l y diecharged buoyant j e t Abraham assumed a c o n s t a n t r a t e

of s p r e a d i n g .

For the c a s e of a h o r i z o n t a l l y discharged j e t t h e spread-

i n g r a t e w a s p o s t u l a t e d t o b e r e l a t e d t o t h e l o c a l j e t a n g l e , and n o t t o

25

t h e l o c a l buoyant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as is p h y s i c a l l y more r e a s o n a b l e .
S o l u t i o n g r a p h s f o r round huoyant jets d i s c h a r g e d a t Various
angles 9

have b e e n published by Fan and Brooks (19691, Abraham (1963)

I n a l l t h e s e models some a d j u s t m e n t i s made f o r the i n i t i a l

and o t h e r s .

.-

zone of f l o w e s t a b l i s h m e n t .

From the p r a c t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t t h e r e i s

l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n between t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v a r i o u s models, t y p i c a l

v a r i a t i o n s i n c e n t e r l i n e d i l u t i o n s f o r example b e i n g less than 20%, w e l l

below t h e s c a t t e r of u s u a l e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a ( s e e Fan (1967) ) . The
choice of a p a r t i c u l a r model i s t h u s determined by t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f
t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s and by t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o
varying d e s i g n problems, such as d i s c h a r g e i n t o s t r a t i f i e d ambients.

In

t h i s respect a n i n t e g r a l model w i t h e n t r a i n m e n t c o e f f i c i e n t s as g i v e n
by Fox seems t o b e most s a t i s f y i n g .
S l o t Buoyant Jets

2.1.3

F i g u r e 2-2 shows t h e two-dimensional

flow p a t t e r n f o r a buoyant

j e t i s s u i n g from a s l o t w i t h width B and v e r t i c a l a n g l e .8,

After the

i n i t i a l zone of flow e s t a b l i s h m e n t the f o l l o w i n g s i m i l a r i t y p r o f i l e s f i t

w e l l t o experimental data:

(2-12)

(2-13)

(2-14)
where

s,n

a x i a l and t r a n s v e r s e c o o r d i n a t e s .

26

Fig. 2-2:

Schematics of a Slot Buoyant J e t

27

The volume flux i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n is t h e n

(2-15)

The e n t r a i n m e n t v e l o c i t y a t the j e t b o u n d a r i e s i s assumed as

(2-16)

similar t o t h e round j e t .

Thus t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n is

(2-17)

A f t e r f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e o t h e r c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n s o l u t i o n s
proceed a n a l o g o u s l y t o t h e round buoyant j e t .

The dependence of t h e

entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e buoyant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e j e t i s
i n d i c a t e d by e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a .

~1

For t h e s i m p l e j e t

~1

i s found as
(2-18)

0.069

(Albertson et. a l . (1950) ) and f o r t h e plume

(2-19)

0.16

(Rouse et.al.

(1952) ).

An a n a l y s i s w i t h a c o n s t a n t a w a s f i r s t c a r r i e d out by L e e and
Emmons (1962) and l a t e r by Fan and Brooks (1969).
An a n improvement,dependence on t h e l o c a l Froude number w a s proposed
f o r t h e vertical buoyant j e t by Fax (1970) i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p analogous t o
Equation (2-10)

but w i t h d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s f o r a

and a

2'

Abraham (1963) t r e a t e d t h e s l o t buoyant j e t (vertical and h o r i -

28

z o n t a l d i s c h a r g e ) i n a f a s h i o n similar t o t h e round buoyant j e t as desc r i b e d above.

Less e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a is a v a i l a b l e on s l o t buoyant jets.

Ceder-

w a l l (1971) g i v e s a comparison 02 e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s w i t h the t h e o r i e s

by Abraham and Fan and Brooks.
2.1.4

Reasonable agreement i s found.

Lateral I n t e r f e r e n c e of Round Buoyant Jets

I n a submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r t h e round buoyant j e t s i s s u i n g

with velocity U

from n o z z l e s w i t h d i a m e t e r D and spaced a t a d i s t a n c e

L g r a d u a l l y b e g i n t o i n t e r a c t w i t h each o t h e r a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e away
from the d i s c h a r g e .

I n a t r a n s i t i o n zone t h e t y p i c a l s i m i l a r i t y pro-

f i l e s of t h e series o f round j e t s are modified t o two-dimensional

profiles.

jet

From t h e n on t h e d i s c h a r g e behaves l i k e a s l o t buoyant j e t .

This p r o c e s s i s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 2-3.

Mathematical a n a l y s i s a l o n g

t h e above o u t l i n e d p r o c e d u r e s i s i m p o s s i b l e as t h e assumption of s e l f s i m i l a r i t y i s n o t v a l i d i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n zone.

Hence some approximate

assumptions are u s u a l l y made i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t .

The flow f i e l d o f the m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r c a n b e compared t o t h a t

of an " e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r " .

By r e q u i r i n g t h e same d i s c h a r g e p e r

u n i t d i f f u s e r l e n g t h and t h e same momentum f l u x p e r u n i t l e n g t h a w i d t h

B of the e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r can b e r e l a t e d t o the dimensions of

t h e m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r by
2
B

4R

(2-20)

A common c r i t e r i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e merging between round j e t s t o

two-dimensional j e t s is t o assume t r a n s i t i o n when
29

TOP V I E W

Round j e t s

Transition
Fully developed
zone J p o - dimensional j e t

SIDE V I E W
2

Fig. 2-3:

Jet Interference for a Submerged Multiport Diffuser

R/2

(2-21)

The nominal j e t w i d t h b (as d e f i n e d by Eq. 2-1)

i s o n l y a char-

a c t e r i s t i c measure of the t a a n s v e r s e j e t dimension, namely the d i s t a n c e

where the j e t v e l o c i t y becomes l / e of the c e n t e r l i n e v e l o c i t y .
assumption of Equation (2-21)

Thus t h e

cannot b e s u p p o r t e d by p h y s i c a l arguments,

b u t only on i n t u i t i v e grounds, r e a s o n i n g t h a t when t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s

o v e r l a p t o such a d e g r e e t h e l a t e r a l e n t r a i n m e n t i s l a r g e l y i n h i b i t e d .
Using t h e assumptions of Equation 2-19 Cederwall (1971) c a r r i e d o u t a
comparison between t h e a v e r a g e d i l u t i o n s produced by a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r
and by i t s e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r a t t h e d i s t a n c e of i n t e r f e r e n c e of
t h e multiport diffuser.

H e used e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s

f o r t h e volume f l u x and rate of s p r e a d i n g p u b l i s h e d by A l b e r t s o n e t , a l .

on t h e simple j e t and by Rouse et.al.

f o r t h e simple non-buoyant

R =

on t h e plume.

Cederwall found

jet:

d i l u t i o n o f the m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r
dilution of t h e equivalent s l o t d i f f u s e r

0.95

(2-22)

and f o r t h e buoyant plume:

0.78

(2-23)

I n v i e w of the u n c e r t a i n t y involyed these v a l u e s of R should only

b e i n t e r p r e t e d on an o r d e r of magnitude b a s i s , i n d i c a t i n g p r a c t i c a l l y

similar d i l u t i o n characteristics f o r s l o t j e t s and i n t e r f e r i n g round jets.

Another comparison c a n b e made as f o l l o w s .

Koh and Fan (1970)

proposed a t r a n s i t i o n c r i t e r i o n as when t h e e n t r a i n m e n t rate i n t o t h e

31

round jets becomes e q u a l t o that the e q u i v a l e n t s l o t j e t .

They remarked

that this assumption y i e l d e d e s s e n t i a l l y the same r e s u l t as the assump-

t i o n of Equation (2-21).

Their c r i t e r i o n w a s a p p l i e d by S h i r a z i and

Davis (1972) t o compute m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r characteristics f o r a Y a r i e t y

of c o n d i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g j e t a n g l e

e 0

r e l a t i v e s p a c i n g a / D and t h e dy-

namics of t h e d i s c h a r g e g i v e n by t h e Froude number

U
(2-24)

as a f u n c t i o n of t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e z/D.
/-,@a

The d i l u t i o n s

s l o t j e t w i t h d i s c h a r g e Froude number

(2-25)

are c a l c u l a t e d by t h e same numerical method as used by S h i r a z i and Davis

using their values f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s
S

and A.

Centerline dilutions

are p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f the dimensionless v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e z/B

and Fs i n F i g u r e 2-4 f o r the case of h o r i z o n t a l d i s c h a r g e .

T h i s can b e

compared t o S h i r a z i and Davis r e s u l t s by u s i n g the d e f i n i t i o n of t h e

equivalent s l o t w i d t h (Eq. 2-40)

namely

(2-26)
and
(2-27)

32

2000,

'

"""F

X 4 0

.-

'0,

= sc

I\

---

Computed values

= 30

\-

X 17

\
\

, \ I

With Horizontal Discharge

I I

Values computed by
Shirazi and Davis ( 1 9 7 2 )
f o r t h e m u l t i p o r t diffuser

for a S l o t Buoyant J e t

Centerline Dilutions S

33

\ -

),

A=1.0)

Fig. 2-4:

\
\

for t h e slot buoyant j e t

(*=.16,

\
\

\
I

50 -

\"2 5

Values converted i n this f a s h i o n f o r p o i n t s a f t e r the t r a n s i t i o n

zone a n d f o r t h e range of !L/D = 1 0 , 20 and 30 and o f Fn = 1 0 , 30 and 100
I n g e n e r a l , S h i r a z i and Davis! results show no

are shown i n F i g u r e 2-4.

v a r i a b i l i t y w i t h !2/D and have the same.functiona1 dependence on z/B and

as the r e s u l t s f o r t h e s l o t j e t .

However, t h e r e i s a s y s t e m a t i c under-

e s t i m a t i o n of d i l u t i o n , t h i s o f c o u r s e b e i n g a s p e c i f i c consequence of
t h e adopted c r i t e r i o n f o r t r a n s i t i o n .
Thus, u n t i l e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e t o t h e c o n t r a r y becomes available

--

and t h i s q u e s t i o n

c a n only b e s e t t l e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y

--

it

s u f f i c e s f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes t o assume t h a t t h e f l o w f i e l d char-

a c t e r i s t i c s of a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r are e q u a l l y p r e s e n t e d by i t s equivalent s l o t diffuser.

A f r e q u e n t l y used d i f f u s e r geometry i s d i s c h a r g e

through p o r t s

o r n o z z l e s i s s u i n g i n t o a l t e r n a t i n g d i r e c t i o n s from t h e common manifold

p i p e (see F i g u r e 2-5).

With t h i s arrangement a complicated flow p a t t e r n

TOP
VIEW

Fig. 2-5;

M u l t i p o r t D i f f u s e r w i , t h A l t e r n a t i n g P o r t s i n Deep Water

34

evolves.

T h e j e t s a t both s i d e s i n t e r f e r e l a t e r a l l y and rise upward

under the influence of buoyancy.

Only a l i m i t e d amount of amhient water

can p e n e t r a t e i n t o the region b e t w e e n t h e r i s i n g two-dbensional j e t s

as the a r e a between t h e j e t s b e f o r e l a t e r a l i n t e r f e r e n c e is r e s t r i c t e d .

As t h e t u r b u l e n t entrainment a t the i n n e r j e t boundaries a c t s l i k e a

s u c t i o n mechanism, a low pressure a r e a is created between t h e jets.

Con-

s e q u e n t l y , t h e j e t s a r e gradually bent over u n t i l merging over t h e d i f f u s e r

line.

This case was extensively s t u d i e d i n a series of exp er iment s by

Averaged values of c e n t e r l i n e d i l u t i o n s measured a t

L i s e t h (1971).

d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s z/E w e r e presented i n graphical form.

L i s e t h ' s study

a l s o y i e l d e d an approximate expression f o r t h e l o c a t i o n z

of merging

above t h e d i f f u s e r

zm/E

(2-28)

Fn

As t h e discharge by means of a l t e r n a t i n g h o r i z o n t a l buoyant j e t s does not

i n t r o d u c e any i n i t i a l momentum i n the v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n , t h e flow above
the l i n e of merging can b e compared t o t h e flow i n t h e buoyant plume.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r t h e c e n t e r l i n e density deficiency + c i n the buoyant

plume i s given by Rouse et.al.

(1952) a s
(2-29)

i n which w i s the f l u x of weight deficiency emanating from the l i n e source.

For the discharge from t h e s l o t w can b e expressed a s
w

(2-30)

Apo g UoB

35

100

I " I

/
50

/Buoyant

'+

'
plume

f r o m Rouse e t al. (1952

SC

10

x Z/k = 8
Mu1tiport
diffuser

=20

=80

B e s t - f i t data from
Liseth (1971)

I
1

Fig. 2-6:

Comparison Between the Centerline Dilutions Above the

Point of Merging for a Buoyant Plume and a Multiport
Diffuser with Alternating Nozzles

36

where Ap

Pa

Po

i s the i n i t i a l d e n s i t y d e f i c i e n c y .

t i o n of the s l o t Froude number J?

(Eq,

(2-25))

Using the d e f i n i -

Eq. (2-29)

can be trans-

formed t o g i v e the c e n t e r l i n e d i l u t i o n Sc

= -Ap=0
C
*Q

.39 z/B

Fs-2/3

(2-31)

I n F i g u r e 2-6 t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s compared t o a series of d a t a p o i n t s

f o r z/Q

8, 20 and 80 taken from L i s e t h ' s b e s t - f i t c u r v e s .

The d a t a

p o i n t s w e r e converted u s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s
and e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r s .
cluded.

Data p o i n t s f o r which zm/ll< Fn w e r e ex-

There i s good agreement, a g a i n i n d i c a t i n g t h a t l o c a l d e t a i l s of

t h e d i s c h a r g e geometry, such as n o z z l e s p a c i n g , have indeed a n e g l i g i b l e

i n f l u e n c e on t h e o v e r a l l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s .
2.1.5

E f f e c t of t h e F r e e S u r f a c e

The d e n s i t y d i s c o n t i n u i t y a t the air-water i n t e r f a c e acts as an

e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r t o t h e upward motion of t h e buoyant j e t .

Depending

on t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e j e t o n l y a s m a l l s u r f a c e rise w i l l occur.

As a consequence the j e t w i l l s p r e a d l a t e r a l l y a l o n g the s u r f a c e i n a

l a y e r of a c e r t a i n thickness.

As a l l t h e buoyant j e t t h e o r i e s d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e c e d i n g presume

d i s c h a r g e i n t o a n unconfined environment, t h e presence of the free s u r -

face i s u s u a l l y accounted f o r by assuming e f f e c t i v e e n t r a i n m e n t i n t o t h e

j e t s up t o the lower edge of the s u r f a c e l a y e r .

I n the a b s e n c e o f a n

a n a l y t i c a l model f o r the e s t i m a t i o n of the s u r f a c e l a y e r t h i c k n e s s , experi m e n t a l v a l u e s r e p o r t e d by Abraham (1963) are o f t e n used.

For t h e s l o t

buoyant j e t ( a f t e r l a t e r a l i n t e r a c t i o n ) Abraham g i v e s the l a y e r thickness

I

37

t o b e e q u a l t o about 114 of t h e l e n g t h of the j e t t r a j e c t o r y .

J'

2.1,6

E f f e c t of Ambient D e n s i t y S t r a t i f i c a t i o n

Stable density s t r a t i i i c a t i o n

-- that

i s decreasing d e n s i t y w ith

e l e v a t i o n due t o y a r i a t i o n s i n t e m p e r a t u r e and s a l i n i t y

-- i s a common

o c c u r r e n c e , i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r deep water o u t f a l l s i n oceans and l a k e s .

Under s u c h c o n d i t i o n s t h e j e t can r e a c h an e q u i l i b r i u m level and s p r e a d s
l a t e r a l l y i n t h e form of an i n t e r n a l c u r r e n t when i t s d e n s i t y becomes
e q u a l t o t h e ambient d e n s i t y .

P r e d i c t i o n of t h i s phenomenon i s i m p o r t a n t .

J e t t h e o r i e s f o r d i s c h a r g e i n t o l i n e a r l y s t r a t i f i e d ambients are a l l

based on t h e e n t r a i n m e n t concept (Morton e t . a l .

(1970) ).

(1956), Fan (1967), Fox

These methods have a l s o b e e n adapted f o r a r b i t r a r i l y s t r a t i f i e d

s t a b l e environments ( D i t m a r s (1969), S h i r a z i and Davis (1972) ) .

2.1.7

E f f e c t of Crossflow

A s i n g l e round buoyant j e t d i s c h a r g e d i n t o a crossflow u

f l e c t e d i n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c r o s s f l o w .

g e t s de-

The d e f l e c t i o n i s a f f e c t e d

by two f o r c e mechanisms a c t i n g on t h e j e t , a p r e s s u r e drag f o r c e

3

FD =
where C

CD

P aua

(2-32)

2b

i s a d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t and a f o r c e Fe r e s u l t i n g from t h e r a t e of

l o s s of ambient momentum due t o e n t r a i n m e n t o f ambient f l u i d i n t o the j e t

(2-33)

Characteristic feature

of

j e t s i n c r o s s flow i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t o r t i o n
-

of t h e u s u a l l y symmetric j e t p r o f i l e s t o horse-shoe l i k e shapes w i t h a

s t r o n g wake r e g i n n .

The entrainment c o n c e p t w a s modified by Fan (1967)

38

to
(2-34)

- ucI
CI

where the term

denotes the magnitude of the vector difference

between ambient velocity and jet velocity to account for the effect of
crossflow velocity on the entrainment mechanism (shearing action).

Values

for a when still retaining the assumption of Gaussian profiles are considerably larger than in the stagnant case, indicating the increased
dilution efficiency in the presence of a crossflow.

No analytical models have yet been advanced for the deflection of

a series of interacting round jets as in the multiport diffuser or for
a slot diffuser.

The deflecting mechanism is highly complicated in these

cases with eddying and re-entrainment in the wake zone behind the jet as
has been observed experimentally by Cederwall (1971).

The assumption of

self-similarity is not valid any longer.

2.2

One-Dimensional Average Models for Horizontal Diffuser Discharge

into Shallow Water
A severe example of the inadequacy of buoyant jet models developed

on the assumption of an unbounded receiving water is given by the horizontal (or near horizontal) diffuser discharge into shallow water.

In

this case strong surface and bottom interaction causes a vertically fully

mixed concentration field downstream of the discharge as illustrated in

Figure 1-ld.

Making use of this fully anixed condition the problem can

be analyzed in a gross fashion.

2.2.1

The Two-Dimensional Channel Case

With the rationale to examine the approximately two-dimensional

39

flow f i e l d which p e r s i s t s i n the c e n t e r p o r t i o n of a d i f f u s e r l i n e

Harleman e t , a l .

(1971) s t u d i e d the i o l l o w i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n :

An a r r a y of

d i f f u s e r n o z z l e s i s p u t between v e r t i c a l w a l l s of f i n i t e l e n g t h 2L.

The

channel t h u s formed i s p l a c e d i n a l a r g e b a s i n as shown i n F i g u r e 2-7.

The j e t d i s c h a r g e sets up a c u r r e n t of magnitude u through t h e
m
entrainment p r o c e s s .

Ambient water i s a c c e l e r a t e d from z e r o v e l o c i t y

o u t s i d e i n t h e b a s i n ( f a r f i e l d ) t o v e l o c i t y urn i n t h e channel.

Inside

t h e channel t h e c u r r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s a head loss e x p r e s s e d as u s u a l as

2
U
m
a g a i n s t f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e , where Ck i s t h e sum of head l o s s
Ck
2g
c o e f f i c i e n t s d e s c r i b i n g t h e channel geometry. Upon l e a v i n g t h e c h a n n e l

a t t h e downstream end t h e v e l o c i t y head um2/2g is d i s s i p a t e d .

Hence t h e

t o t a l head l o s s i s
2

(2-35)

I n s t e a d y s t a t e the p r e s s u r e f o r c e caused by t h i s head loss i s b a l a n c e d

by t h e momentum f l u x of t h e j e t d i s c h a r g e .

Thus a one-dimensional momen-

tum e q u a t i o n ( p e r u n i t channel width) c a n b e w r i t t e n between s e c t i o n s 1

and 2 of F i g u r e 2-7 as

(2-36)

The d i l u t i o n S i n the f u l l y mixed flow away i s simply g i v e n by t h e volume

flux r a t i o

s =

U,Hk

DZa
0 4

(2-37)

40

/ Channel

Walls

2L
P L A N VIEW

Jet Ent rai nrnent

Zone

Specific H e a d Line

Channel E n d

Channel End

ELEVATION
Fig. 2-7:

VIEW

Schematics of Channel Model for a Multiport Diffuser with

Horizontal Discharge in Shallow Water

41

If the a p p r o x i m a t i o n s po/p,

:: 1, S/S-1

1 ( l a r g e d i l u t i o n s ) and the

d e f i n i t i o n f o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i i f u s e r , Eq.

(2-20)

are i n t r o d u c e d ,

the d i l u t i o n can b e expressed as

(2-38)

The s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s of t h i s e q u a t i o n are t h e independence on t h e Froude

number o f t h e d i s c h a r g e and on t h e l o c a l d i f f u s e r geometry, i . e . n o z z l e
spacing.

The v a l i d i t y i s of course r e s t r i c t e d t o the f u l l y mixed condi-

t ion.

S a t i s f a c t o r y agreement w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w a s found.
2.2.2

The Three-Dimensional Case

The three-dimensional aspects o f h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e

i n s h a l l o w water w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f an ambient c u r r e n t ua

were s t u d i e d by Adams (1972).

H e observed i n t h e absence of c o n f i n i n g

walls (as i n t h e p r e v i o u s case) a c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e flow downstream of

t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 2-8.

Using a s c a l i n g argument

Adams n e g l e c t e d l o c a l f r i c t i o n a l d i s s i p a t i o n and made a one-dimensional

i n v i s c i d a n a l y s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t used f o r i d e a l p r o p e l l e r t h e o r y ( P r a n d t l
(1952) ) t o arrive a t an e s t i m a t i o n of t h e induced average d i l u t i o n S
downstream of the d i f f u s e r .

R e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 2-8 the flow i s a c c e l -

e r a t e d from a s e c t i o n 1 f a r behind the d i f f u s e r t o u2

u3 a t t h e d i f -

f u s e r line.
A f t e r p a s s i n g over the d i f f u s e r l i n e and being mixed w i t h the
j e t d i s c h a r g e the flow f i e l d c o n t i n u e s t o c o n t r a c t due t o i t s i n e r t i a

u n t i l s e c t i o n 4 where t h e s p e c i f i c head r e t u r n s t o i t s o r i g i n a l v a l u e H.
42

TOP VIEW
Dividing
Stream Line

rill

1
c
SIDE VIEW

Fig. 2-8:

Schematics faor One-Dimensional Analysis of a Multiport

Diffuser with Horizontal Discharge in Shallow Water

43

T h e t h e o r y does n o t t r e a t the r e g i o n beyond s e c t i o n 4 i n which the flow

g r a d u a l l y w i l l r e t u r n t o i t s p r i g i n a l v e l o c i t y ua through y i s c o u s d i s s i 2
2
p a t i o n of the excess v e l o c i t y head (u4 c. u ,)/2g.
Applying B e r n o u l l i ' s theorem between s e c t i o n s 1 and 2 and sect i o n s 3 and 4 y i e l d s the head change a c r o s s the d i f f u s e r

AJI

1
2
2
2g(u4 - u )
a

(2-39)

The p r e s s u r e f o r c e t h u s produced i s balanced by the momentum f l u x of t h e

d i f f u s e r which c o n s i s t s o f n n o z z l e s w i t h s p a c i n g R,
Pa=Po=Pm

s o that, u s i n g

(2-40)

as i n t h e two-dimensional channel case.

Another momentum e q u a t i o n can

b e w r i t t e n for t h e c o n t r o l volume between s e c t i o n s 1 and 4

(2-41)

For l a r g e d i l u t i o n s

a 1

(2-42)

u4R2H

so that

s:: U,QIH 2
D T n
u0 -

(2-43)

44

dilution is

(2-44)

For stagnant receiving water, ua = 0, E q . ( 2 - 4 4 ) reduces to

T1 ( 2 HE )1 1 2

(2-45)

For the case when the crossflow is very large Eq. ( 2 - 4 4 ) becomes
U

a H

s --

5 :

(2-46)

indicating proportional mixing with the oncoming flow. The contraction

C

of the flow between the diffuser and section 4 is found to be

(2-47)

which reduces to
c

= -1

(2-48)

in the case of zero ambient flow.

It is illuminating to compare E q . ( 2 - 4 2 ) with Eq. ( 2 - 3 8 ) for
the two-dimensional channel case making the similar assumption o f neglecting friction inside the channel (Ck = 01, namely

H 112

(2:)

(2-4 9)

Thus the predicted dilution capacity of the three-dimensional case is

one half of the two-dimensional channel.

45

The difference is attributable

to the contraction which occurs in the former case which causes more
velocity head to be dissipated in the region beyond.
Despite the approximations involved
diffusion at the boundary of the current

--

-- no bottom friction, no
-

Adams found satisfactory

agreement with experimentally determined average dilutions in a section

downstream from the discharge (see Chapter 7).
2.3

Appraisal of Previous Knowledge About the Characteristics

of a Multiport Diffuser

The objective of predictive models for multiport diffusers is the

determination of velocities and concentration distributions induced by
the diffuser discharge.

The review of existing prediction techniques has

shown two constrasting limiting cases of diffuser discharge:

discharge

in practically unconfined deep water in form of buoyant jets and discharge

into fairly shallow water with extreme boundary interaction resulting in
a uniformly mixed current.

This striking difference in the resultant

behavior immediately suggests questions regarding the diffuser performance

in the intermediate range (confined receiving water) and the applicability

of such "simple" models as discussed in the review

-- simple in the sense

that they consider only one dominating physical process.

Detailed observations regarding the degree of established physical understanding can be summarized:

A. Areas of Adequate Understandinq

In these problem areas understanding has been achieyed to

such a point that fairly reliable predictions can be made.

46

--

1) Buoyant Jets i n Deep Water

The d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s f o r z w n d and s l o t buoyant jets have

been l a r g e l y v e r i f i e d i n l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r a e n t s .

Predic-

t i o n s between models do n o t vary a p p r e c i a b l y although

v a r i o u s assumptions r e g a r d i n g the j e t characteristics have
been made.

Choice of a p a r t i c u l a r model s h o u l d b e based

on t h e p h y s i c a l " c o r r e c t n e s s " of t h e s e assumptions and

on t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s .

In this

r e s p e c t an i n t e g r a l a n a l y s i s w i t h v a r i a b l e entrainment
c o e f f i c i e n t s depending on t h e l o c a l buoyant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

seems t o b e p r e f e r a b l e .
2) I n t e r f e r e n c e of Round Buoyant Jets
The l a t e r a l i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e round buoyant j e t s i s s u i n g
I

from a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r t o form a two-dimensional

h a s n o t y e t been s t u d i e d experimentally.

jet

However, reason-

a b l e assumptions r e g a r d i n g a t r a n s i t i o n c r i t e r i o n i n t h e
a n a l y t i c a l treatment can b e made.

Comparisons show t h a t

t h e flow f i e l d produced by a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r i s similar

t o that one produced by a n " e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r " .
Hence f o r m a t h e m a t i c a l convenience t h i s concept should b e
retained.

The same argument p e r t a i n s t o t h e merging of

j e t s above the d i f f u s e r line i n t h e case of a l t e r n a t i n g l y

d i s c h a r g i n g n o z z l e s as s t u d i e d by L i s e t h .

3) H o r i z o n t a l D i f f u s e r s i n Shallow Water
H o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r s d i s c h a r g i n g i n t o f a i r l y shallow water
produce f u l l vertical mixing due t o s t r o n g boundary inter-

47

actions.

P r e d i c t i o n s of a v e r a g e d i l u t i o n s downstream of

t h e d i s c h a r g e l i n e can b e made u s i n g Adams' experiment a l l y validated relationship.

B. Areas of L n s u f f i c i e n t Knowledge

1 ) E f f e c t o f a V e r t i c a l l y Confined Flow Region

T h i s i s the g e n e r a l case of a d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e .

Solution

of t h i s problem r e q u i r e s t h e assessment o f :
a ) The e f f e c t of t h e f r e e s u r f a c e .

P r e d i c t i o n of t h e

t h i c k n e s s of t h e s u r f a c e impingement l a y e r as a
f u n c t i o n of j e t p a r a m e t e r s .

This d e f i n e s t h e upper

l e v e l up t o which e f f e c t i v e entrainment t a k e s p l a c e
into the jet.
I

b ) The s t a b i l i t y of t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r .

The flow spread-

i n g from t h e l i n e o f impingement can b e u n s t a b l e .

Hence water can b e r e - e n t r a i n e d i n t o t h e j e t r e g i o n .

c) The flow away from t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e i n t h e form

of a d e n s i t y c u r r e n t .
d) The e f f e c t of bottom i n t e r a c t i o n .

Jets d i s c h a r g e d

h o r i z o n t a l l y and c l o s e t o the bottom can become

a t t a c h e d t o the bottom.
S o l u t i o n of t h i s g e n e r a l problem w i l l encompass the
l i m i t i n g cases of d i s c h a r g e i n f a i r l y deep and f a i r l y
shallow water.

Hence, c r i t e r i a of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of

the "simple" models r e p o r t e d above c a n b e p r e s e n t e d .

2) Three-Dimensional

Behavior

As exemplified by t h e case of h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e
48

into shallow receiving water which produces a flow away

with significant contraction .thus reducing dilution,
three-dimensional aspects of the diffuser flow field
are extremely important.
3) Effect of Crossflow

The effect of crossflow has only been investigated for

the single round jet. No quantitative information on
interacting diffuser jets or slot jets is available.
In general the three-dimensional diffuser induced flow
field is superposed on, but also modified by, the
ambient flow field.

The overall layout of the diffuser

axis with respect to the ambient current direction is

an important factor, as shown by experimental investigations reported by Harleman, et.al. (1971).

A l l these problem areas are addressed in the following

chapters of this study.

49

111. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

3.1

TWO-DIMENSIONAL

CHANNEL MODEL

B a s i c Approach
T h e review of the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r showed the l i m i t a t i o n s o f

e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r b e h a v i o r .
A n a l y t i c a l models are a v a i l a b l e o n l y f o r the extreme c a s e s of (1) buoyant
j e t s i n deep water, n e g l e c t i n g the dynamic e f f e c t s caused by t h e f r e e

s u r f a c e , and (2) d i s c h a r g e i n t o s h a l l o w w a t e r w i t h s t r o n g boundary i n t e r a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n a v e r t i c a l l y mixed c u r r e n t .

No m a t h e m a t i c a l models

have been developed for t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e range i n which boundary e f f e c t s

are i m p o r t a n t and no c r i t e r i a of a p p l i c a b i l i t y f o r t h e e x i s t i n g models
have been d e r i v e d .

The p r e s e n t s t u d y a t t e m p t s t o f u l f i l l t h i s need.

The complexity of t h e g e n e r a l three-dimensional problem of m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e i s such t h a t no s i n g l e a n a l y t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n

(a s i n g l e s e t of governing e q u a t i o n s w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e boundary cond i t i o n s ) of t h e f l u i d flow can b e s o l v e d by a v a i l a b l e methods.

Hence,

t h e f o l l o w i n g approach i s u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e development of a p r e d i c t i v e
model :
1) The t h e o r e t i c a l treatment i s l i m i t e d t o t h e d i f f u s e r -

induced s t e a d y - s t a t e f l o w f i e l d w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e

of a n ambient c r o s s flow.

2) A two-dimensional

"channel model" s i m u l a t e s the pre-

dominantly two-dimensional f l o w f i e l d which i s E Q s t u l a t e d

t o exist i n t h e c e n t e r p o r t i o n of a three-dimensional
diffuser.

This is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 3-1 f o r the

case of a s t a b l e flow away zone.

50

The two-dimensional

Y
PLAN
VIEW
SURFACE FLOW PAT7 E R N

t
\
---- I- -

ELEVATION ALONG
X - y PLANE

Fig. 3-1:

tz

Three-Dimensional Flow Field for a Submerged Diffuser

Two-Dimensional Behavior in Center Portion
(Stable Flow Away Zone)
51

channel model assumes a diffuser section bounded laterally by walls of finite length, 2L.

This conceptualiza-

tion allows the analysis of the yertical and lo,n,gitudinal

variation of the diffuser-induced flow field.

3) Through a quantitative analysis regarding far-field effects

(frictional resistance of the flow away zone) the length,

ZL, of the two-dimensional channel model is linked to
the length of the three-dimensional diffuser, 2LD.

In

this manner theoretical predictions of the two-dimensional

channel model become applicable to the general three-dimensional case.
4 ) The interaction of the diffuser induced flow with a cross

flow in the receiving water body is studied experimentally.

In this chapter the theoretical framework for the treatment of
the flow distribution in the two-dimensional "channel model" is developed.
The diffuser discharge exhibits several distinct flow regions.

Analyti-

cal treatment of each of these regimes becomes possible by introducing

approximations to the governing equations of fluid motion.
Matching of the solutions at the boundaries o f the various regions
results in an overall prediction of the two-dimensional channel flow
field.

In Chapter 4 the quantitative comparison between the flow fields

in the two-dimensional "channel model" and the general three-dimensional

case is made.
In Chapter 6 , the theoretical model predictions are compared with
experimental results.

Experiments were performed both for the two-dimen52

s i o n a l c h a n n e l model and t h e three-dimensional

case.

I n Chapter 7, the m o d i f i c a t i o n of the diffuser-induced

flow f i e l d

t h r o u g h the e f f e c t s of ambient c r o s s flow i s s t u d i e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .

For the p u r p o s e of e s t a b l i s h i n g s c a l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s the a n a l y t i c a l
t r e a t m e n t i s d i r e c t e d toward the d i s c h a r g e of h e a t e d water. T h i s i s motiv a t e d by the f a c t t h a t thermal d i f f u s e r s l o c a t e d i n shallow w a t e r , w i t h
low buoyancy of t h e d i s c h a r g e , t y p i c a l l y are s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e
f i n i t e d e p t h of t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r body.

3.2

Problem D e f i n i t i o n :

Two-Dimensional Channel Model

R e f e r r i n g t o Figure 3-2 t h e f o l l o w i n g problem i s c o n s i d e r e d :

The

s t e a d y - s t a t e d i s c h a r g e of h e a t e d w a t e r w i t h temperature To and v e l o c i t y

t h r o u g h a s l o t w i t h width B and vertical o r i e n t a t i o n

of uniform d e p t h H, u n i t width and l e n g t h 2L.

e0

i n t o a channel

The h e i g h t hs of t h e s l o t

opening above t h e bottom i s small compared t o t h e t o t a l d e p t h ,

The c h a n n e l opens a t b o t h ends i n t o a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r .

The r a t i o n a l e f o r s t u d y i n g t h i s model i s provided by:

a) In the mathematical t r e a t m e n t a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r c a n
b e r e p r e s e n t e d by an e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r a s d i s -

cussed i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r (Eq.

(2-20)).

b) T h e channel model approximates the predominantly twodimensional flow f i e l d which is p o s t u l a t e d t o exist

i n the c e n t e r p o r t i o n of a three-dimensional d i f f u s e r

as shown i n F i g u r e 3-1.

It w i l l b e shown l a t e r t h a t

53

Channel Walls

TOP V I E W

l4

SI bt

2L

Ta

ambient
temperature

4
heat loss t o
t h e atmosphere

ELEVATION V I E W

To
Fig. 3-2:

Problem Definition:

54

discharge t emP erst Urc

Two-Dimensional Channel Model

under certain conditions, namely instability of the

flow away, the diffuaer discharge does not exhihit
this predominantly two-dimensional region.

Howeyer,

through variation of the brizontal nozzle orientation it is possible to control the three-dimensional
flow so as to approximate the two-dimensional behavior.
In the interest of achieving high dilutions this control is desirable. These three-dimensional aspects of
diffuser discharge are treated in more detail in
Chapters 4 and 6 .
3.3

Solution Method
For the problem defined, the governing equations of fluid motion

and heat conservation are written under the following assumptions:

1) The flow field is two-dimensional in the vertical

or xz-plane.

No lateral variations with y occur.

2) The flow is turbulent, but steady in the mean.

Local

flow quantities are composed of a mean and a fluctuating

component.
3 ) Molecular transport processes for momentum, mass and

heat are neglected in comparison to transport by the

fluctuating eddy velocities.
I

4 ) The Boussinesq approximation is applied.

Density devia-

tions Ap from the ambient density pa introduced by the

diffuser discharge are small compared to the local density

(x,z)
&<<
P

.-

1
55

(3-2)

Hence

is approximated by

a in all terms except the

gravitational (buoyant) terms. Furthermore the mass

conservation equation is replaced by the equation of
incompress ibility

5 ) In the heat conservation equation, the heat production

due to viscous dissipation is neglected in comparison

with the heat added by the heated discharge.
With these approximations, the time-averaged equations of motion
and heat conservation are

au + -aw= o
ax
az

(3-3)

in which
x,z

Cartesian coordinates, with z upwards against

the gravity force

u,w = mean velocities in x,z directions

U',W'

'
a

velocity fluctuations

mean local density

constant ambient density

56

mean pressure

T = m e a n temperature
T'

temperature fluctuation

and the bar denotes the time-averaged turbulent transfer terms.

A linearized equation of state relates density and temperature

Pa 11

B(T

- Tall

(3-7)

where B is the coefficient of thermal expansion.

The simultaneous solu-

tion of Equations (3-3) to (3-7) with given boundary conditions determines the flow and temperature field.

No such general solution is poss-

ible by present analytical techniques.

However, inspection of actual diffuser performance
made in a laboratory experiment

--

--

as can be

indicates that the flow field is

actually made up of several regions with distinct hydrodynamic properties.

By making use of these properties, additional approximations to

the governing equations can be introduced.

This enables solutions to be

obtained by analytical or shple numerical methods within these regions.

By matching these solutions, an overall description of the flow-field
can be given.
The obseryed vertical structure of the flow field for a diffuser
discharge within the two-dimensional channel is indicated in Figure 3-3
for the case of a stable near-field zone without re-entrainment.
flow regions can be discerned in this general case:

1) Buoyant Jet Region:

Forced by its initial momentum and

under the action of gravity, the two-dimensional slot

57

Four

rl

aJ

Frc

r(

kl

a
Q

c)

a
C

k
Q

+I

-4

rH

Q
U

3
k

rl

0
7(

..

m
I
m

M
d

58

j e t rises towards t h e s u r f a c e e n t r a i n i n g ambient water.

2) S u r f a c e Lmpingement Region:

The p r e s e n c e of thefree

surface, w i t h i t s density discontinuity, diverts the

impinging j e t i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n s .
3) Hydraulic Jump Region:

An a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n between t h e

h i g h v e l o c i t y f l o w i n t h e s u r f a c e impingement r e g i o n t o
lower v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e flow away zone i s provided by
an i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c jump.
4) S t r a t i f i e d Counterflow Region:

A c o u n t e r f l o w system i s

set up as a buoyancy-driven c u r r e n t i n t h e upper l a y e r

and an entrainment-induced c u r r e n t i n t h e lower l a y e r .
Region 1, 2 and 3 c o n s t i t u t e t h e n e a r - f i e l d

zone; r e g i o n 4 and t h e water

body o u t s i d e t h e c h a n n e l , t h e f a r - f i e l d zone.

Surface heat loss t o the

atmosphere is o n l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e f a r - f i e l d zone due t o t h e areal rest r i c t i o n of t h e n e a r - f i e l d .

The a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s for t h e s e f o u r dominant flow r e g i o n s

are given i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .

3.4

Dominant Flow Regions

3.4.1

Buoyant Jet Region

Approximations and GoverninP Equations

3.4.1.1

The d e f i n i t i o n of a l o c a l c o o r d i n a t e system s, n w i t h velo-

c i t y components

G,

i s convenient f o r the upward curved j e t t r a j e c t o r y ,

as shown i n F i g u r e 3-4.

I n terms of t h i s c o o r d i n a t e system t h e g o v e r n i n g Equations (3-3)

-

59

Ig

Fig. 3-4:

Definition Diagram for Buoyant Jet Region

.-

60

to (3-6) can be transformed

- an
aG -- -

P u -av + pa"

a as

an

,,gcosg

Jii'3'

Pa

as

2
-

aii'
Pa an

(3-10)

(3-11)

with

angle between s and x axes.

0 =

From jet observations the following approximations are inferred:

1) The flow phenomenon is predominantly in the longitudinal

direction,

b
S

<<

(3-12)

By continuity it follows that induced velocities in the

lateral direction are small

* v
<<1
i3

This boundary-layer approximation allows the neglect of

certain terms in the governing equations which are found
to

be o f secondary importance by a straightforward scaling

procedure using Equations (3-12) and (3-13).

61

2)

The p r e s s u r e o u t s i d e t h e j e t proper i s h y d r o s t a t i c , ph,

and s a t i s f i e s

-aa'hZ -

= o

Pa 8

( 3-14)

._

Consequently, t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e j e t i t s e l f can be
w r i t t e n as

P
where

pr

( 3- 15)

Ph + Pr

is a reduced p r e s s u r e , namely t h e p r e s s u r e

disturbance due t o j e t motion.

The two components of Eq. (3-14)

ah' as

in

s, r

g s i n 8

are

(3-16)

-aph
an

a gcose =

Noting t h a t
P

where

AT

= T

Ap

Pa

AP

(3-17)

i s t h e d e n s i t y d e f i c i e n c y due t o t h e temperature anomaly

- Ta

, pressure

e q u a t i o n s (3-9)

and g r a v i t a t i o n a l terms i n t h e momentum

and (3-10) can be s i m p l i f i e d as

- *+
as

p g s i n e

- -3s +

pgcose

- -a n

._

Ap g sin

(3-18)

(3-19)

and

-22
an
respectively.

62

+ AP

GOS

--

Experimental observations have shown t h a t the p r e s s u r e d e v i a t i o n pr

i s p r a c t i c a l l y n e g l i g i b l e i n t h e absence of boundaries.

I n the

d i f f u s e r problem boundaries are given by the bottom and t h e free surface.

Thus i n making t h e approximation

Pr

(3-20)

i t is implied t h a t t h e j e t s t a y s clear of the bottom (as j e t attach-

ment) and t h a t t h e e f f e c t of t h e f r e e surface where t h e pressure

d e v i a t i o n i s documented by t h e s u r f a c e hump (see Fig. 3-3) is l i m i t e d
t o t h e j e t impingement region.

This is discussed i n more d e t a i l i n t h e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e j e t impingement region.
The s i m p l i f i e d governing equations f o r the buoyant s l o t jet are,
using t h e continuity equation i n t h e transformation of the convective

terms,
(3-21)

(3-22)

(3-23)

(3-26)

The lateral momentum equation (3-23)

is replaced by t h e h o r i z o n t a l

momentum equation, a l i n e a r combination of (3-22) and (3-231,

which relates d i r e c t l y t o t h e boundary condition of h o r i z o n t a l momentum

The f u r t h e r s o l u t i o n

f l u x a t t h e s l o t opening as i s shown below.

procedure uses the entrainment concept proposed by Morton e t a l . (1956).

A v a r i a b l e entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t dependent on t h e l o c a l buoyant

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e j e t i s assumed of the form Eq. (2-11).

The

method of obtaining t h i s dependence follaws the procedure used by Fox

(1970) f o r v e r t i c a l round and s l o t jets and by H i r s t (1971) f o r nonv e r t i c a l round jets.

For t h i s purpose a s i m p l i f i e d energy equation

& s c r i b i n g t h e f l u x of mechanical energy i n the l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n

with v e l o c i t y

3 is found from EQ. (3-22) as

(3-26)
I

o r by v i r t u e of t h e continuity equation

(3-27)

Based on experimental evidence t h e following s i m i l a r i t y f u n c t i o n s

are s p e c i f i e d f o r

and

(3-28)

-(

AT(s,>n) =

ATc(s)e

64

T
&

1
(3-29)

i n which

I s a dispersion r a t i o between momentum and h e a t or mass.

The p r o f i l e f o r

Ap

is r e l a t e d t o (3-29) by t h e equation of s t a t e ,

thus

( 3- 30)

...
uc

Tc

, ApC

are c e n t e r l i n e values.

These functions are introduced i n t o Eqs. (3-211,

and (3-25)

(3-22),

(3-24)

and t h e equations are i n t e g r a t e d i n the normal d i r e c t i o n

I f t h e boundary conditions

..,

+ + 5

are noted, t h e r e s u l t i n g ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations are,

d
x
[

J
a

..,

-(

g1

dnl

65

2Ge

(3-32)

2
d
ds

Q)

--[

-2(
h2
u cosee

dn]

-00

(3-34)

The normal v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e j e t boundary, ve

, i.e.

the "entrainment

velocity" is assumed t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j e t v e l o c i t y

lGe1

a iic

(3-36)

This c o n s t i t u t e s t h e entrainment concept by Morton e t a l .

After

evaluation of t h e i n t e g r a l s t h e equations become

continuity:
d

(Gc b)

a tC

dir

(3-37)

a x i a l momentum:
d

-2
(uC b)

fi

%
pa

g hb s i n 8

(3 -38 )

h o r i z o n t a l momentum:

(3-39)

heat conservation :
d
(Gc
ds

ATc b)

or a l t e r n a t i v e l y i n s t e a d of ( 3 - 4 0 )

66

(3 -40 )

conservation of d e n s i t y deficiency :

3.4.1.2

Dependence of t h e Entrainment on

Local Jet Characteristics

Experimentally deduced v a l u e s f o r

a as reported i n t h e
a with

previous c h a p t e r s , Eqs. (2-18) and (2-19) show t h e dependence of

t h e buoyant j e t characteristics.
t h e energy equation (3-27)

This dependence can be examined using

following Pox's approach f o r t h e v e r t i c a l j e t .

To i n t e g r a t e t h i s equation i t is assumed that t h e stress G'G'

distributed i n a similarity profile f(n/b)
l i n e velocity

is

and r e l a t e d t o t h e center-

iic

There is experimental support t o t h i s assumption (Mih and Hoopes

(1972)) b u t t h e accuracy of the data does not allow s p e c i f i c a t i o n of

With (3-42) and t h e o t h e r s i m i l a r i t y p r o f i l e s t h e energy equation (3-27)

is i n t e g r a t e d t o

L
ds

r
~

-3 -3 (n/b)
~ c u
e
dn]

= 2

% g ii s-n
I
* p a c
W

- 2

and a f t e r evaluation

-OD

-(1+rH

8 e

4 -(n/b)2 d
dn f (nib) dn
uce

2
dn

where

a0

e- ( d b )

d
dn

ioD

f (n/b) dn

(3-45)

Noting t h e i d e n t i t y

(3-46)

Equation (3-44) can b e transformed using t h e axial momentum Eq. (3-38)

to

-d ( G C b ) = 2 - g"Cb - [ f i X1 ds
Pa
U

1 + X

(3-47)
+2.\1+

Gc I

When t h i s equation is compared with t h e c o n t i n u i t y Eq. ( 3 . 3 7 ) t h e

entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t

a is expressed as

...

i f a l o c a l densimetric Froude number i s defined

(3-49 )

Equation (3-48) i s similar t o Fox's equation except f o r the f a c t o r

sin 8

The expression ( 3 - 4 8 ) c o n s i s t s of two p a r t s

-

(3-50)

68

showing a c o n s t a n t

a1

, as

f i r s t p o s t u l a t e d by Morton e t a1 (1956),

modified by a f u n c t i o n which depends on t h e buoyant j e t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

t , X , and

t h e j e t geometry, s i n 8

This dependence i s f u r t h e r

explored.

a reduces t o

For t h e simple non-buoyant momentum j e t

a = al

= &I

as

(3-51)

F ~ - c -

As t h e l a c k of s p e c i f i c a t i o n of a s i m i l a r i t y p r o f i l e f o r
not allow e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i n t e g r a l

a,

c?

does

i s determined from

.
I
.

experimental data f o r t h e momentum j e t

al

= 0.069

(3-52)

by Albertson et a1 (1950) which value has been w e l l s u b s t a n t i a t e d by

other investigations.
For d i s t a n c e s far from t h e d i s c h a r g e po,nt

a l l buoyant jets

tend t o t h e condition of a pure v e r t i c a l l y r i s i n g plume.

This

asymptotic case i s characterized by a c o n s t a n t densimetric Froude

n

FL nrnnber as is shown below.

The change in t h e l o c a l densimetric Froude number
the jet trajectory

FL along

is from Eq. (3-49)

(3-53)

69

a f t e r some manipulation.

Using Eqs. (3-37),

(3-38) and (3-40) t h i s

becomes

1 1
1
F L z ~ [ - &T

dFL
- =

-.

ds

-g

X b sin 8

Pa

uc

2
-a

N
uC]

(3-54)

or i n a simpler, i m p l i c i t form
dFLI

(3-55)

X sin 8

ds

For the v e r t i c a l l y r i s i n g plume s i n 8 = 1

.
n

The necessary conditions f o r an asymptotic value

dFL= o
-ds

as

FL

FL

L > o
da

if

FL

FL

if

FL >

FL

FL are

and

-dFL
< o
ds

(3-56)

These conditions are s a t i s f i e d f o r

(3-5 7)
n

where

is t h e entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t and

of the simple plume.

A

than

FL

, then

X t h e spreading r a t i o

I f t h e Froude number of t h e discharge i s less

t h e j e t w i l l be accelerated and w i l l monotonically

approach the plume condition.

belong i n t h i s group.

Convection phenomena over l i n e f i r e s

Of d i r e c t i n t e r e s t in t h e submerged d i f f u s e r
A

case i s discharge with l a r g e Froude numbers

70

FL > FL

where the flow

becomes gradually decelerated u n t i l the balance between buoyancy and

-

shear forces which i s t y p i c a l of the plume is reached.

This behavior

and t h e existence of t h e asymptotic value was first described by Lee

and Emmons (19621, r e f e r r i n g t o the two cases as restrained and impelled
sources, respectively.
In the v e r t i c a l l y r i s i n g buoyant plume condition the equation
n

f o r t h e entrainment (3-50) should be s a t i s f i e d by

sin 8

from Eq. (3-57) with

0.069

, X , and

FL

1 , thus

-qy

+ [a

(3-58)

1 + X

The only extensive experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n regarding plume

behavior was made by Rome e t a1 (1952) on buoyancy sources from l i n e
fires.

Measurements of v e l o c i t y and temperature w e r e taken a t distances

above t h e source such t h a t t h e influence of an i n i t i a l deviation

FL #

tL

can be neglected and t r u e plume values are approached.

However,

t h e i r d a t a f i t t i n g procedure which yielded t h e frequently used values

n

0.160

and

0.89

(3-59)

implied l i n e a r spreading from the source, a Condition which is

v i o l a t e d when t h e initial
s a t i s f y Eq. (3-58).

FL #

GL

The values (3-59) do not

Abraham (1963) re-examined Rouse e t al.'s data

and found t h a t i n t h e region above the source where there i s e f f e c t i v e

plume behavior t h e values
h

a = 0.130

and

X =

1.24

(3-60)
h

describe the d i s t r i b u t i o n s much b e t t e r .

..

71
__

A spreading r a t i o X > 1 is

a l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n s on o t h e r f r e e t u r b u l e n t phenomena.
h

Introducing

h = 1.24

agreement f o r

i n t o Eq. (3-58) y i e l d s

a = 0.128.

This good

m u s t b e judged somewhat f o r t u i t o u s s i n c e i t is

based only on a s i n g l e set of experiments, b u t seems t o s u p p o r t t h e

v a l i d i t y of t h e f u n c t i o n a l dependence of

01

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x p r e s s e d by Eq. (3-48).

With t h e s e v a l u e s t h e magnitude

on t h e buoyant j e t

of l o c a l Froude number f o r a s i m p l e plume i s

The spreading r a t i o

FL = 3.48.

a l s o shows some v a r i a t i o n w i t h j e t

buoyancy as i n d i c a t e d by experiments.

f o r the s i m p l e momentum j e t ( R e i c h a r d t (1942)) and

plume (3-60)

is observed.

A v a r i a t i o n between
= 1.24

= 1.41

f o r the

However, as t h e second term i n t h e e n t r a i n -

ment r e l a t i o n s h i p is i m p o r t a n t only f o r plume-like b e h a v i o r a c o n s t a n t

= h = 1.24

is assumed throughout t h e j e t domain.

With t h e s e d a t a , t h e f o l l o w i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e form is proposed f o r

t h e entrainment r e l a t i o n s h i p (3-50) i n a s l o t buoyant j e t

a = 0.069

[3.11

2.39 s i n 01

1
2

(3-61a)

FL
and a c o n s t a n t s p r e a d i n g r a t i o

3.4.1.3

I n i t i a l Conditions: Zone of Flow E s t a b l i s h m e n t

The governing e q u a t i o n s (3-37)

t o (3-41)

do n o t adequately

d e s c r i b e t h e zone of flow e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n which a t r a n s i t i o n between

t h e uniform s l o t e x i t v e l o c i t y

Uo

and t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n

t h e g e n e r a l flow r e g i o n t a k e s place as s e e n i n Fig. 3-5.

Therefore

f o r t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s some approximate s t e p s are

taken:

72

XVelocity

Fig. 3-5:

u0

Zone of Flow Establishment

73

1) The i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s are s p e c i f i e d a t t h e end of t h e zone

of flow establishment and are r e l a t e d t o t h e s l o t d i s c h a r g e conditions
by conservation equations.
2)
neglected

The e f f e c t of buoyancy i n t h e zone of e s t a b l i s h m e n t i s

Requiring c o n s t a n t momentum f l u x i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n one o b t a i n s

n

B=

OD

-2(n/b)
e

iii

-00

dn

= f i U :

bo

(3-62)

thus
b0

(3-63)

=$B

The volume f l u x a t t h e end of t h e zone follows then

(3-64)

which i s i n c l o s e agreement on experimentally derived r e l a t i o n s h i p s

f o r t h e zone of establishment by Albertson e t a1 (1950)

(3-65)
e v a l u a t e d f o r t h e length of t h e zone
=

i n which

s = 5.2 B

as

(3-66)

1.42 UoB

4e = volume f l u x .

F i n a l l y , conservation of d e n s i t y d e f i c i e n c y r e q u i r e s
-(1

Q)

uo8 Apo

/
-OD

Go

Apc
C

74

1/X2)(n/b) 2
dn

(3-67)

and with (3-62)

( 3-6 8)

as t h e i n i t i a l condition a t t h e end of t h e zone.

I n t h e f u r t h e r treatment, t h e e x t e n t

s / B = 5.2

of t h e zone

of establishment w i l l be neglected as the region of i n t e r e s t

s/B

is considerably larger.
3.4.1.4

Solution of t h e Equations

The complete statement of t h e heated buoyant j e t problem is

summarized as follaws:

(3-69)

-2

(uC b)

A! -

A b sin 0

(3- 70)

Pa

d
ds (6:

b cos 6)

(3-71)

0
--iclud,ng

with

(3-72)

geometric r e l a t i o n s describing t h e j e t t r a j e c t o r y

- dx
ds

cos 0

(3-73)

dz
ds

sin 0

(3-74)

0.069

[3.11

- 2.39

s i n 01

1
2

(3-75)

FL

and

(3- 76)

1.24
75

The center l i n e temperature rise

related to

Apc

ATc

above t h e ambient t e m p e r a t u r e i s

by t h e e q u a t i o n of s t a t e
ATc

p1

(3-7 7)

ApC

The i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e

II

(3-78)

which are g i v e n a t t h e end of t h e zone of flow e s t a b l i s h m e n t and are

r e l a t e d t o t h e s l o t e x i t c o n d i t i o n s by Eqs. (3-63)

and (3-68).

S o l u t i o n of t h e e q u a t i o n s is n o t p o s s i b l e i n c l o s e d a n a l y t i c a l

form.

However, t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e problem is r e a d i l y i n t e g r a t e d by

n u m e r i c a l methods.

is used.

A f o u r t h o r d e r Runge-Kutta i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e

The buoyant j e t d i s c h a r g e is governed by t h e f o l l o w i n g

d i m e n s i o n l e s s parameters determined from t h e s l o t e x i t c o n d i t i o n s :

d e n s i m e t r i c Froude

(3-79)

a n g l e of d i s c h a r g e

(3-80)

76

I f i n addition the distance

is scaledby

dimensionless d i s t a n c e

(3-81)

t h e buoyant j e t p r o p e r t i e s , namely v e l o c i t y , d e n s i t y d e f i c i e n c y , w i d t h
and t r a j e c t o r y , are f u n c t i o n a l l y dependent as

(3-82)

An important r e s u l t i n g parameter is t h e j e t c e n t e r l i n e d i l u t i o n
S

which determines t h e decrease i n d e n s i t y d e f i c i e n c y ( o r temperature)

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e discharge

4%

bTO

(3-83)

and w i t h respec, t o t h e end of zone of flow estaAishment

(3-84)
by virtue of Eq. ( 3 - 6 8 ) .

An average d i l u t i o n S
, -

distance

is d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o of f l o w a t any

t o t h e discharge a t t h e s l o t .
m

(3-85)
I

Mass c o n s e r v a t i o n g i v e s the r e l a t i o n

-s

= s + y C

(3-86)

A comparison between t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s f o r c e n t e r l i n e d i l u t i o n

w i t h o u t s u r f ace e f f e c t s using a v a r i a b l e entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t as

proposed i n E q .

(3-75) versus using a c o n s t a n t entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t

(Fan and Brooks (1969),

c1 =

0.16) i s g i v e n i n F i g . 3-6 for a v e r t i c a l

and i n Fig. 3-7 f o r a h o r i z o n t a l j e t d i s c h a r g e .

Limited e x p e r i m e n t a l

d a t a are a l s o included.
For t h e v e r t i c a l discharge both p r e d i c t i o n s are about e q u a l i n
t h e l o w Froude number range.
too high f o r l a r g e

Fan and Brooks' p r e d i c t i o n i s , however,

(due t o t h e chosen v a l u e of a), w h i l e t h e

FS

p r e d i c t i o n s of t h i s study approach A l b e r t s e n e t al. 's (1950) e x p e r i m e n t a l l y

v e r i f i e d r e s u l t for t h e average d i l u t i o n

i n non-buoyant jets

S = 0.62

(3-87)

which can b e converted t o

0 . 6 4

(3-88)

1 + X

by v i r t u e of Eq. (3-86) and taking account of t h e proper i n i t i a l

condition a t t h e end of the zone of flow establishment.
ments of

Some measure-

w e r e made i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r t of t h i s s t u d y ( s e e

Chapter 5 ) and t h e agreement is b e t t e r w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n

of t h i s s t u d y .
For t h e h o r i z o n t a l discharge t h i s s t u d y p r e d i c t s somewhat h i g h e r
d i l u t i o n s f o r low
f o r high

Fs

The s t r o n g s l o p e of Fan and Brook's s o l u t i o n

is a g a i n due t o t h e c o n s t a n t v a l u e of

c1

Experimental

d a t a are r e p o r t e d by Cederwell (1971) and are l i m i t e d t o t h e v e r y low

78

---.

- .X

Fig. 3-6:

Fan a n d Brooks

oC = 0.16
A = 0 89

This s t u d y

CC Eq ( 3 - 7 5 )

Non-buoyant jet
Eq (3- 8 8 )

%+OO

Experiments

Centerline Dilutions S

-124

this Study

for Buoyant Slot Jets Without

Surface Interaction.

Vertical Discharge.

of theory and experiments.

Comparison

20c

-- -

Fan and Brooks

OC

=0.16

=0.89

oC E q . ( 3 - 7 5 )

This s t u d y

Experiments by Cederwall (1971)

Fig. 3-7:

C e n t e r l i n e Dilutions Sc f o r Buoyant S l o t Jets Without

Surface I n t e r a c t i o n .

Horizontal Discharge.

of Theory and Experiments.

80

Comparison

*S

range.

A l l d a t a l i e between t h e p r e d i c t i o n s of both i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,

t h e agreement being somewhat c l o s e r w i t h Fan and Brooks' s o l u t i o n .

3.4.2

Surf ace Impingement Region

3.4.2.1)

General S o l u t i o n

The buoyant j e t region i s bounded by t h e s u r f a c e

impingement region i n which an abrupt t r a n s i t i o n between the j e t flow,
with a s t r o n g v e r t i c a l component, t o a h o r i z o n t a l spreading motion
occurs.

Discussion of t h e j e t impingement a t t h e surface a l s o has

some relevance t o t h e buoyant j e t region i n p a r t i c u l a r with regard t o

t h e previous assumption of n e g l i g i b l e reduced pressure

Pr

The main f e a t u r e s of t h e impingement are i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 3-8.

The momentum of t h e j e t sets up a s u r f a c e hump
a pressure d e v i a t i o n
__

TI

i n conjunction with

Pr decreasing i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n .

This

pressure g r a d i e n t causes a s t a g n a t i o n of t h e vertical flow accompanied

by a h o r i z o n t a l spreading i n both d i r e c t i o n s .
The buoyant j e t impingement i s a complex flow phenomenon.

Thus

no attempt i s made t o s o l v e f o r flow p r o p e r t i e s i n s i d e the region.

Rather, a c o n t r o l volume approach i s taken which y i e l d s a d e s c r i p t i o n
of t h e h o r i z o n t a l spreading l a y e r s a f t e r impingement.

The thickness

of t h e spreading l a y e r s determines t h e e l e v a t i o n (H = hi)

t o which

e f f e c t i v e j e t entrainment occurs and t h e dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are

d e c i s i v e f o r t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e f l o w away zone.
Referring t o Fig. 3-8, a c o n t r o l volume is defined by s e c t i o n

with t h e incoming j e t flow, by s e c t i o n s a, b w i t h the h o r i z o n t a l

spreading motion and by t h e f r e e s u r f a c e .

The f l a w is described by a

set of s i m p l i f i e d s p a t i a l l y averaged equations:

81

Fig. 3-8:

Schematics of Surface Impingement Region

82

Energy equations :

-2
U
-i
pa 2g

u1

APi

- 2ga-

'a

hL
a

(3-89)

-2

pa

= + Pa

APa

-U2gi -

Api z = P a

-ulb
2g

+ Pa

'Pb

(3-90)

Lb

H o r i z o n t a l momentum equation:

Q)

-m

$ cos

Pa

8i dn

+ $

2
Pa u% dz

pa uf

dz

( 3-9 1)

H-hl

a
Continuity :
02

$ Gi

-03

dn

la

us,

dz

I
H-hl

u1

dz

(3-92)

a
where

= energy l o s s e s i n t h e impingement process. This

La
h\
formulation i n c l u d e s some of t h e assumptions made in t h e treatment of

t h e buoyant j e t r e g i o n , notably t h e Boussinesq approximation.

Further-

more, t h e s e assumptions are i n h e r e n t :

a)

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e d e v i a t i o n

pr : The

vertical e x t e n t of t h e p r e s s u r e i n f l u e n c e is l i m i t e d .

Experiments

by Cola (1966) and Murota and Muraoka (1967) on v e r t i c a l nonbuoyant jets show t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e i n f l u e n c e is n e g l i g i b l e
below
_-

section

z/H < 0.75.

i

Thus t h e p r e s s u r e

as a f i r s t approximation.

pr

is neglected a t

The h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n t

83
.--

of t h e p r e s s u r e i n f l u e n c e i s r e l a t e d t o t h e j e t w i d t h

Sections

and

bi

are assumed t o b e l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h i s

zone.
b)

Entrainment i n t h e s p r e a d i n g p r o c e s s is n e g l i g i b l e .

S o l u t i o n of t h e s e e q u a t i o n s r e q u i r e s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
v e l o c i t y and d e n s i t y p r o f i l e s f o r a l l s e c t i o n s as w e l l as
e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e energy l o s s e s .

Hence t h e f o l l o w i n g

a d d i t i o n a l assumptions are i n t r o d u c e d :
c)

V e l o c i t y and d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t s e c t i o n

are r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e Gaussian p r o f i l e s Eqs

(3-30) t y p i c a l of t h e buoyant j e t r e g i o n .
sections

and

. (3-28)

and

Distributions a t

are dependent on t h e buoyant c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s of t h e impinging j e t .

Cola and Murota and Nuraoka found

t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r non-buoyant j e t s t o b e
essentially jet-like.

For buoyant j e t s , however, t h e

buoyancy in t h e s p r e a d i n g l a y e r exerts a s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t
on t h e flow which s u p p r e s s e s t h e j e t d i f f u s i o n i n t h e
vertical direction.

V e l o c i t y and d e n s i t y p r o f i l e s can be

reasonably approximated by a r e c t a n g u l a r p r o f i l e .
be s e e n i n Fig. 3-9.

Photograph (Fig. 3-9a)

This can

shows t h e dye

traces o b t a i n e d from an i n s t a n t a n e o u s dye i n j e c t i o n by means

of a probe

which had h o l e s spaced a t 1 intervals.

Due t o

t h e d i f f u s i o n of t h e i n j e c t e d dye, t h e p r o b e cannot b e used

f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of v e l o c i t i e s .

However, t h e

photograph shows t h e q u a l i t a t i v e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
namely a s t r o n g approximately uniform flow i n t h e upper 5 i n .
of t h e depth and a weak counterflow t o t h e l e f t i n t h e lower

84

Grid Size

2 in. x 4 in.

a ) Dye Traces From I n s t a n t a n e o u s I n j e c t i o n Showing

Velocity Distribution

X = + 6 in.

in.

T=
,

65.8"F

b ) Temperature P r o f i l e s a t S e c t i o n s a and b

Fig. 3-9:

Observed V e l o c i t y and Temperature (Density)

D i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r Vertical Buoyant Jet

(Fs = 31, H / B = 416)

85

p o r t i o n caused by t h e j e t e n t r a i n m e n t .

Similarly, the

observed temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s a f t e r impingement are

approximately uniform e x c e p t f o r t y p i c a l t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a tions.

(The e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p i s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l

i n Chapter 5.)

Thus t h e v e l o c i t y and d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s

are i n s e c t i o n a

(4

u1

1
a
H-hl<
a

Apa(z>

Apa

u1 a

z < H

( 3-9 3)

and i n s e c t i o n b

(3-94)

A Consequence of t h e uniformly mixed d i s t r i b u t i o n s

i n t h e spreading l a y e r s is

d)

The energy l o s s e s due t o secondary c i r c u l a t i o n s i n

t h e impingement p r o c e s s are r e l a t e d t o t h e v e l o c i t y head a t

section

as

(3-96)

86

where

5a

'kLb

are head loss c o e f f i c i e n t s which are dependent

on t h e a n g l e and c u r v a t u r e of t h e flow bending and can b e

approximated by e x p e r i m e n t a l l y determined head loss c o e f f i c i e n t s

f o r flows i n smooth p i p e bends ( f o r example, Ito (1960)).

With t h e assumed s i m i l a r i t y p r o f i l e s t h e s e c t i o n a l l y averaged
q u a n t i t i e s i n t h e energy e q u a t i o n can b e d e f i n e d as:

-2
- in
2g

00

ci

dn

= -1-

1 - 0
2g

OD

45

2g

3, dn

2
C

(3-9 7)

-Q)

(3-99)

(3-100)
and
P

hl
a

hi

87

hl

(3-101)

The Eqs. (3-89)

t o (3-92) become, a f t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of Eq. (3-95)

cos Ii

bi

2
ulb hlb

2
u1 hl
a
a

(3-104)

fi

(3-105)

These 4 equations determine t h e 4 unknowns

as a f u n c t i o n of j e t c o n d i t i o n s a t s e c t i o n

la

, ApC

a. .

, bi

f(z

, that

is

- hi)

(3-106)

as obtained from t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e buoyant j e t equations (3-69)

(3-76).

to

As no closed form s o l u t i o n s t o t h e buoyant j e t equations

are p o s s i b l e , t h e a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s (3-102) t o (3-105)

of t h e s u r f a c e

impingement can be s i m p l i f i e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g a l i n e a r approximation

of Eqs. (3-106) i n t h e range of

z where t h e l a y e r depth i s expected.

The a l g e b r a equations are then e a s i l y s o l v a b l e by simple numerical

techniques, such as the Newton-Raphson method.

88

Special Cases

3.4.2.2

Valuable i n s i g h t on t h e r e l a t i v e importance of t h e terms

i n Eqs. (3-102) t o (3-104) i s gained by considering t h e vertical d i s charge case for both the simple momentum j e t and t h e simple plume.
The flow p a t t e r n i s then symmetric u1 = ulb = u1
a
and the equations reduce t o

, hl

hlb = hi

(3-107)

bi

fi = 2 u1 hi

(3-108)

and by s u b s t i t u t i o n

a)

Vertical Momentum Jet (Apc

= 0):

Eq. (3-109) becomes

(3-110)

The j e t width
equations.

bi

i s obtained from t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e buoyant j e t

From Eq. (3-70) one o b t a i n s

(3-111)
by considering t h e i n i t i a l condition (3-63).
Eq. (3-69) y i e l d s

(8

Substitution i n t o

= z)

-db=

dz

- a
J;;

89

(3-112)

and i n t e g r a t e d
b

-4

3Lz

(3-113)

J;;
i f t h e i n i t i a l width
Hence a t

z =H

bo

is neglected f o r l a r g e

,b

>> bo

- hi
-4

bi =

u(H

- hi)

(3-114)

L
l

and a f t e r s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o Eq. (3-110)

- L=

(3-115)

a = 0.069, and

For t h e momentum jet

(1960) d a t a as
curvatures.

kL-0.2

is estimated from I t o ' s

for a 90" bend and a wide range of

The v a r i a t i o n of

hi/H

with

i s seen i n t h e

following t a b l e :

hi

H
b)

Plume:

0.152

0. 2
-

0.4

0.167
-

0.188

The constancy 6f t h e l o c a l densimetric Froude

number

F,, = FL

has been shown i n Section 3.4.1.2.

This f a c t , in

combination with t h e constant buoyancy f l u x Eq. (3-72),

d

t h a t t h e j e t c e n t e r l i n e velocity

convective plane plume.

db a
ds

uc

is a l s o constant i n t h e

Thus Eq. (3-69)

2 ;
J;;
90

implies

can be simplified t o
(3-116)

and i n t e g r a t e d f o r

- hi

z = H

- a(H

bi =

J;;

again neglecting t h e i n i t i a l width.

- hi)

(3-117)

After s u b s t i t u t i o n and rearrang-

ing using t h e value of

(Eq. (3-57)) Eq. (3-109) becomes

FL

(3-118)

With

% = 0.2,

a = 0.128

and

1.24

t h e equation is evaluated

as
hi
H

(3-119)

0.149

The second terra on the r i g h t s i d e of Eq. (3-118) expresses t h e

e f f e c t of buoyancy on t h e thickness.
hi
I

I f t h i s term is neglected

(3-120)

0.159

exhibiting only weak s e n s i t i v i t y .

Thus calculations f o r both t h e vertical momentum j e t and t h e

plume show that t h e thickness of t h e spreading l a y e r is about 1 / 6 of
the t o t a l depth

H and the j e t entrainment region can be assumed t o

extend t o t h i s elevation.
seen i n Fig. 3.9.

Preliminary evidence of t h i s r e s u l t can be

The result somewhat v i o l a t e s t h e assumption of

neglecting t h e pressure deviation

preceding sections.

pr

a t s e c t i o n i made i n t h e

However, t h e error introduced appears t o be small.

91

3.4.2.3

Vertical Flow D i s t r i b u t i o n P r i o r t o t h e
Hydraulic Jump

A f t e r t h e combined e v a l u a t i o n of t h e buoyant j e t and t h e

impingement r e g i o n s , t h e v e r t i c a l flow d i s t r i b u t i o n can be determined.
With r e f e r e n c e t o Fig. 3-10, a t both Sections a and b, a counterflow

system is p r e s e n t with flow i n t h e upper l a y e r away from the l i n e of

impingement and flow i n t h e lower l a y e r towards j e t entrainment

I
Fig. 3-10:

Schematic of Vertical Flow D i s t r i b u t i o n

P r i o r t o Internal Hydraulic Jump.

I n i t i a l and s u r f a c e l a y e r volume f l u x e s p e r u n i t channel width are

= Uo B

(3-121)

91
a

(3-122)

qlb

40

u1 hl
a

respectively.

The average d i l u t i o n is by d e f i n i t i o n

s =

+qlb

q1a

QO

92

and the t o t a l entrainment flow q

follows as

(3The magnitude of

i s obtained by considering a
a and *%
horizontal momentum equation between a and b
Writing t h i s
q2

equation n o t i c e can be made of the f a c t that the horizontal j e t d i s charge momentum i s a c t u a l l y conserved within t h e buoyant j e t region
and the impingement region (Eq. (3-104)).

Thus a momentum equation

can be written f o r t h e lower layer alone excluding these regions.

With t h e assumptions of hydrostatic pressure and uniform velocity
d i s t r i b u t i o n t h i s is simply
2

q2b

(3-

Substitution of Eq. (3-123) gives

(3-

Gross densimetric Froude numbers f o r upper and lower l a y e r s

are important v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y in t h e subsequent
i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump region and are defined as (omitting t h e seca

subscript)
93

(3-126)

(3-127)

i n which

Ap

-bpi

a
t h e uniform density d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e upper l a y e r .

Indications of t h e magnitude of t h e s e Froude numbers are drawn

from t h e s p e c i a l cases considered earlier.

F1

F2

For t h e v e r t i c a l momentum

(3-128)

For t h e plume,

(3-129)

h,

312

following a similar procedure t o t h a t used i n t h e derivation of

A

Eq. (3-118),

with

A = 1.24, a = 0.128

and

hi/H = 0.149 (Eq. (3-119)),

one g e t s

F1

= 2.63
(3-130)

F2

= 0.19

For v e r t i c a l buoyant jets Eq. (3-130) g i v e s t h e lower bounds on t h e

R o d e numbers.

94

3.4.3

I n t e r n a l Hydraulic Jump Region

3.4.3.1)

General Solution

The i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump region provides t h e t r a n s i t i o n

between the flow conditions a t t h e end of t h e s u r f a c e impingement
region and t h e flow away i n t o the f a r f i e l d .

The region is analyzed

as an i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump i n a two-layered counterf l o w .

The d e f i n i t i o n diagram, Fig. 3-11, shows t h e upstream and down-

q1

q2

J-

Fig. 3-11:

Definition Diagram: Internal Hydraulic Jump.

stream conditions of t h e i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump.

These conditions

are r e f e r r e d t o as conjugate t o each o t h e r , t h a t is they represent

two flow states which are dynamically p o s s i b l e with regard t o the
governing momentum equation.

The abrupt change of flow states i n the

jump is a s s o c i a t e d with considerable energy l o s s e s and possible

entrainment a t t h e i n t e r f a c e .

An approximate a n a l y s i s of the jump can be made by applying t h e

momentum conservation p r i n c i p l e t o both flaw l a y e r s between the upand downstream s e c t i o n s .

The a n a l y s i s assumes h y d r o s t a t i c pressure

95

d i s t r i b u t i o n and uniform v e l o c i t i e s a t both s e c t i o n s .

Furthermore t h e

entrainment i n t h e jump is neglected as are t h e i n t e r f a c i a l and bottom

shear.

All t h e s e assumptions are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e made i n the

a n a l y s i s of simple one-layered jumps.

The momentum e q u a t i o n is f i r s t given f o r the c o n t r o l volume
comprising t h e lower l a y e r as

i n which t h e mean head a c t i n g over t h e jump s e c t i o n is approximated by

21 (hl + h i )

For t h e upper l a y e r i t follows

I f f r e e s u r f a c e Froude numbers are defined in the u s u a l form

(3-133)

96

Equations (3-131)

and (3-132) can b e r e w r i t t e n as

*2 2
2F1 h ( h '
1 1

h2

h2 h i ( h 1

- hl)

hi

- hl
( 3-134)

+ 1 -

+ hi)

h2

This d e r i v a t i o n was f i r s t given by Yih and Guha (1955).

a l s o discussed t h e p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s f o r

hi/hl

and

These a u t h o r s
h;/h2

In

g e n e r a l , t h e r e are 9 r o o t s t o t h e above e q u a t i o n s , o u t of which only

4 are p o s i t i v e and t h u s p h y s i c a l l y meaningful.

These 4 r o o t s are

given by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of two p a r a b o l i c branches of t h e equations

as i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 3-12a.

The energy c o n t e n t ( s p e c i f i c head) f o r

each of t h e 4 conjugate s t a t e s can b e e v a l u a t e d .

I t i s found (Yih

(1965)) t h a t t h e 4 s o l u t i o n s have d i f f e r e n t s p e c i f i c heads a s i n d i c a t e d

in Fig. 3-12a with 1 f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n with h i g h e s t energy.

A jump

can only occur from a state of higher energy to one of laser energy.
For the i n t e r n a l jump s t a t e 3 i s t h e given upstream s t a t e and s t a t e 4

is t h e conjugate state w i t h lower energy,

This follows from t h e f a c t

t h a t in t h e i n t e r n a l jump t h e lower l a y e r d e c r e a s e s , and t h e upper

l a y e r increases i t s t h i c k n e s s .
requirement

Only states 3 and 4 s a t i s f y t h i s

Under certain c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e i s no c o n j u g a t e s t a t e t o t h e
given s t a t e (3) as shown i n Fig. 3-12b.
t h i s f a c t i s discussed i n the sequel.

97

The p h y s i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n of

Fig. 3-12:

Solution graph for the momentum equations

a ) General case with 4 conjugate s t a t e s ,

b) C a s e with only 2 conjugate states, no

i n t e r n a l j ump possible

3.4.3.2

Solution f o r Jumps with Low Velocities and

Low Buoyancy
Yih's s o l u t i o n , Eqs. (3-134) and (3-1351, give the jump
conditions as a function of 4 parameters
hi
-

hi
-

hl ' h2

f[

hl
*
F1
h2
9

F2

'P
Y

- AP

(3-136)

Pa

I n the problem of i n t e r e s t , namely, d i f f u s e r discharge, both f r e e

surface Froude numbers and r e l a t i v e density differences are s m a l l .
Hence an asymptotic s o l u t i o n is attempted of the form

98

while

finite

(3-137)

so t h a t the jump conditions are a function of 3 parameters only

hi

hi
hl

'

f[

h2

hl
,y 2 1

(3-138)

h2

Equations (3-134) and (3-135) are transformed i n t o l i n e a r l y

dependent equations i n which t h i s l i m i t i n g process can be made validly.
For t h i s purpose
=

Ahl

hi

- hl

Ah2

are defined and t h e expressions f o r

- hl

hi

Ah2/Ahl

(3-139)

obtained from Eq.

(3-134) and (3-135) are equated t o give

hi
hi
( -+

hl

1)

2
2F1][

hi
hi
( -+

h2

hl

1)

h2

2
2 F2]

4(

Pa-&
pa

lF1 F2
(3-140)

A second equation i s obtained by taking t h e i n v e r s e of Eq. (3-134) and

again forming t h e expression f o r
the

Ah2/Ah1

from Eq.

(3-1351,

Ah2/hhl
thus

hi

hi

hi

- ( -+
hl

hl

1)

-2

2
F1]

which i s then equated with

- 2 F:
99

hi

-(-+
hl
hi
hi
-(-+
h2
h2

1)

(---

1)

h2

hl

1)

( -hi
--

hl

1)

h2
hl

(3-141

The e x p r e s s i o n (pa

unity.

i n Eq. (3-140)

&)/pa

A simple equation f o r

t h e value of

h v 2 / h 2 from Eq

hi/hl

can then be formed by s u b s t i t u t i n g

. (3-140)

i n t o (3-141),

hi
[( - -

can b e approximated t o

namely

2 Fi
(3-142)

hl

2Fi
h!

h!

I
I
-(-+l)

hl hl

The d e v i a t i o n introduced by s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e asymptotic s o l u t i o n f o r

hi/hl

Eq. (3-142)

negligible.

For

t o t h e true s o l u t i o n Eqs. (3-134)

Ap/pa = 0.05

and (3-135)

is

which i s considerably h i g h e r than

d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r a c t i c a l d i f f u s e r a p p l i c a t i o n s (e.g.,
S e c t i o n 1.1) t h e e r r o r i s about 1%.Thus Eq. (3-142)

see

describes the

dynamics of an i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c jump w i t h low v e l o c i t i e s and l o w

density differences

Important information r e g a r d i n g t h e existence of a h y d r a u l i c

A c r i t i c a l state is defined as

jump can be derived from Eq. (3-142).

one which i s conjugate t o i t s e l f , t h a t is

h;/hl

= 1

With t h i s

v a l u e t h e e q u a t i o n g i v e s t h e c r i t i c a l condition
2
F1

F2

(3-143)

In analogy t o f r e e s u r f a c e flow s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by

F1
2 + F i > 1

(3-144)

and s u b c r i t i c a l flow by
2
F1

2
F2
< 1
100

(3-145)

_-

A h y d r a u l i c jump can only occur from s u p e r c r i t i c a l t o s u b c r i t i c a l

flow as t h e energy c o n t e n t is lower f o r t h e l a t t e r and energy is

I

d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e jump.

That t h e upstream c o n d i t i o n i n the problem

considered is indeed s u p e r c r i t i c a l is demonstrated by s u b s t i t u t i n g

the values of d e n s i m e t r i c Froude numbers Eqs. (3-130), which as
plume conditions r e p r e s e n t lower bounds f o r buoyant jets: Condition
(3-144)

is s a t i s f i e d .

A jump w i l l occur which changes t h i s super-

c r i t i c a l state t o t h e s u b c r i t i c a l s t a t e p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e s t r a t i f i e d
counterflow region.
For c e r t a i n combinations o f

Fl

, FZ

and

hl/h2

, however,

Eq. (3-142) does not g i v e a conjugate s u b c r i t i c a l downstream s e c t i o n

w i t h lower energy ( s e e Fig. 3-12b).
The p h y s i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e non-existence of a s o l u t i o n is
a hydrodynamically u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n .

The excess energy i s d i s s i p a t e d

by t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n o v e r t h e whole region, l e a d i n g t o re-entrainment

of already mixed water, i n t o t h e j e t region, as d e p i c t e d i n Fig. 3-13.
A vertical region is t h u s formed i n t h e near f i e l d zone.

I n steady

state t h i s d i f f u s i o n and re-entrainment process will act t o such a

degree t h a t o u t s i d e t h e mixing region t h e c r i t i c a l r e l a t i o n (3-143)

i s obtained.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , through decrease i n k i n e t i c energy and

i n c r e a s e i n buoyancy t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l state, after j e t impingement,

is transformed i n t o t h e l i m i t i n g case of a s u b c r i t i c a l state, a c r i t i c a l

state.

The c r i t i c a l state is then a s t a r t i n g c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e

subsequent s t r a t i f i e d c o u n t e r f law region which is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

s u b c r i t i c a l flow as t h e next s e c t i o n w i l l show.

101

Fig. 3-13:

C r i t i c a l Section

Non-existence of an i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c jump:
Turbulent d i f f u s i o n and re-entrainment

3.4.4

S t r a t i f i e d Counterflow Region
3.4.4.1

Approximations and Governing Equations

The governing e q u a t i o n s for slowly v a r y i n g s t r a t i f i e d counterflow i n t h e f a r - f i e l d , w i t h h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n t o t h e atmosphere, are

developed.

Figure 3-14 d e f i n e s t h e problem of a two-layered f l u i d

flow with a f a i r l y d i s t i n c t d e n s i t y change

Ap =

B AT

a c r o s s the

i n t e r f a c e defined as t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e zero h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y
point.

The flow is predominantly h o r i z o n t a l , t h e thickness of t h e

upper and lower layer is

and

hl

h2

, respectively.

Under t h e s e circumstances the governing e q u a t i o n s (3-3) t o

(3-6) can be s i m p l i f i e d , n e g l e c t i n g vertical a c c e l e r a t i o n s and

l o n g i t u d i n a l t u r b u l e n t t r a n s p o r t terms, t o

au/ax

awiaz

102

(3-146)

HEAT LOSS

'FACE

VE LOC IT Y

DENSITY

F i g . 3-14 : Stratified flow definitions.

(3-147)

aT

ax +

U-

W -

aT

az

-*+
az

a
aT
z ( K Z z )

pg

( 3- 148)

(3-149)

where
E

KZ

= Vertical eddy diffusion coefficient for momentum

*

Vertical eddy diffusion coefficient for mass or

heat

and the turbulent transfer term have been written i n diffusion

analogy as

103
-

The f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s makes use of t h e d i s t i n c t l y layered flow s t r u c t u r e :

The flow-field

is divided i n t o two l a y e r s which are coupled through

k i n e m a t i c , dynamic and heat f l u x c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e .

S i m i l a r i t y p r o f i l e s f o r h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y and temperature are defined
f o r each l a y e r so that t h e equations can be i n t e g r a t e d v e r t i c a l l y .

a)

Kinematic boundary c o n d i t i o n s are s p e c i f i e d as:

+ h2)

a(hl
surface

interface
bottom

= w

ax

ah2

ax

ul

= o

at

z = hl

at

z = h
1

at

2 - 0

+ h2

(3-151)

The i n t e r f a c e condition (3-15lb)assumes t h a t t h e r e is no mean flow

a c r o s s t h e i n t e r f a c e , hence t h e volume f l u x i n each l a y e r is constant.

This assumption does not allow f o r entrainment.

The s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s

of t h e entrainment process as discussed earlier are t h e e x i s t e n c e of a

zone of f l u i d flow w i t h high t u r b u l e n t i n t e n s i t y as compared t o t h e
surrounding f l u i d .

Turbulence a t t h e zone boundary l e a d s t o incorpora-

t i o n of ambient f l u i d i n t o t h e active zone.

No such active zone e x i s t s

i n t h e case of s t r a t i f i e d counterflow: both l a y e r s move a s d e n s i t y

c u r r e n t s and have approximately equal t u r b u l e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Furthermore, even i f such a n active l a y e r would p r e v a i l , t h e existence
of a s t a b l e density s t r a t i f i c a t i o n g r e a t l y reduces t h e entrainment a t
t h e boundary.

Experimental s t u d i e s by E l l i s o n and Turner (1959) show

t h a t f o r bulk Richardson numbers

Ri > 0.85
104

(3-152)

v e r t i c a l entrainment p r a c t i c a l l y ceases, where

r e l a t e d t o a Froude number

Ri

i s defined and

F by

(3-153)

with

depth of turbulent l a y e r

= layer velocity

The s t r a t i f i e d counterflow regime of i n t e r e s t i n t h i s study i s

s u b c r i t i c a l as w i l l be shown below, hence condition (3-145) i s
a p p l i c a b l e and simultaneously condition ( 3 ~ 1 5 2 )i s s a t i s f i e d .
Zero entrainment, however, does not r u l e out t r a n s p o r t of mass
by f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s a c r o s s t h e i n t e r f a c e , t h a t is, i n t e r f a c i a l
mixing.

b)

Dynamic boundary conditions are given as:

aU

surface:

fs = pa z
P O

i n t e r face :

Ti =

3U

pa

tS

, T~

and

aZ

z=hl+h2

(3-154)

z * h2

z = o

bottom:

where

aZ

T~

are shear stresses which are later r e l a t e d

t o t h e mean flow q u a n t i t i e s .
c)

Heat f l u x conditions:

, from

The f l u x of heat, qH

the

f r e e s u r f a c e t o t h e atmosphere, which i s induced by the elevated water

temperature, can be considered in a simple concept by (Edinger and Geyer
-

(1965) ) :

105

i n which

c
P

TS

Te
Both f a c t o r s

Te

and

p c

K ( T ~- Te)

(3-155)

specific heat
h e a t exchange c o e f f i c i e n t

= water s u r f a c e temperature

T(z = h l + h2)

equilibrium temperature

are dependent on meteorological parameters,

which determine t h e t r a n s f e r processes a c r o s s t h e water s u r f a c e .

Te

i s defined as t h e water temperature a t which t h e r e would be no n e t h e a t

f l u x a c r o s s t h e surface.
temperature

T
a

I n general,

Te

is not equal t o t h e ambient

(without heat i n p u t ) , only on a long term average.

The remaining heat flux c o n d i t i o n s are:

interface:

bottom:

d)

= p c K
p z
qHi

*l$)

3T
az

z = h2
(3-156)

aT

cp

KZ

aZ

z = o

Both v e l o c i t y and temperature are approximated to be

uniform i n each l a y e r and are averaged by

layer :

u1

p1

*1
-

u dz

hl

1
-

hl*2

hl h2

P dz
(3-157)
CONT 'D.

106

92
u 2 = - = h2
h2

lower l a y e r :

h2

udz

(3-15 7)

p2

1
I
h2

P dz

Using these p r o f i l e assumptions and boundary conditions, Eqs. (3-146)

t o (3-149) can be transformed i n t o ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l equations for
each l a y e r .

The hydrostatic equation (3-148) is integrated t o

P 1 g(hl

+ h2

(3-158)

Z)

which can be s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e momentum equation (3-147) t o give

(3-159)

aU

az (Ez az

a l s o making use of the continuity equation (3-146).

is integrated i n t h e

Equation (3-159)

z d i r e c t i o n over t h e upper layer.

(3-160)

The l e f t hand s i d e is integrated, using Leibniz's rule on t h e f i r s t

integral, t o

h+h
2U 2 ~

Z - 2U
8

+ h2)
ax

107

ah2

ax + usws - uiwi

+ui

only t h e f i r s t t e r m ,

and a f t e r u s e of t h e kinematic conditions (3-151)

a
ax

2
(u 1 h 1), remains.

- -91

g h:

dhl
dx

F i n a l l y , Eq. (3-160)

dPl

- -1 - - a
'

dx

P1
Pa

q 1 = u1h 1

becomes, using

dhl

+-)

(ax

dx

pa

(3-161)
hl

The h e a t conservation equation f o r t h e upper l a y e r is i n t e g r a t e d , a f t e r

s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e c o n t i n u i t y equation, t o
hl+h2

h2

auT dz
ax

+ 1

dz
az

(Kz

aT

hl+h, L
)

h2

h2

a
'

(3-162)

'p

Again making use of t h e Leibmlz r u l e and t h e kinematic conditions l e a d s

to

(3-163)

I n an analogous manner equations for the lower l a y e r are found as

dpl

dx hl

- Tb>

dhl

p1

dx

dP2
+ -dx
(3-164)

and
(3-165)

Equations (3-161),

(3-163),

(3-164) and (3-165) are t h e g e n e r a l

equations d e s c r i b i n g t h e motion and temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n of none n t r a i n i n g s t r a t i f i e d flow with heat d i s s i p a t i o n t o t h e atmosphere.

Dependent v a r i a b l e s are t h e mean flow p r o p e r t i e s

hl,h2 and

T1,

which r e q u i r e statement of boundary c o n d i t i o n s a t some p o s i t i o n

Ii

, rb

and

T2
x

can be r e l a t e d t o t h e mean flow p r o p e r t i e s by empirical

q
Hi

re1at ions.
The s o l u t i o n of t h i s set of equations is not r e a d i l y achieved.
Thus i n t h e following s e c t i o n t h e equations are s i m p l i f i e d by a p p r o p r i a t e
scaling procedures f o r t h e flow area i n t h e d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y .

3.4.4.2)

Simplified Equations, Neglecting Surface Heat

Loss and I n t e r f a c i a l Mixing

It can be shown that under t y p i c a l d i f f u s e r design condit i o n s s u r f a c e heat l o s s and i n t e r f a c i a l mixing can be neglected f o r t h e
s t r a t i f i e d flow region i n t h e d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y , as t h e time scale f o r
these processes is considerably l a r g e r than that f o r t h e convective
transport.

For t h i s purpose, Equation (3-163)

w i l l be scaled and

t y p i c a l prototype magnitudes f o r t h e s c a l i n g parameters are i n s e r t e d

t o compare t h e r e l a t i v e importance of the terms.
Dimensionless v a r i a b l e s (with a s t e r i s k s ) are defined by

x* = x/L
h*

= h,/H

u*

= u

(3-166)
p

AT* = AT/ATo

i n which
L

channel l e n g t h

water depth

t y p i c a l induced v e l o c i t y
t y p i c a l s u r f a c e temperature d i f f e r e n c e

ATo =

The i n t e r f a c i a l h e a t f l u x term i s s u b s t i t u t e d from Eq. (3-156a)

and approximated as

T1 T2

-..

cpKz

qHi

(3-167)

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a r i a b l e s (3-166) i n t o t h e h e a t t r a n s p o r t equation

UAT~/L

one obtains, d i v i d i n g by

u*- dAT*
dx*

v
-..

Pa cp H

L )AT* u

(3-168)

)AT*

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c magnitudes f o r t h e s c a l i n g parameters i n prototype

conditions f o r a thermal d i f f u s e r are:

L = 1000 f t .

( I n C h a p t e r 4 t h e channel l e n g t h

is

shown t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h o r i z o n t a l
d i f f u s e r dimension, i t s h a l f l e n g t h

LD as

$1'

L
30 f t

0.1 f t

ATs = SF
K

KZ

150 BTU/OF, f t
ft2/sec.

, day

The v e r t i c a l eddy d i f f u s i o n is strongly

i n h i b i t e d by t h e d e n s i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

Koh and Fan

(1970) compiled a v a i l a b l e data and f i t t e d an empirical

110

r e l a t i o n which is an i n v e r s e f u n c t i o n of t h e density
gradient.

The d e n s i t y g r a d i e n t a t t h e i n t e r f a c e was

approximated as i n Eq. (3-167), b u t is i n f a c t much

higher.
Further:

pa 'p

62 BTIJ/ft3

With t h e s e values t h e expressions i n parentheses are calculated t o be

of t h e magnitude -0.01 f o r t h e s u r f a c e h e a t l o s s and ~0.03 f o r i n t e r f a c i a l mixing.

Consequently, t h e s e t r a n s f e r processes become only

important f o r l a r g e r d i s t a n c e s
problem considered.

and can b e neglected i n t h e channel

Thus, t h e h e a t equation is s i m p l i f i e d t o

dT1
5 0
dx

(3-169)

and by similar arguments it i s found

dT2
-dx
= o

(3-170)

Hence t h e problem reduces t o t h e well-known equations f o r t h e s t r a t i f i e d

flow with constant d e n s i t i e s , f i r s t derived by Schijf and Schonfeld
(1953) :

dhl

*dx=

p1 dhl + -dh2
)
dx

c'nx

=i

(3-171)

pa g hl
(3-172)

with

111

With the d e f i n i t i o n of f r e e s u r f a c e Froude numbers (3-133) t h e s e

equations c a n be transformed t o

dhl
dx

*b
Pa g h2

- F2*2

i
Pa g

-AP -

q
h2

FY

*2 *2
F1 F2

(3-173)

Adding up t h e s e equations gives t h e change i n t o t a l depth

(3-175)

Considering Fig. 3-15 t h e t o t a l depth is w r i t t e n as

hl
where

h2

= H + n

i s t h e s t i l l water depth and

t h e disturbance.

From

h y d r o s t a t i c considerations and a l s o by i n s p e c t i o n of Eqs. (3-175) and

(3-174)
(3-176)

112

TERFACE

Fig. 3-15:

Depth relationships i n s t r a t i f i e d flow

<< 1, F*2 << 1 the change i n s u r f a c e elevation is small

a
compared t o t h e i n t e r f a c i a l depth change dh2/dx
Consequently, as
Thus f o r

Ap/p

a f i r s t approximation
hl
The solution f o r

dh2/dx

hl(x),

can be calculated by assuming

h2 = const. = H
h2(x)

(3-1 77)

thus obtained can then be used t o

T)(x)

evaluate the surface disturbance

Knowledge of

which is

caused by f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s is important in the a n a l y s i s of diffuser

discharges which introduce horizontal mmentum which is balanced by
f r i c t i o n a l forces

Then s u b s t i t u t i n g Eq. (3-177) i n t o Eq. (3-173) Which i s

subtracted from Eq. (3-174) one obtains

%
dx

- Pi -

113

(3-178)

P;

where

F1,F2 are densimetric Froude numbers and

neglected with respect t o unity.

Ap/p

, F*2

have been

A t t h i s point bottom and i n t e r f a c i a l

stresses a r e expressed i n terms of mean flow parameters as

(3-179

or

(3-180)
Ti

= -fpi . ( - - 8 a
hl

h2

S u b s t i t u t i o n i n t o Eq. (3-178) gives

dx

Pi

F;

This equation is put i n t o non-dimensional form by

X, H1,H2

(x, hl,h2)/H

(3-182)

Constant densimetric Froude numbers based on the t o t a l depth are def i n e d as

2
FlH

2
=

Fl H1
(3-183)
2

2
F2H

F2 H2

114

A flow r a t i o is given by

Q = -QT

(3-184)

42
Hence
(3-185)

For counterflow, always

(3-186)
Using these d e f i n i t i o n s t h e counterflow equation is w r i t t e n

and can be integrated i n inverted form

x2-x1

8
2

(3-188)

.
l

.\

F2H
Equation (3-188) has been given i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t form by R i g t e r
The general form o f t h e s o l u t i o n is given in Fig. 3-16 f o r sign

(1970).
(q2) =

1 and c o n s i s t s of 3 branches which are divided by c r i t i c a l

s e c t i o n s , where the slope of t h e i n t e r f a c e goes t o i n f i n i t y .

The

c r i t i c a l r e l a t i o n is obtained by s e t t i n g t h e denominator in Eq. (3-187)

equal t o 0,

2 3
FiH[Q H2 i- ( 1

- H2)

- H~3

115

( I - H ~ )=~

(3-189)

x
n

00

a3

201

u"
%
w

-I

j
!
I

i
I

Ii

..

\o

4
i

ll6

The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s c r i t i c a l equation is plotted i n Fig. 3-17 a s

F2H

a function of

and

1Q1

S u b c r i t i c a l flow is only possible i f

(3-190)

In t h i s case there e x i s t two c r i t i c a l section Hi

and
C

I;'

c r i t i c a l section d e l i n e a t e s the t r a n s i t i o n between s u b c r i t i c a l and superc r i t i c a l flow states and can be explained by energy considerations.

In

general, a c r i t i c a l section is given by abrupt changes i n flow geometry.

The channel ending In a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r (see Fig. 3-21 i s such a
situation.

In addition, a c r i t i c a l section can form t h e end of a l o c a l

mixing region in case o f - a n unstable i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump force, as

discussed i n Section 3.4.3.2.

The length of the s u b c r i t i c a l flow zone

L*
between two c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n s i s found by evaluating t h e integral
C
(3-188) with limits

and

H;
C

HZ

This i n t e g r a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d out

by Rigter (1970) numerically f o r t h e parameter range.

s o l u t i o n s f o r s p e c i a l cases of
3.4.4.3

Analytical

Q are given i n Section 3.4.4.4.

Head Loss i n S t r a t i f i e d Flow

The change i n t o t a l depth

H-tq relates t o the head l o s s

incurred by the motion a g a i n s t shear forces a t t h e bottom and interface.

As commented i n the preceding s e c t i o n t h e depth change is calculated by

solving Eq. (3-175) with the flow f i e l d obtained through t h e constant
depth approximation (3-177).

One can write

(3-19 1 )

117

01

118

and s u b s t i t u t i n g Eq. (3-175) and t h e inverted Eq. (3-174)

F;2

T -

h2

-dn =
dh2

+ -1

Ti(--

Ti

( -l

h2

1
h2

hl

Ap/p,

Dividing both s i d e s by

(3-192)

*2

1 + F1

*2

-Tb

h2

hl

and neglecting

<< 1 i n t h e

P I 2 , F;2

denominator y i e l d s the equation for t h e normalized depth change

d
-

1.

dh2

T(+ - )
hl
h2

h2

"b

(3-193)

Using t h e shear stress d e f i n i t i o n s and non-dimensibnalizing

as b e f o r e , with
rlI

(3-194)

n/H

i n a d d i t i o n , one obtains

2 ( 1 l H2 )
(3-19 5 )
I

2
+1]+
1-H2
)+1

-t F2H

H2

[Q (7)
11
H2

119

H2

This equation can b e i n t e g r a t e d between t h e same l i m i t s as Eq. (3-188)

t o give t h e head change

over the c r i t i c a l length

APIP,
rl

Lg

and i n p a r t i c u l a r the head change

APIPa

can be found.

Integra-

t i o n h a s t o be numerical, except i n s p e c i a l cases, as discussed i n t h e

following s e c t i o n .
3.4.4.4

S p e c i a l Cases

Mrect i n t e g r a t i o n s of t h e i n t e r f a c e Eq. (3-188) and t h e

head l o s s Eq. (3-195)

can be given f o r s p e c i a l values of

All

t h e s e cases have s t r o n g s i g n i f i c a n c e i n buoyant discharge problems.

a)

Q 5 O : s t a g n a n t s u r f a c e wedge

Equation (3-188)

reduces t o
(3-196)

I n t e g r a t i o n g i v e s (Bata (1957) )

i- [A(1+Aj2

i n which

- F&]H2

A = -fi
fo

120

+ A[(I+A) 3

(3-197)

* , upstream

The i n t r u s i o n lengthof the wedge, Lss

from a c r i t i c a l

s e c t i o n is found by taking t h e l i m i t s

( 3-19 8 )

There is zero depth change over t h e length of the i n t r u s i o n as is

e v i d e n t from Eq. (3-195)

AH*

= o

(3-199)

P : stagnant bottom wedge

b)

In t h i s case F

= 0 as w e l l , so t h a t i t is advantageous

?I

t o r e w r i t e Eq. (3-188) in terms of

ti

(3-200)

vith

-t QD

(3-201)

or Integrated
(3-202)

x2

- x1

8
2

p$ f i
121

* , upstream

The length of t h e wedge i n t r u s i o n , Ls

b
s e c t i o n i s found by taking the l i m i t s

H (L* )

- FZ3

from c r i t i c a l

(3-203)

b'
This expression f o r t h e i n t r u s i o n length w a s given by Schijf and
Schonfeld (1953).

The t o t a l head change over t h e i n t r u s i o n length

is a f t e r similar modification of Eq. (3-195)

h p l p ,- OI

(-

'b

(1-H2) 3

2
) dH2
F% (1-H2) 3

(3-204)

and
(3-205)

c)

-1 : equal counterflaw

I n t h i s case Eq. (3-188) is given by (F

(3-206)

122

which can be i n t e g r a t e d t o

x2

- x1

f o FH

1-$

4
(1-H2)

(1-H2)

( 1 ~ ~ )

(3-207)
2

1
2a

+(---

(a3

-a

+(

1
6a

(a+( 1-H 1
>FH)Rn (a+l-I2) 2
3a(l-H2)

- F2~ )gn

[a3

+ 3a2 + a4
43

(I-H~)3I

-- 1

+ a FH

2 4 3 2

Fa

a3fi

i n which

The length of t h e s u b c r i t i c a l f l a v s e c t i o n , Lc

, is

found by s u b s t i t u -

t i n g the s o l u t i o n s of t h e c r i t i c a l equation

I23 ( 1

- I2 ) 3 - P2(H3

as limits i n t o Eq. (3-207).

a 2c

(1

- H2 13)

(3-208)

Closed form i n t e g r a t i o n of the depth

change is also p o s s i b l e , but i s omitted h e r e , as i t is not needed in

the f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s .

Inspection of Eq. (3-208) which is p l o t t e d as

the curve 1Q1 = 1 i n Fig. 3-16 shaws t h a t equal counterflow can only
123

exist i f
FH
For t h e l i m i t i n g value

0.25

FH = 0.25

i t i s found t h a t

HI
C

H
2C

L c = L

3.5

Matching of S o l u t i o n s
I n t h e preceding s e c t i o n t h e f o u r flow regions which c

discerned i n t h e flow f i e l d induced by a multiport d i f f u s e r disc

were analyzed.

Governing equations w e r e developed which took ac

of t h e d i s t i n c t hydrodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of each region and solul

were given o r o u t l i n e d .
t o provide

The s o l u t i o n s f o r each region can be mi

an o v e r a l l p r e d i c t i o n of t h e d i f f u s e r induced flaw f:

In t h i s way important c r i t e r i a regarding t h e n e a r - f i e l d s t a b i l i l

diffuser discharge w i l l be deduced.

Furthermore, i n case of

insti

ties with r e s u l t i n g jet re-entrainment,predictions on d i f f u s e r

performance w i l l be developed.
This s y n t h e s i s i s done i n S e c t i o n 3.6 for t h e case of
discharges with no net h o r i z o n t a l momentum (symmetric flow fielc
i n Section 3.7 f o r t h e more complex case of discharges with hor:
mamenturn.
3.5.1

Governing Non-dimensional Parameters

By dimensional a n a l y s i s of t h e problem v a r i a b l e s as dc

i n Fig. 3-2 and by i n s p e c t i o n of t h e governing equations and thc

boundary conditions derived f o r each flaw r e g i o n t h e steady-sta
and temperature f i e l d i s w r i t t e n as

and
ATO

(3-211)

S = -AT
is t h e d i l u t i o n a t any point.

This formulation assumes f u l l y

turbulent j e t flaw, hence independence of t h e j e t Reynolds number

of t h e s l o t

IR
where

2B

(3-212)

=-+

v = kinematic v i s c o s i t y

and neglects heat l o s s t o the atmosphere.

Furthermore, the bottom

shear stress c o e f f i c i e n t i n the flow away region is assumed t o be i n

the turbulent flow range of the form

(3-213)

(White-Colebrook r e l a t i o n ) i n which
IR2

- -Rn
u2

lower l a y e r Reynolds number

hydraulic radius

ks = absolute bottom roughness

and t h e i n t e r f a c i a l shear stress c o e f f i c i e n t i s r e l a t e d by E q . (3-19%)

fi = A f o
The r a t i o

(3-214)

A can be assmed constant over a wide range of p r a c t i c a l

f l a w conditions, as is shown later.

i t is found t h a t

fo

and

Through inspection of 4. (3-188)

L/H can be combined t o a f a r f i e l d

parameter

Q = f o L/H
125

(3-215)

So t h a t , f i n a l l y the problem of the d i f f u s e r induced flow and

temperature f i e l d (without ambient cross flow) i s defined by these

dimensionless parameters :
Near-field parameters :

Fs

= v e r t i c a l angle of discharge

s l o t densimetric Froude
number

H/B = relative water depth

Far-f i e l d parameter:
and Eq. (3-210) is reduced t o :

(3-216)

The discussion of t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental r e s u l t s is given f o r

these parameters.

The range of i n t e r e s t i s

to

Fs

= 90 (Section 3.6)

10

1,000

< 90 (Section 3.7)

H/B

= 50
=

5,000

to

0.1

to

1.0

which conforms t o p r a c t i c a l d i f f u s e r a p p l i c a t i o n s , as is shown i n

examples given i n Chapter 5.
I n the presentation of r e s u l t s , emphasis w i l l be l a i d on
the gross properties of d i f f u s e r discharges.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , the

average non-dimensional s u r f a c e temperature rise, o r inversely the

average surface d i l u t i o n are chosen as the main d e s c r i p t i v e parameters
of the temperature f i e l d .

The equivalent s l o t concept (F

126

H/B) is

used throughout i n describing t h e multiport d i f f u s e r mechanics, b a s e d

on t h e discussion i n Chapter 2.
3.6

Theoretical Predictions: Diffusers With No N e t

Horizontal Momentum

Vertical discharge o r discharge with nozzles pointing i n alternat i n g d i r e c t i o n s have no n e t horizontal momentum and thus w i l l produce
a flow f i e l d which is symmetrical t o t h e d i f f u s e r axis.
3.6.1

The Near-Field Zone

The numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e buoyant j e t equations

(3-69) t o (3-76) with i n i t i a l conditions (3-78) is c a r r i e d out f o r

Bo

and various values of

90'

Fs

The i n t e g r a t i o n y i e l d s j e t

properties as a function of v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e
the centerline dilution

Sc

z/B

As an example

along t h e j e t path was shown i n Fig. 3-6.

The e f f e c t of the presence of t h e f r e e s u r f a c e is considered by solving

t h e impingement equation (3-109).

coefficient

I n the s o l u t i o n t h e energy l o s s

is taken as 0.2 throughout.

for t h e thickness of t h e impingement layer

The densimetric Froude number

F1

The s o l u t i o n gives values

as shown i n Fig. 3-18.

hi/H

of t h e spreading l a y e r a f t e r impinge-

ment is calculated from Eq. (3-126) and also included i n Fig. 3-18.
The graph i n d i c a t e s t h e asymptotic values f o r t h e plume i n the high
low

Fs

range, namely

(3-129)).
hi/H

hi/H = 0.149

and

F1 = 2.63

For t h e less buoyant range ( l a r g e

0.167

- 1/6

(Eqs. (3-120) and

FS ) t h e value

obtained from t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e momentum j e t

(Eq. (3-115)) is approached, although a t low H/B

t h e r e is a s l i g h t

deviation t o t h e f a c t t h a t Eq. (3-115) assumes n e g l i g i b l e s l o t width

.-

compared t o the depth

For low

127
-

H/B,

H/B

, high

Fs

t h e spreading layer

Fig. 3-18:

Thfckness hi/H and Densimetric Froude Number F1

of the Surface Impingement Layer, Vertical Discharge

128

Froude number

F1

becomes very l a r g e .

With given impingement l a y e r thickness, t h e average s u r f a c e

dilution

Ss

is c a l c u l a t e d .

sS

is by v i r t u e of t h e uniform mixing i n

t h e impingement process equal t o t h e average j e t d i l u t i o n a t the lower

edge of t h e impingement r e g i o n

Ss

S(Z

- hi)

(3-217)

Ss are shown i n Fig. 3-19.

Values of

With t h e given c o n d i t i o n s p r i o r t o t h e i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump

t h e jump equation (3-142)
conjugate depth
low

FS

h;/H

, as

i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 3-19.

For high

H/B

t h e conjugate depth approaches one-half of t h e t o t a l depth,

0.5.

Proceeding toward t h e low H/B

increases u n t i l
solution

hi/H

is evaluated giving s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e

hi/H = 1 - hl/H

, beyond

, high FS

range

h;/H

which t h e r e is no p o s i t i v e

t o Eq. (3-142) p o s s i b l e (see Fig. 3-12b).

This i n d i c a t e s

t h e absence of a s t a b l e s u b c r i t i c a l conjugate condition and re-entrainment i n t o t h e j e t region w i l l occur, forming a l o c a l mixing zone.

The

t r a n s i t i o n is described by

FH
where

(3-218)

0.20

FH i s t h e average of

(Eq. (3-183))

and

c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e dynamic characteristics of t h e counterflow system.

I n terms of discharge parameters

FS'

H/B

i t can be deduced from t h e

graph t h a t

H/B

1.84 Fs4/3

(3-219)

g i v e s t h e c r i t e r i o n between s t a b l e and unstable n e a r - f i e l d conditions.

(See Fig. 3-20.)

I n consequence, d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n s
129

Ss

for the

5010

50

- - - I

1 1 1 1

100

1000

500
FS

Q=W'
Fig. 3-19:

Average Surface D i l u t i o n S

Accounting f o r Thickness
1

of Impingement Layer and Conjugate Depth h /H f o r

I n t e r n a l H y d r a u l i c Jump.

Criterion Line Delineates

S t a b l e and U n s t a b l e Near-Field Zone

130

u n s t a b l e parameter domain (drawn a s dashed l i n e s i n Fig. 3-19) which

-

are obtained as d i r e c t buoyant j e t s o l u t i o n s , only accounting f o r

t h e s u r f a c e impingement, are i n f a c t not applicable.

Rather, d i l u t i o n

i n t h e u n s t a b l e parameter domain are dependent on t h e dynamic c o n d i t i o n s

i n t h e f a r f i e l d zone.
3.6.2

The Far-Field Zone

3.6.2.1

I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h near-field

The flow away from t h e near f i e l d zone forms a s u b c r i t i c a l

s t r a t i f i e d counterflow region.

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h

t h e n e a r - f i e l d zone are indicated i n Fig. 3-20.

A) S t a b l e near-field:

I n d i r e c t analogy t o f r e e s u r f a c e h y d r a u l i c

jumps, two conditions are p o s s i b l e depending on t h e backwater e f f e c t s i n

t h e f a r - f i e l d which are determined by t h e c o n t r o l s e c t i o n ( c r i t i c a l flow)
of t h e channel end.
a)
depth

A normal i n t e r n a l jump is given when conjugate

hi

is l a r g e r than t h e depth

hl

determined from
8

t h e counterflow s o l u t i o n .
b)

A submerged i n t e r n a l jump. is given i n t h e o t h e r case.

Some re-entrainment

of a l r e a d y mixed water i n t o t h e j e t r e g i o n

w i l l occur u n t i l a c o n d i t i o n is established i n s t e a d y - s t a t e
such t h a t t h e increased buoyancy in t h e f a r - f i e l d w i l l decrease
t h e depth

hl

until

B)

h i = hl
S

Unstable near-field:

As no s u b c r i t i c a l conjugate s t a t e e x i s t s

i n t h i s case, l o c a l mixing and re-entrainment

i n t o t h e j e t region t a k e s

p l a c e t o a degree such that a c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n i s e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e end

of t h e l o c a l mixing zone as t h e l i m i t i n g case of a s u b c r i t i c a l flow

131

__

A)

STABLE

NEAR-FIELD

1. Normal Internal Jump

CHANEL
END

2. Submerged

Internal Jump

B ) UNSTABLE NEAR-FIELD
Local Mixing and Reentrainment

Fig. 3-20:

Interaction of Near-Field

and Far-Field Zones

(Vertical Diffuser Discharge)

i32

condition.

Lc

S t r a t i f i e d counterflow w i l l then occur over t h e length,

, bounded

zone,

Lm

by two c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n s .

The length of t h e l o c a l mixing

i s estimated as
Lm

2.5 H

(3-2 20)

from experiments made i n t h i s study which are i n good agreement with

Iamandi and Rouse's (1969) observations on c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s
induced by nonbuoyant jets i n narrow channels.

Consideration of

Lm

may b e s i g n i f i c a n t i n the s o l u t i o n f o r s h o r t channels, f o r long

channels, however, i t may b e neglected i n comparison t o

Lc

For t h e v e r t i c a l d i f f u s e r discharge the e f f e c t of t h e f a r - f i e l d

i s considered by assuming an equal counterflow system.

This i s a good

approximation f o r large d i l u t i o n s , f o r which the entrainment flow i s

about equal t o t h e flow-away of mixed water.

The closed form s o l u t i o n

f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of the i n t e r f a c e , Eq. (3-207),

is applicable.

The

.-

v a l i d i t y of Eq. (3-207) is r e s t r i c t e d t o s u b c r i t i c a l flow, FH

5 0.25

For t h e case of s t a b l e near-field

i s known from t h e s o l u t i o n of

the near-field

and t h e depth of t h e i n t e r f a c e

(FH

at t h e distance

hl

FH
3
Fh = F1 h /H3)
L

from t h e channel end is of i n t e r e s t .

For t h e

case of an unstable near-field t h e value of

length of t h e s u b c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n , Lc
is of i n t e r e s t .

The o v e r a l l d i l u t i o n

zone) is then determined from

133

, is
Ss

f o r which t h e

FH = F
HC

equal t o

(neglecting L,)

(outside t h e local mixing

as
(3-222)

The f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t ( f r i c t i o n and channel l e n g t h ) is given by t h e

@ = f o L/H

s i n g l e parameter
3.6.2.2

A = fi/fo

if

i s assumed constant.

Interfacial friction factor

While t h e boundary f r i c t i o n f a c t o r

fo can u s u a l l y b e

estimated with good r e l i a b i l i t y as a f u n c t i o n of Reynolds number and

boundary roughness, t h e r e is a s c a r c i t y of data on t h e magnitude of
the i n t e r f a c i a l f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

i n t u r b u l e n t flows, i n

p a r t i c u l a r , i n t h e high Reynolds number range.

In addition, investiga-

t i o n s i n d i c a t e a c e r t a i n dependence on t h e densimetric Froude numbers

(F1,

F2) of t h e l a y e r flow (Lofquist (1960)).

For density underflows,

such as under a s t a g n a n t s u r f a c e wedge, t h e r a t i o

0.43 (Harleman

(1961)).

fi/fo

is about

For lock exchange flows, which resemble t h e

equal counterflow s i t u a t i o n , Abraham and Eysink (1971) gave

fi

as

drawn i n Fig. 3-21.

For l a r g e values of t h e lower l a y e r Reynolds number

a constant v a l u e of

is approached.

w a l l friction relation for

Reynolds number range

For comparison t h e smooth

fo is included in Fig. 3-21.

2
10 t o

Based on t h i s l i m i t e d evidence

lo5

A = 0.4

to

0.5

In the
can b e assumed.

is taken as
(3-223)

i n a l l t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s given i n t h i s study.
3.6.2.3

Solution graphs

Surface dilution

Solution graphs giving t h e value of t h e s u r f a c e

dilution

Ss

( o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l mixing r e g i o n i n case of an u n s t a b l e

134

fi - Abraham

4 -

and Eysink (19711

2 -

10
"

Fig. 3-21:

I I

V a r i a t i o n of i n t e r f a c i a l stress c o e f f i c i e n t

f i

w i t h Reynolds numbers (Abraham and Eysink (1971)).

n e a r - f i e l d ) as a f u n c t i o n of

Fs

, H/B

and

Q = fo

are developed

as follows:

a)
Ss

For t h e s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d c o n d i t i o n (Fig. 3-20 A-1)

is taken d i r e c t l y from t h e j e t s o l u t i o n t a k i n g account of

Thus t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a

t h e impingement l a y e r t h i c k n e s s .

submerged internal jump (Fig. 3-20 A-2)

is not considered i n

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n s , as t h i s c o n d i t i o n only becomes
important f o r l a r g e v a l u e s of 0
b)

For t h e unstable n e a r - f i e l d c o n d i t i o n (Fig. 3-20B)

t h e Froude number

of t h e e q u a l counterflow system f o r

FH
C

which t h e l e n g t h of t h e s u b c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n i s equal t o the

channel l e n g t h is c a l c u l a t e d f i r s t .

The v a l u e is

as

FH
C

a function of

The d i l u t i o n s

Ss

(with A = 0 . 5 ) i s p l o t t e d i n Fig. 3-22.

f o r any combination o f

, H/B

are

then obtained from Eq. (3-222).

Examples of s o l u t i o n graphs within t h e p r a c t i c a l range are
given f o r weak f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s , CP = 0.1 i n Fig. 3-23, and s t r o n g
f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s , CP = 1.0
i n dilutions for larger
l i n e s f o r equal

Ss

CP

i n Fig. 3-24.

Comparison shows t h e decrease

Furthermore, while f o r

0.1

the

f o r both near- and f a r - f i e l d approximately meet

each o t h e r a t t h e c r i t e r i o n l i n e , t h e r e is a n o t i c e a b l e lack of
matching

for

= 1.0.

This i n d i c a t e s t h e submerged i n t e r n a l jump

condition which is n e g l i g i b l e f o r

Q = 0.1

b u t which would provide f o r

a smooth t r a n s i t i o n of equal d i l u t i o n l i n e s f o r
can be seen by i n s p e c t i n g Fig. 3-22.
l i n e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

FH

- 0.20

0 = 1.0.

This behavior

As mentioned above t h e c r i t e r i o n
which is smaller than

FH (0 = 0.1)
C

= 0.22

so t h a t

no back water e f f e c t s leading t o a submerged jump should

b e expected.
The important i n f l u e n c e of near-field

i n s t a b i l i t i e s i n combination

with f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s is obvious when comparing

dilution predictions

of Fig. 3-19 and F i g s . 3-23 and 3-24.

Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e , such as
Fig. 3-20, showed a v e r t i c a l d i f f u s e r discharge

(eo

= 90").

However,

t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e two-dimensional s l o t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n with
8

= 90" is pointed o u t a l s o f o r d i f f u s e r s w i t h nozzles i n a l t e r n a t i n g

d i r e c t i o n s along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e .

For t h e s t a b l e near-field case t h i s

can be i n f e r r e d d i r e c t l y from t h e discussion of L i s e t h ' s (1970)

136

a
0

137

Fig. 3-23:

Surface Dilution S

as a Function of F

Vertical Diffuser, Weak Far-Field Effects

H/B.

100

50

10

e, = goo
Fig. 3-24:

@ =1.0

Surface D i l u t i o n s S

500

1000

Fs

as a Function o f F

H/b.

Vertical D i f f u s e r , Strong Far-Field Effects

139

experimental r e s u l t , as shown i n Fig. 2-6.

For t h e u n s t a b l e near-

f i e l d a l o c a l mixing zone is c r e a t e d which suppresses d e t a i l s of t h e

j e t discharge flow p a t t e r n ( s e e Fig. 3-25).

Fig. 3-25:

D i l u t i o n is determined

Local behavior of d i f f u s e r discharge w i t h

a l t e r n a t i n g nozzles, unstable near-field.

merely by t h e i n t e r p l a y of f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s and buoyancy supply from

t h e near-field
jets.

3.7

zone, e x a c t l y as i n t h e case of v e r t i c a l l y discharging

The equivalent s l o t concept is thus applicable.

Theoretical P r e d i c t i o n s : D i f f u s e r s with N e t Horizontal Momentum
Diffusers with non-vertical nozzles pointing in t h e same

d i r e c t i o n (uni-directional

discharge) can produce a v a r i e t y of flow

conditions which are somewhat more complicated t o analyze t h a n t h e

previously discussed symmetric flow f i e l d generated by d i f f u s e r s with
no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum.

= 45"

and

Bo

= 0"

P r e s e n t a t i o n of r e s u l t s is l i m i t e d t o

( h o r i z o n t a l discharge).

140

3.7.1

Near-Field Zone

The a n a l y s i s of t h e buoyant j e t region and t h e s u r f a c e

impingement is analogous t o t h e previous s e c t i o n .

A h y d r a u l i c jump

occurs on both s i d e s of t h e line of impingement, however, t h e jump a t

t h e r i g h t ( s e c t i o n a i n Fig. 3-8) becomes u n s t a b l e earlier w i t h
increasing

FS

o r decreasing

H/B

Furthermore, the s t a b i l i t y is

s t r o n g l y dependent on t h e angle of discharge,

e0

Figure 3-26 shows

t h e c r i t e r i o n l i n e d e l i n e a t i n g t h e s t a b l e and uns t a b l e near-f i e l d

conditions f o r various

Bo

f o r increasing

The average thickness of t h e impinge-

w i t h i n t h e s t a b l e range is again found t o be about

ment l a y e r hi/H
1/6 f o r a l l

Bo

.
Fs

Outside t h e s t a b l e range
and decreasing

H/B

hi/H

is r a p i d l y increasing

Y e t t h e thickness i n t h i a

range is not as important, as the near-field zone w i l l be engulfed i n a

l o c a l mixing region due t o t h e unstable jump condition.
3.7.2

Far-Field Zone

3.7.2.1

P o s s i b l e flow conditions

The p o s s i b l e flow conditions i n t h e f a r - f i e l d and the

i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e n e a r - f i e l d are i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 3-27.

. A)

Stable near-field
a)

A normal internal lump and

b)

a submerged i n t e r n a l jump are similar t o t h e vertical

discharge case.

B)

Unstable n e a r - f i e l d
I n s t a b i l i t i e s and j e t re-entrainment

t h e l o c a l mixing zone,

However, t h e conditions of t h e flow-away from

141

l e a d t o t h e formation of

001

I 1 1 1 1 1

I
I

UNSTA BLE
NEAR-FIELD

I
I

JU

10

100

50

500

F s '

!
I1

F i g . 3-26:

E f f e c t of Angle of D i s c h a r g e O0 on the S t a b i l i t y

of t h e Near-Field Zone
I

I
!

142

1000

A)

STABLE N E A R - F I E L D
1)

Normal Internal Jump

PCHANNEL

C H A N N E L END

END

-L

' 0
2L

2)

YI

*L

Submerged Internal Jump

8 ) UNSTABLE NEAR- FIELD

1 ) Counterflow

System

-L

0
2)

Stagnant Wedge

3)

Supercritical

Fig. 3-27:

*L

System

System

Possible Flow Conditions f o r Discharges with Net

Horizontal Momentum ("C"Denotes a Critical Section)
143

t h i s mixing zone are a f f e c t e d by t h e s t r e n g t h of the h o r i z o n t a l j e t

momentum, which causes a n e t flow i n one d i r e c t i o n .

Depending on t h e

h o r i z o n t a l momentum 3 cases can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d .

a)

A S u b c r i t i c a l Counterflaw System is given for weak

..

h o r i z o n t a l momentum, somewhat s i m i l a r t o the v e r t i c a l discharge

case b u t w i t h non-equal flaws (Q #

- 1)

i n each l a y e r .

The

e x i s t e n c e c r i t e r i o n for t h i s type of flaw i s ( E q . ( 3 - 1 9 0 ) )

(3-224)

b)

A Stagnant Wedge System is s e t up f o r l a r g e r h o r i z o n t a l

I n t e r f a c i a l f r i c t i o n prevents motion of w a t e r a g a i n s t

momentum.

t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e j e t discharge.
wedges are formed.

Stagnant s u r f a c e and bottom

For t h e upstream flaw s e c t i o n t h e c r i t e r i o n

i s (Q = 0)
(3-225)
and s i m i l a r l y f o r t h e downstream s e c t i o n
c)

A S u p e r c r i t i c a l System r e s u l t s f o r s t i l l l a r g e r

h o r i z o n t a l momentum, e x p e l l i n g t h e s t a g n a n t wedges.

metric Froude number

The densi-

of t h e flaw is simply
FH > 1

(3-226)

This extreme flaw system r e s u l t i n g i n f u l l v e r t i c a l mixing

is t h e case s t u d i e d by Harleman e t a l . (1971) f o r h o r i z o n t a l

discharge (cos

e0

= 1) and i s described by Eq. ( 2 - 3 8 ) which f o r

144

, ..

t h e purpose of introducing t h e f a r - f i e l d parameter

t h e angle

e0

and

r e w r i t t e n as

(1

(i!

+ Q/2)1'2

cos

u 0)

(3-227)

For t h e a n a l y t i c a l treatment of u n s t a b l e near-field c o n d i t i o n s

i t i s necessary t o consider t h e t o t a l head changes,

f r i c t i o n i n the far-field.
The head change

r)

r)

, due

to

i s i n d i c a t e d schematically i n Fig. 3-27.

AH causes a p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l a c r o s s t h e d i f f u s e r

mixing zone which i n steady s t a t e i s balanced by t h e h o r i z o n t a l

momentum of t h e d i f f u s e r .

The equation f o r t h e head change

r)

in

s t r a t i f i e d flow w a s developed earlier (Eq. 3-195) and s o l u t i o n s f o r

t h e wedge cases were given i n paragraph 3.4.4.4.
3.7.2.2

Solution method

The counterflow system (Fig. 3-2

B1) i s t h e most g e n e r a l form

of t h e flow d i s t r i b u t i o n i n case of a n u n s t a b l e near-field.

The flow

system i s made up of two c o u n t e r f l w regions bounded by c r i t i c a l

sections.
(subscripts

Its p r o p e r t i e s are d e s c r i b e d by t h e following 8 v a r i a b l e s

a

and

r e f e r t o c o n d i t i o n s down- and upstream,

respectively):

Given parameters are

FS

, H/B,

and

B0

The v a r i a b l e s are determined by t h e simultaneous s o l u t i o n of t h e

following system of non-linear a l g e b r a i c equations:

145
/

(The equations are

a l l w r i t t e n i n e x p l i c i t , symbolic form t o suggest t h e i t e r a t i v e

s o l u t i o n method)

where

Qa(F

fI--a

, @)

denotes t h e e x p l i c i t form of t h e

i n t e r f a c e Eq. (3-188)

q%

where

(ss

e v a l u a t e d between

and

- l ) - 42a
, a)

Qb(F2,,

is t h e e x p l i c i t form of Eq. (3-188)

"b
-L

e v a l u a t e d between

and

F\

- h2

":a ,h2 a 1
C

which i s a h o r i z o n t a l momentum equation obtained by t a k i n g

a c o n t r o l volume between t h e two c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n s bounding

t h e local mixing zone.

The c r i t i c a l depths

h2
C

i m p l i c i t l y known from t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e
i n t e r f a c e equations

146

'

are

h2
b
'

The f i r s t term is t h e head l o s s equation (3-195) evaluated

between

-L

and

and t h e second term accounts f o r t h e

l o s s of t h e v e l o c i t y head i n t h e channel and due t o

d i s s i p a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e channel.

oa/H

where

Qa(

hplp,)

is t h e i m p l i c i t form of an equation f o r t h e

&region similar t o 6 ) .

A Gauss-Seidel i t e r a t i o n method w a s used.

I

I n t h e given arrangement

of equations 1) t o 8), s p e c i f i c a t i o n of i n i t i a l values f o r

Q,

is needed.

Convergence t o a s t a b l e v a l u e f o r

sS

Ss and

is f a s t , t a k i n g

only 5 t o 10 i t e r a t i o n s depending on t h e i n i t i a l guess.

I n t h e above formulation t h e l e n g t h of t h e mixing zone w a s
neglected w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e channel l e n g t h .

Derivation of t h e

h o r i z o n t a l momentum equation assumed h y d r o s t a t i c conditions a t t h e

end of t h e mixing zone which is c o n s i s t e n t with assumptions made f o r
t h e s t r a t i f i e d flow regions.
The s t a g n a n t wedge system (Fig. 3-27 B2) is described by a similar,
but s i m p l e r system of equations.
3.7.2.3

Solution Graphs

Surface Dilution

S o l u t i o n graphs giving s u r f a c e d i l u t i o n s

Ss

f o r both t h e

stable and u n s t a b l e near-field range are given f o r weak and s t r o n g far147

field effects for

0 = 1.0) and f o r

0 = 1.0).

Io=

Io
= 0'

45" (Fig. 3-28, 9 = 0 . 1 and Fig. 3-29,

and

(Fig. 3-30, 0 = 0 . 1

Fig. 3-31,

I n a l l graphs t h r e e t r a n s i t i o n l i n e s are included:

1) t h e c r i t e r i o n between s t a b l e and u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d conditions,

2) t h e t r a n s i t i o n between t h e counterflow system and t h e stagnant
wedge system is given when t h e wedge l e n g t h i s j u s t equal t o t h e
channel length, and 3) t h e t r a n s i t i o n between t h e wedge system and
s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow, given when

FH = 1

Based on t h e s o l u t i o n i n

t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l case Eq. (3-227) t h i s t r a n s i t i o n can be given as

(3-228)

In t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l case t h e d i l u t i o n Ss

FS and t h e flow is f u l l y mixed v e r t i c a l l y .

is independent of

The d i l u t i o n is a minimum

a t t h e p o i n t of maximum wedge i n t r u s i o n l e n g t h .

Similar t o t h e

vertical d i s c h a r g e case, t h e matching a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n between s t a b l e

and u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n s w i l l b e smoothed o u t
through t h e submerged i n t e r n a l jump regime which is n o t considered i n
t h e prediction.

3.8

Stnnmary

The mechanics of a submerged d i f f u s e r w e r e analyzed i n a twodimensional "channel model".

The channel model c o n s i s t s of a d i f f u s e r

s e c t i o n bounded by channel w a l l s of f i n i t e l e n g t h and opening a t both

ends i n t o a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r .

The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e channel model is

t o simulate t h e predominantly two-dimensional

148

flow which i s postulated

J V

10

Fig. 3-28:

a=45O

50

= 0.1

Surface Dilution S

500
Fs

as a F u n c t i o n of F ,H/B.

45" Discharge, Weak F a r - F i e l d E f f e c t s

149

1000

n .

rig. 3-29:

Surface Dilution S s as a Function of Fs, H/B.

45" Discharge, Strong Far-Field Effects

. -.

,
,
I

150

Fig. 3-30:

Surface Dilution S

H/B.

as a Function of F
S

Horizontal Discharge, Weak Far-Field Effects

151

5000

1000

50C

ss=lo

1oc

5c
10

I I I I I

50
Q = 0"

Fig. 3-31:

g=

100
1.0

Surface Dilution S

1000

500

F,
as a Function of F

S'

H/B.

H o r i z o n t a l Discharge, Strong Far F i e l d E f f e c t s

152

t o exist i n the center

charge.

p o r t i o n of a three-dimensional d i f f u s e r d i s -

The multiport arrangement w a s represented by t h e equivalent s l o t

concept , p r e s e r v i n g t h e dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e j e t discharge.

I n analyzing t h e two-dimensional flow f i e l d emphasis w a s l a i d
o n a d e t a i l e d treatment of t h e four d i s t i n c t flow r e g i o n s which can be
discerned i n t h e general case.

The o b j e c t i v e w a s t o o b t a i n an o v e r a l l

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e flow f i e l d by matching of t h e s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e
i n d i v i d u a l regions.

The f o u r flow regions are: t h e buoyant j e t region,

t h e s u r f a c e impingement r e g i o n , t h e i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump region and

t h e s t r a t i f i e d counterflow region.
The buoyant j e t r e g i o n w a s analyzed using t h e entrainment concept
proposed by Morton e t a l . (1956).

A r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r t h e entrainment

c o e f f i c i e n t (Eq. (3-48)), which depends on t h e l o c a l buoyant characteris-

t i c s of t h e j e t was deduced f o r jets with a r b i t r a r y d i s c h a r g e angle i n a

f a s h i o n s i m i l a r t o FOX'S (1970) s o l u t i o n f o r t h e vertical j e t .

It was

shown t h a t a l l buoyant j e t s tend t o a n asymptotic case, t h e plume, which

i s characterized by a c o n s t a n t l o c a l densimetric Froude number, Eq. (3-57).
The value of t h e entrainment c o e f f i c i e n t (Eq. (3-48)) i n t h i s asymptotic

case agrees w e l l with Abraham's (1963) evaluation of Rouse e t a l . ' s (1952)

experimental d a t a .
Important a s p e c t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e s u r f a c e impingement r e g i o n

w e r e t h e i n c l u s i o n of an energy l o s s and a buoyancy term i n t h e energy

equation.

It w a s found that t h e v e r t i c a l flow d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e s e c t i o n

a f t e r impingement is always d i s t i n g u i s h e d by d e n s i m e t r i c a l l y s u p e r c r i t i c a l
flow conditions leading t o a subsequent i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c jump.

153

The i n t e r n a l hydraulic jump r e g i o n is described by a set of

equations f i r s t derived by Yih and Guha (19551, which i n g e n e r a l i s
dependent on t h e density r a t i o between t h e two l a y e r s and t h e f r e e
s u r f a c e Froude numbers.

As t h e problem of i n t e r e s t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by small density d i f f e r e n c e s and small f r e e s u r f a c e Froude numbers, an

asymptotic s o l u t i o n f o r f i n i t e densimetric Froude numbers w a s derived
giving a simple equation (3-142)

f o r t h e conjugate jump c o n d i t i o n .

The equations f o r a non-entraining

s t r a t i f i e d counterflow region

with s u r f a c e h e a t l o s s and i n t e r f a c i a l mixing were developed.

Scaling

showed that f o r p r a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of channel length scales t h e

s u r f a c e h e a t t r a n s f e r processes can be neglected, so t h a t t h e equations
reduce t o t h e classical S c h i j f and S c h h f e l d (1953) equations f o r
s t r a t i f i e d flow.

(3-188),

The s o l u t i o n f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e i n t e r f a c e , Eq.

is obtained assuming c o n s t a n t t o t a l depth as a f i r s t approxima-

t i o n , which again implies small d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s and f r e e s u r f a c e

Froude numbers.

With t h e given i n t e r f a c e p o s i t i o n , t h e change of t h e

t o t a l head caused by f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s i n t h e flow system was derived,

Eq. (3-195).

Analytical s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e i n t e r f a c e and t o t a l head

e q u a t i o n s were given.

The d i f f u s e r problem is governed by f o u r dimensionless parameters :

F*

H/B and

Bo

are near-field parameters, 4J = f o L/H

is a far-field

parameter.
Matching of t h e s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e flow regions y i e l d s t h e following
important r e s u l t s : s t a b i l i t y of t h e n e a r - f i e l d zone is given only f o r a
l i m i t e d range of low

Fs

, high

H/B

Furthermore, t h e range decreases

f o r decreasing (more h o r i z o n t a l ) Bo (Fig. 3-25).

154

It is only i n t h i s

l i m i t e d range that t h e buoyant j e t models i n a n unbounded r e c e i v i n g

water (discussed i n Chapter 2) are a p p l i c a b l e t o p r e d i c t d i l u t i o n s .

It

is found that i n t h i s range t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e s u r f a c e impingement

l a y e r which h a s t o b e accounted f o r i n d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n s is about
1/6 of t h e water depth.

The flow-away i n t h e f a r - f i e l d has l i t t l e

e f f e c t on near-field d i l u t i o n (except f o r l a r g e

(3

leading t o a sub-

merged i n t e r n a l jump) and thus can b e neglected f o r d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n s .

Outside the s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d range t h e d i l u t e d w a t e r is
continuously re-entrained i n t o t h e j e t region forming a l o c a l mixing
zone.

This re-entrainment leads t o a build-up of buoyancy of t h e near-

f i e l d w a t e r u n t i l i n steady state a n equilibrium is reached which i s

e s s e n t i a l l y determined by t h e i n t e r p l a y of two f a c t o r s : f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s
i n t h e f a r - f i e l d , represented by
-

(3

of t h e j e t discharge, represented by

, and
8

t h e h o r i z o n t a l momentum input

For d i f f u s e r s with no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum

(eo

= 90') t h e far-

f i e l d flow i s given by a n equal counterflow system between two c r i t i c a l

s e c t i o n s , one a t t h e edge of t h e l o c a l mixing zone, one a t t h e channel
end.
For d i f f u s e r s with n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum

(eo

< 90')

t h e r e are

3 p o s s i b l e f a r - f i e l d flow configurations: a counterflow system, a

s t a g n a n t wedge system o r s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow.

The s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow case

with r e s u l t i n g f u l l v e r t i c a l mixing downstream i s t h e extreme case of

s u r f a c e and bottom i n t e r a c t i o n described by Harleman e t a l . (1971) and
reviewed i n Chapter 2.

I n t h e a n a l y s i s of each of t h e s e conditions t h e

h o r i z o n t a l momentum of t h e discharge is balanced by t h e depth change

a c r o s s t h e mixing zone r e s u l t i n g from f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s .

15 5

Composite s u r f a c e d i l u t i o n graphs describing both t h e near- and

far-f i e l d range were presented.
The u t i l i t y of t h e two-dimensional channel model i n t h e s t u d y
of t h e d i f f u s e r induced flow f i e l d i s obvious:
(1) It provided necessary criteria giving t h e range
of a p p l i c a b i l i t y f o r buoyant j e t models t o p r e d i c t d i l u t i o n s
f o r d i f f u s e r discharge i n f i n i t e depth.
(2) It gave i n s i g h t i n t o t h e vertical and l o n g i t u d i n a l

v a r i a t i o n s of t h e flow f i e l d .

(3) It demonstrated t h a t i t i s necessary t o d e s c r i b e

the dynamics of t h e t o t a l flow f i e l d , and not merely t h e j e t

r e g i o n , t o give d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e s t a b l e nearf i e l d range.

However, as the underlying o b j e c t i v e of t h i s study i s p r e d i c t i o n
of t h e three-dimensional d i f f u s e r flow f i e l d i t w i l l be necessary t o
provide some linkage between t h e f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s p r e s e n t i n t h e twodimensional channel model and t h e f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s p r e s e n t i n t h e threedimensional case.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , based on t h e requirement of equivalency

of t h e f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the characteristic

h o r i z o n t a l length scales, t h e two-dimensional channel l e n g t h and t h e threedimensional d i f f u s e r l e n g t h , has t o b e developed.

This l i n k a g e is

provided i n a n a l y t i c a l fashion i n Chapter 4 and comparisons w i t h

experimental r e s u l t s are given i n Chapter 6 .

156

IV. THREE-DIMENSIONAL ASPECTS OF THE DIFFUSER INDUCED FLOW FIELD

A multiport diffuser line of length, 2LD, placed in a large body

of water of uniform depth, H, will generate a three-dimensional flow

pattern.

In the preceding chapter a two-dimensional channel model was

formulated simulating the predominantly two-dimensional flow field which

is postulated to exist in the center portion of the diffuser line (Fig.
3-1).

Depending on discharge conditions it was found that a stable or

unstable near-field condition persists.

For the stable near-field, the

diffuser-induced dilution is primarily governed by jet entrainment.

How-

ever, for unstable near-field conditions, the dilution is influenced by

far-field effects relating to the total resistance in the flow-away of
mixed water from the near-field.

A s the objective of this study is dilu-

tion prediction in the general three-dimensional case, this chapter discusses the important three-dimensional aspects of the diffuser-induced
flow field and their relation to the two-dimensional channel model:
i) A simplified model of the three-dimensional flow field is

developed and the far-field effects are evaluated.

Based

on equivalency of far-field effects, the channel length

of the corresponding two-dimensional model is related

the length of the three-dimensional diffuser.

to

In this

way predictions for the three-dimensional application may

be given through the corresponding two-dimensional channel
model.
ii) In addition to vertical circulations (such as in the
stratified counterflow system), the diffuser is capable
of producing circulations in the horizontal plane.
L

157
..-

The

e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e c i r c u l a t i o n s which u l t i m a t e l y l e a d
t o re-entrainment of mixed w a t e r i s r e l a t e d t o n e a r - f i e l d
instabilities.

The c o n t r o l of t h e s e c i r c u l a t i o n s t h r o u g h

o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e d i f f u s e r n o z z l e s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l

plane i s discussed.

4.1

R e l a t i n g t h e Two-Dimensional Channel Model t o t h e ThreeDimensional Flow F i e l d

A q u a n t i t a t i v e relationship i s given only f o r d i f f u s e r discharge

w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum and z e r o c r o s s flow.

Diffusers with net

h o r i z o n t a l momentum are d i s c u s s e d q u a l i t a t i v e l y and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s

are given.

4.1.1

D i f f u s e r s w i t h No N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum
4.1.1.1

Equivalency Requirements

F i g u r e 4-1 shows t h e v e r t i c a l c i r c u l a t i o n and t h e horizon-

t a l flow p a t t e r n i n t h e lower l a y e r p o s t u l a t e d f o r a d i f f u s e r w i t h no n e t
The h o r i z o n t a l f l o w p a t t e r n i n t h e upper l a y e r i s

h o r i z o n t a l momentum.

similar w i t h reversed d i r e c t i o n s .
t h e two-dimensional

The three-dimensional s i t u a t i o n and

channel model c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n are shown.

I n both

cases the flow i s set up by t h e e n t r a i n m e n t demand and t h e buoyancy s u p p l y

within t h e near-field

zone.

For comparison of t h e d i l u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s of b o t h s y s t e m s i t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e n e a r - f i e l d p a r a m e t e r s F
H/B are the s a m e .
fi

= Af

Furthermore, the s a m e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f

and

are given.

The ob j ec t i v e of t h e comparison i s t o determine t h e c h a n n e l l e n g t h

L s o t h a t t h e same d l u t i o n i s o b t a i n e d from t h e two-dimensional c h a n n e l

model as from t h e three-dimensional case.

158

To o b t a i n t h e s a m e d i l u t i o n s

5"

159

two r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e t o hold:
1 ) Kinematic Requirement
The d i l u t i o n f o r t h e two-dimensional case i s

where 141

41

= -q2 i s t h e flow i n e a c h l a y e r ( l a r g e d i l u t i o n s )

-u i s

u = l a y e r v e l o c i t y u averaged o v e r t o t a l d e p t h H.

c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e channel,

-U U - .
C

(4-2)

The d i l u t i o n f o r t h e three-dimensional case i s

-f

i s t h e normal (x) component of t h e flow v e c t o r q = (qx,qy

where

d
,
e v a l u a t e d a t t h e d i f f u s e r x =O,

-u

- LD<y<LD

i s t h e normal component of t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r averaged o v e r

the t o t a l depth

3=

(u,;)

a t the diffuser.
=&

The magnitude of u d e c r e a s e s away from t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e .

The k i n e m a t i c requirement f o r e q u i v a l e n t d i l u t i o n f o l l o w s

2) Dynamic Requirement

-I

D i s c h a r g e w i t h s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s i s l i t t l e a f f e c t e d by
f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s and t h u s w i l l behave s i m i l a r l y i n b o t h cases.
charges w i t h u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d

Dis-

c o n d i t i o n s depend s t r o n g l y on t h e f a r 160

field.
channel model d i l u t i o n i s uniquely con-

For t h e two-dimensional

t r o l l e d by t h e b a l a n c e of f a r - f i e l d f r i c t i o n and buoyancy i n t h e nearf i e l d r e g i o n , e x p r e s s e d by t h e e q u a l c o u n t e r f l o w Equation ( 3 2 0 7 ) which

i s p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 3-22 (A = 0 . 5 ) .

The f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n i s g i v e n

as

@ = fo

(FH 1

fl

(4-5)

i s t h e d e n s i m e t r i c Froude number of t h e counterflow system

where F
HC

(Eq. 3-221).

By v i r t u e of t h e d i l u t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , Eq.

(3-222),

this

e q u a t i o n i s w r i t t e n as

(4-6)
_-

and f u r t h e r m o r e , m u l t i p l y i n g b o t h s i d e s by

hf

2-D

fo
=4

u2/@

- 2

c
2g
U

3 (2-D)

(4-7)

i s a head l o s s e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e two-dimensional channel

2-D
flow. By v i r t u e of t h e constancy of
(Eq. ( 4 - 2 ) ) , h
, i s equivC
2-D
a l e n t t o t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r t h e flow domain

where h

The s t r o n g l y two-dimensional c h a r a c t e r of t h e three-dimensional

flow f i e l d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e d i f f u s e r c e n t e r p o r t i o n i s noted.

Ex-

c e p t f o r d i s t a n c e s f a r from t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e , t h e v e r t i c a l counterflow
161

resembles that of the two-dimensional model.

Therefore a functional

relationship for the balance of far-field friction and buoyancy is hypothesized, similar to Eq. (4-71,
(4-9 1

hf 3-D = f3 (S3-*)
where hf

is the integration over the flow path from the diffuser to

3-D
infinity. In particular, by integration along the x-axis

(4-10)

To evaluate the integral a description of the flow field

(u,;)

is neces-

sary.

The dynamic requirement for equivalent dilution (S

2-D = S3,D)

is

the equality of far-field frictional effects

hf 2-D

(4-11)

hf
3-D

4.1.1.2

Model for the Three-Dimensional Flow Distribution

Evaluation of the three-dimensional far-field effects, Eq.

(4-lo), requires specification of the flow distribution.

A simplified

flow model is given describing the horizontal motion in each fluid layer.
Density changes due to heat dissipation or interfacial mixing are neglected in view of the fact that the model application is primarily
focused on the two-dimensional behavior in the diffuser vicinity; the
heat loss scaling performed in paragraph 3.4.4.2 applies then as well.
The flow is gradually varying and two-dimensional in the horizontal plane.

The equations of motion are written for the lower layer.

162

The

- -

flow v e l o c i t i e s u, v are averaged over t h e t o t a l d e p t h , H.

(4-12)

(4-13)

(4-14)

where

7zx'

-T

zy

are t o t a l stress terms f o r b o t h i n t e r f a c i a l and bottom

f r i c t i o n , w r i t t e n as
(4-15)

where

is the t o t a l f r i c t i o n coefficient.

The relative importance o f

t h e terms i n t h e momentum e q u a t i o n s i s determined by s c a l i n g :

(u*,v*)

= (U,V)/Gd

The d i f f u s e r l e n g t h i s chosen as t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e n g t h s c a l e
of t h e problem as t h e l o c a l flow f i e l d i n t h e d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y i s o f
interest.

The x-momentum e q u a t i o n may b e w r i t t e n i n dimensionless form,

substituting

u*

T-

XZ

from Eq. (4-15) as

a u* + v * - -a u*
ax*
aY*

ax*

163

(4-17)

Typical prototype values are chosen as in paragraph 3.4.4.2.

H = 30 ft. and

is taken as 0.03.

LD=lOOO ft,

The bracketed term is evaluated as

-0.lindicating that the flow field is governed by pressure and inertial

forces. Thus neglecting the frictional term as a first approximation,
the flow field can be determined assuming inviscid conditions (potential
flow).

, can

With the calculated flow field the frictional term, h

3-D

then be evaluated.
The potential flow formulation is

v20 = 0

(4-18)

with

and the boundary condition at the diffuser line

a($
ax

= - u

x++o
(4-19)

= + u

X-t-0

The problem is solved in the complex plane (Figure 4-2).

A con-

plex potential W is defined as

(4-20)

w = b + i $
The complex potential due to a point sink at 5 is

(4-21)

164

Fig. 4-2:

Complex.
- S o l u t i o n Domain

S u p e r p o s i t i o n of p o i n t s i n k s a l o n g t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e l e a d s t o a l i n e
sink

(4-22)

I'iLD
and a f t e r i n t e g r a t i o n

(4-23)

The s t r e a m l i n e s $ a r e g i v e n by t h e imaginary p a r t of W and are p l o t t e d

i n Figure 4-3 f o r h a l f t h e flow f i e l d e x h i b i t i n g t h e two-dimensional
character i n the centerportion.

- -

The complex v e l o c i t i e s u, v are obtained

by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

165

_-

(4-24)

rL

\Diffuser

Fig. 4-3:

Line

Streamlines for One Quadrant of the Flow Field

166

The flow d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e i s g i v e n as

(4-25)

Using t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e normal v e l o c i t y

E gives
d

2Ud

m--

(4-26)

0- L

The v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e x-axis is now g i v e n as

(4-27)

The head loss i n t e g r a l , Eq. (5-lo),

f o r t h e three-dimensional

f l o w f i e l d can b e e v a l u a t e d as

(4-28)

or with x =

CLD

(4-29)

The v a l u e of t h e d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l i n Eq. (4-29)

and Ryshik (1965) as

IT l o g

i s g i v e n by Gradshteyn

2 so that

- 2
h

34

- -f o- Ud
4H

2g

(0.884) LD

(4-30)

-1

The integral

dE

is computed numerically and

plotted in Figure 4-4.

The shape o f the function indicates that the

us'
4 H 29

.5

Fig. 4-4:

Cumulatiye .Head Loss,

x/LD

, Along theFlow Path, x / L

major influence of the far-field effects is indeed restricted to the

diffuser vicinity where the strongly two-dimensional flow character
with reasonably high velocities persists.

At 5 diffuser half-lengths

the asymptotic value is approached to within 10%.

Invoking the kinematic and dynamic requirements for equivalency
of diffuser-induced dilutions, by equating Equations (4-8) and (4-30)
and substituting Eq. (4-4), it is found that
L

0.884 LD

(4-31)

gives the length of the corresponding two-dimensional channel model.

For practical purposes Eq. (4-31) can be approximated as

( 4 - 32)

LD

For a diffuser with no net horizontal momentum, the channel length of

the corresponding two-dimensional channel should be taken about equal to

168

t h e l e n g t h of the three-dimensional d i f f u s e r .

4.1.2

D i f f u s e r s w i t h N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum

Kinematic and dynamic r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r equivalency of d i f f u s e r induced d i l u t i o n s can be d e r i v e d i n a manner s i m i l a r t o E q u a t i o n s (4-4)

and (4-11).

The e v a l u a t i o n of the three-dimensional head l o s s e q u a t i o n ,

(Eq. (4-10) ), r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y
hf3-D
_ -

distribution

(u,;).

I n d e v e l o p i n g a model f o r

mentum i n p u t of t h e d i f f u s e r ( e < 9 0 " )

0

condition.

(t,;)

t h e h o r i z o n t a l mo-

h a s t o b e i n c l u d e d as a boundary

I n t h e complex p l a n e t h i s can b e accomplished by i n t e g r a t i n g

a d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n along the d i f f u s e r l i n e .

The r e s u l t i n g flow f i e l d

w i l l be t h a t of two v o r t i c e s c e n t e r e d a t b o t h d i f f u s e r ends.

However,

t h e t o t a l d i s c h a r g e over the d i f f u s e r l i n e i s found t o b e i n f i n i t e f o r

t h i s s i m p l e model.
quirement.

This i s n o n r e a l i s t i c i n terms of the k i n e m a t i c re-

Therefore, a more i n t r i c a t e model must b e developed t o des-

c r i b e the three-dimensional f l o w f i e l d .
I n t h i s s t u d y i t is assumed t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n , L = LD, developed
f o r the d i f f u s e r w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum i s a l s o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
c o r r e c t f o r t h e d i f f u s e r w i t h net h o r i z o n t a l momentum.

T h i s assumption

i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e case of a d i f f u s e r w i t h a r e s u l t i n g c o u n t e r f l o w
system ( F i g u r e 3-27B1) which s t r o n g l y resembles t h e e q u a l c o u n t e r f l o w
system of t h e d i f f u s e r w i t h no net h o r i z o n t a l momentum.

The assumption

i s more h y p o t h e t i c a l f o r d i s c h a r g e s w i t h f u l l v e r t i c a l mixing (Fig.

3-27B3) and e s s e n t i a l l y h a s t o be s u b s t a n t i a t e d by e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence.

4.2

D i f f u s e r Induced H o r i z o n t a l C i r c u l a t i o n s
D i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e s , even w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum, are

under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , c a p a b l e of producing s i g n i f i c a n t h o r i z o n t a l
169

circulations.

These circulations are defined as currents which ultim-

ately lead to recirculation of already mixed water into the diffuser

line. Diffusers with stable near-field conditions do not produce such
circulations, as a stable vertically stratified flow system is set up.
The existence of horizontal circulations is intimately related to nearfield instabilities.

The generation mechanism for these circulations

is discussed in a qualitative fashion.

Control of the circulations can

be achieved through specific orientation of the diffuser nozzles in the

horizontal plane.

Such control is desirable from practical considera-

tions to prevent recirculation and maximize diffuser efficiency.

4.2.1.

Diffuser with No Net Horizontal Momentum

4.2.1.1

Generating Mechanism

The velocity distribution at the diffuser line is given

from the horizontal flow model for the lower layer by Eq. (4-25) with
Eq. (4-26) substituted

The velocity is thus made up of a normal component, ud, accounting for

the entrainment into the diffuser line and a tangential component, vd

Vd

Ud

WILD

IT

log l-y/LD

(4-34)
1
.
_

The horizontal component is zero at the diffuser center and infinitely

high at the diffuser ends.

Such a sweeping motian from the diffuser

end to its center is present as can be seen in Figure 4-3.

170

The

e x i s t e n c e of t h i s c u r r e n t i n t h e lower l a y e r has been observed by

L i s e t h (1970) and c a u s e s some inward bending of t h e j e t s i s s u i n g from
t h e n o z z l e s a t t h e d i f f u s e r end.

The motion i s of no f u r t h e r concern

f o r s t a b l e near-field conditions.
For u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , however, t h e motion r e s u l t s
i n the g e n e r a t i o n of a s t r o n g h o r i z o n t a l eddying motion u n l e s s some c o w
t r o l i s invoked.

The mechanism f o r t h i s somewhat unexpected phenomenon

( t h e r e i s no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum!) i s e x p l a i n e d as f o l l o w s , r e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 4-5:

A s s u m e a f l o w p a r t i c l e i s e n t r a i n e d i n t o t h e vcr-

t i c a l j e t near t h e d i f f u s e r end.

The p a r t i c l e i s c a r r i e d upward i n

t h e j e t and d e f l e c t e d due t o s u r f a c e impingement.

As the n e a r - f i e l d

zone is dynamically u n s t a b l e t h e f l o w p a r t i c l e i s c a r r i e d a g a i n i n t o
t h e lower l a y e r w h i l e being swept inward a l o n g t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e .
p a r t i c l e g e t s re-entrained i n t o t h e jets.
p a r t i c l e is indicated.

The

The Lagrangian p a t h of t h e

The t o t a l e f f e c t of t h e b e h a v i o r i s t h a t a l l

the r e p e a t e d l y e n t r a i n e d d i l u t e d flow i s t r a n s p o r t e d towards t h e d i f f u s e r c e n t e r from which i t d e p a r t s i n t h e form of a v e r t i c a l l y f u l l y

By c o n t i n u i t y t h e t o t a l approach

mixed s t r o n g c u r r e n t a l o n g t h e x-axis.

flow a l o n g t h e y-axis i s a s i m i l a r s t r o n g c u r r e n t of ambient water.

h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n i s g e n e r a t e d which u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n and unsteady c o n c e n t r a t i o n build-up e f f e c t s .

The c l o s e connection of t h e g e n e r a t i n g mechanism t o t h e s t a b i l i t y

of t h e n e a r - f i e l d zone i s i m p o r t a n t .
away a t S e c t i o n B-B

The v e r t i c a l l y f u l l y mixed flow-

(Fig. 4-5) does n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l l y strat-

i f i e d flow i n t h e d i f f u s e r c e n t e r p o r t i o n as i n d i c a t e d on F i g . 4-1.

f a c t , t h i s p o s t u l a t e d v e r t i c a l l y s t r a t i f i e d flow c o n d i t i o n (which a l s o

171
-

In

PLAN VIEW

A-A
reentrainment in unstable
near field zone

B-B

Fig. 4-5:

v e r t icallv
fully mixed.
flow - away

Three-Dimensional Flow Field f o r Diffuser with

Unstable Near-Field Zone (No Control)

172

forms the basis of the two-dimensional channel model conceptualization)

requires control of the three-dimensional flow field.

This control can

he achieved through orientation of the diffuser nozzles in the horizontal plane and is desirable in view of the prevention of the repeated
re-entrainment.

4.2.1.2

Control Methods

The objective of the control is the prevention of repeated entrainment within the unstable near-field zone (local mixing zone).
This is achieved by opposing the inward current within the local mixing
\

zone through orientation of the jet nozzles in the horizontal plane.

The momentum of the inward flow is balanced by the momentum of the jet
discharge.

This stagnation of the inward flow within the local mixing

zone, however, does not imply zero tangential flow at the edge of the
local mixing zone. The flow outside the mixing zone will behave as
predicted by the simple layer model and indicated in Figure 4-3.

Con-

trol through nozzle orientation merely guarantees zero inward velocity

within the local mixing zone and provides the proper starting conditions at the edge of the mixing zone for the establishment of a vertically stratified flow system outside.
The local angle @ ( y ) (see Fig. 4-3) under which the horizontal
entrainment flow is entering the diffuser line is

(4-35)
U

To counteract this entrainment flow within the local mixing zone the
individual nozzles of the alternating diffuser are directed against the

173

entrainment flow.

The variation of the horizontal nozzle orientation

along the diffuser line is then

(4-36 )

Local details of a diffuser section with alternating nozzles are shown

in Figure 4-6.

The vertical nozzle angle is

e0.

Efficient counteract-

ing of the entrainment flow within the local mixing zone is only possible if the momentum flux of a nozzle discharge acting over the width

Fig. 4-6:

Plan V i e w of Diffuser Section; Alternating Nozzles with

Vertical Angle 0 0

2RsinB

is higher than the momentum of the entrainment flow.

no control is possible if e o = 90" (vertical discharge).

Obviously,

There i s a

up to which control is possible. The momentum flux

maximum angle 8
0
max
of the entrainment flow over a diffuser length Ay is
(4-37)

The momentum f l u x of the nozzle discharge is, over the diffuser length
2 a , (see Fig. 4-6)

174

..

DTr

po '
0

sing

cos

e0

(4-38)

and u s i n g t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d e f i n i t i o n , Eq, ( 2 - 2 0 ) and a l s o p,:po

e0 sing R
1

m =
U ~ ' B cos
n
Pa

(4-39)

The s p a c i n g R i s considered a d i f f e r e n t i a l l e n g t h of t h e t o t a l d i f f u s e r ,

thus Ay-R

and Am-m

Am

Pa

uo

L~

cos e

o sing

(4-40)

AY

To make a c o n t r o l p o s s i b l e
3

(4-41)

With the d e f i n i t i o n (Eq.

4
H
-

cos 8

( 4 - 3 ) and qo = UoB o n e can w r i t e

(4-42)

>1

sS

I n t h e parameter range f o r t h e u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d S

is given

( 3 - 2 2 2 ) which i s s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o Eq. (4-42) t o g i v e

by Eq.

(4-43)

where F

H accounts f o r t h e f a r - f i e l d effects

by v i r t u e of t h e i n t e r -

f a c i a l e q u a t i o n (see Fig. 3 - 2 2 ) .
estimated:

N e g l i g i b l e f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s mean F
H

175

eo

is
max
= 0 . 2 5 and a t t h e

The maximum v a l u e of

= O0

c r i t e r i o n which d e s c r i b e s t h e t r a n s i t i o n between t h e s t a b l e and u n s t a b l e

parameter range w a s e s t a b l i s h e d as

H/B = 1.84 Fs413

(3-219)

so t h a t

= cos-l

eo

P-lI3

(1.84)

(0.25)4']

79"

(4-44)

max

For l a r g e r F

o r smaller H/B, i.e.

r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g e r impact of t h e

d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e on t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r , t h e a n g l e O 0
ger.

, i.e.

S i m i l a r l y , f o r smaller FH

i s even l a r max
l a r g e r resistance i n the far-

eo

i s l a r g e r . However, u s i n g Eq. (4-44) as t h e lower estimax

mate, i t can b e s t a t e d i n o r d e r t o e n a b l e c o n t r o l of t h e three-dimenfield,

s i o n a l f l o w f i e l d through h o r i z o n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e n o z z l e s , B ( y )
given by E q . (4-36)

t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e of t h e d i s c h a r g e h a s t o b e less

than ~ 7 9 " . It i s immaterial how much less, s i n c e i f 0 <

0

emax

t h e excess

h o r i z o n t a l n o z z l e momentum i s d i f f u s e d i n t h e l o c a l mixing zone, much

l i k e i n the f a s h i o n i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 3-25.

As mentioned above, t h e

o b j e c t i v e of t h e c o n t r o l i s t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y ,
w i t h i n the l o c a l mixing zone.

Vd'

N o h o r i z o n t a l motion can b e induced by

t h e n o z z l e d i s c h a r g e momentum o u t s i d e t h e mixing zone, as can be shown

by drawing a c o n t r o l volume around t h e d i f f u s e r area:
t a l momentum i n any d i r e c t i o n i s zero!

The n e t horizon-

Thus i t i s emphasized, t h a t t h e

h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s which are set up by a d i f f u s e r w i t h v e r t i c a l

and a l t e r n a t i n g n o z z l e s are by no means a r e s u l t of h o r i z o n t a l d i s c h a r g e
momentum, b u t r a t h e r a complex i n t e r a c t i o n of v e r t i c a l n e a r - f i e l d

176

instabilities which are amplified by the entrainment flow sweeping

along the diffuser line.
In summary, through control by local horizontal orientation,B(y)
in Eq. (4-36) of the nozzles of a multiport diffuser the dexelopment of
horizontal circulations can be prevented.
the local mixing zone.

The control "consolidates"

The flow outside the local mixing zone will then

be characterized by the two-layered system which is in equilibrium between the buoyancy force of the near-field and the resistance in the
far-field (Fig. 4-1).
tion is applicable.

The two-dimensional channel model conceptualizaNo control is required for diffusers with a stable

near-field zone: The flow field outside the near-field will always be
the stratified two-layered type.
Evaluation of the sensitivity of the form of the flow field for
different orientations, ~(y), can only be made experimentally.

In the

experimental program various distributions, ~ ( y ) , were tested and

changes in flow field behavior and resulting overall dilution are reported (Chapter 6 ) .
4.2.2

Diffusers with Net Horizontal Momentum

4.2.2.1

Generating Mechanism

Diffusers with unidirectional nozzles produce horizontal

circulations due to two factors:

i) horizontal momentum of the dis-

charge, and ii) instabilities in the near-field zone, similar to the

discharge with no horizontal momentum.

The relative strength of the

two mechanisms is important.

As no analytical model for the description of the far-field has

been developed, the following is hypothetical, partly in analogy to the

177

d i s c h a r g e w i t h no h o r i z o n t a l momentum.

1) D i f f u s e r s w i t h a s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d

zone e x h i b i t a two-

l a y e r e d system i n t h e f a r - f i e l d .

The h o r i z o n t a l orien-

t a t i o n of t h e n o z z l e s , B(y), i s n o t d e c i s i v e .
2 ) D i f f u s e r s w i t h a n u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d w i l l produce circula-

t i o n s which are dependent on t h e n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n , ~ ( y ) .

The d i s c u s s i o n i s g i v e n f o r p a r a l l e l n o z z l e s as shown i n

Fig. 4-7.

PLAN VIEW

Fig. 4-7;

kGd

A-A

U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Discharge w i t h P a r a l l e l Nozzle O r i e n t a t i o n
@(y) = c o n s t = 90")

a ) For weak h o r i z o n t a l momentum (counterflow system) t h e set-up

o f h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s i s p r i m a r i l y due t o i n s t a b i l i t i e s
i n the near-field

zone i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a n inward flow

along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e .

A flow f i e l d much l i k e t h e one

f o r t h e d i f f u s e r w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum (Fig. 4-5)

' w i l l r e s u l t o n l y somewhat modified by the momentum of t h e
d i s c h a r g e s o that t h e flow-away w i l l b e mainly along t h e
+x-axis.
178

b) For strong horizontal momentum (supercritical system with

full vertical mixing) the horizontal circulation is primarily caused by the momentum of the discharge.

This is

essentially the situation which has been described analytically by Adams (1971) as discussed in Chapter 2 .

Adams'

model, when applied to zero crossflow conditions, Eq. (2-451,

predicts a significant contraction (cc = 1 / 2 ) of the flow
field downstream of the diffuser line.

This contraction

is accompanied by a dilution decrease of l/2 as compared

to the corresponding two-dimensional channel model without
far-field friction ( @
4.2.2.2

0).

Control Methods

Control of the horizontal diffuser-induced circulations is

aimed primarily at the prevention of the flow contraction downstream of
the diffuser line.

Such control is desirable as is shown by comparison

of the dilution predictions from Adams' model and the two-dimensional

channel model.
Prevention of the contraction is again achieved by counteracting
the y-component of the entrainment flow as it enters the diffuser line
through horizontal orientation of the diffuser nozzles, The variation
of nozzle orientation, B(y),

cannot be computed analytically due to

lack of a model for the three-dimensional flow field.

In the experimen-

tal program unidirectional diffusers with parallel nozzles ( B = 90")

and nozzles with ~ ( y )as given by Eq. 4-36 were studied.
of this B(y)

may be well justified at least in the case of a stratified

counterflow system in view of the flow-field similarities.

179

The assumption

V.

EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES

This chapter d e s c r i b e s the laboratory equipment and procedures

used i n t h e experimental p a r t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
set-ups w e r e used:

Two d i f f e r e n t

(1) a flume set-up d i r e c t e d toward t h e study of

t h e two-dimensional channel model, and (2) a b a s i n set-up mainly

d i r e c t e d toward t h e study of three-dimensional d i f f u s e r behavior,
with few a d d i t i o n a l tests on t h e two-dimensional channel concept.
I n both set-ups t h e e f f e c t of cross-flow w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The

buoyancy of t h e discharge w a s introduced by using heated water.

The set-ups and procedures are described i n d e t a i l below.

However, f i r s t b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s reporting t h e experimental program

are discussed.

Experimental r e s u l t s are presented i n Chapters 6 and

7, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
5.1

Basic Considerations on D i f f u s e r Experiments

5.1.1

Experimental Program

The o b j e c t i v e s of t h e experimental program w e r e :

a)

t o g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e hydrodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of t h e d i f f u s e r induced flow f i e l d and examine assumptions made i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

development ;

b)

t o measure the gross behavior of the diffuser-induced flow f i e l d

and compare i t with t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n s (Chapter 6);

c)

t o determine t h e e f f e c t of ambient cross-flow on d i f f u s e r behavior

and d e r i v e empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p s (Chapter 7).
The experimental program w a s planned t o encompass a broad range

of t h e governing dimensionless parameters f o r m u l t i p a r t d i f f u s e r

dicharges

For t h e purely d i f fuser-induced behavior t h e s e parameters

180

are given i n Eq. (3-215), namely, the densimetric Froude number of the
(equivalent) s l o t d i f f u s e r , FS, t h e v e r t i c a l d i s c h a r g e angle, Bo, t h e

relative depth, H/B, and t h e f a r - f i e l d parameter, @

Two more

parameters are introduced f o r t h e case of a d i f f u s e r i n ambient crossflaw, namely,

u H
a
V E - X

U
and
y

volume

flux r a t i o

angle of d i f f u s e r axis w i t h d i r e c t i o n
of cross-current,

ua

The parameter range was intended t o include p r a c t i c a l prototype

a p p l i c a t i o n s , the o r d e r of magnitude of which are o u t l i n e d i n t h e
following examples with reference t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n Chapter 1:
(1)

p p ical sewage d i f f u s e r with high d i l u t i o n requirement:

L i s e t h (1970) gave a survey of sewage m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r o u t f a l l s on

t h e U.S.

P a c i f i c Coast.

S e l e c t e d average dimensions are shown in

Table 5.1 and non-dimensional parameters f o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t

d i f f u s e r are c a l c u l a t e d .
(2)

Typi c a l thermal d i f f u s e r with lower d i l u t i o n requirement:

The discharge conditions from a 600 MW nuclear power p l a n t with a

d i f f u s e r i n a shallaw near-shore area are i n d i c a t e d i n Table 5 . 1 f o r
comparison (see, f o r example, Harleman et. a l . (19 71) )

Equivalent

s l o t parameters are c a l c u l a t e d .

A bottom f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o = 0.02 w a s assumed i n both

cases, corresponding t o an average Chezy C

110 (ft)/sec.

In

Chapter 4 t h e r e l a t i o n between channel length, L, and d i f f u s e r length,

LD, is derived as

L z LD

, hence

f4

181

fo LD/H

Comparison shows

Table 5.1:

Comparison of Relevant Parameters for

Typical Sewage and Thermal D i f f u s e r
9plications

Variables:

Sewage D i f f u s e r

Thermal Diffuser

Water depth, H ( f t )

200

20

T o t a l d i s c h a r g e , Qo (cfs)

400

1000

0.025

0.003

APf Pa

(fresh

s a l t water)

(ATo

- 20F)

T o t a l D i f f u s e r Length,
2% ( f t )

3000

3000

Nozzle Diameter, D ( f t )

0.5

1 .o

Nozzle Spacing, 11 ( f t )

10

6.8

Discharge v e l o c i t y , U,, (fps)

Ambient c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y ,
u Ups)
0

20

to

8.5
0.1

to

Bottom f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , f o

0.02

0.02

Equivalent s l o t width, B ( f t )

0.02

0.04

70

140

10,000

500

0.5

Dimensionless parameters:

H/B

v a ri a bl e

0.1

to

1.5
100

variable

182

variable

0 to

50

variable

some of t h e s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e g e n e r a l d i f f u s e r types:

The relative depth is considerably l a r g e r f o r the sewage d i f f u s e r ,

w h i l e i t s densimetric Froude number is somewhat smaller.

The e f f e c t

of t h e f a r f i e l d is more pronounced f o r the thermal d i f f u s e r .

5.1.2

Experimental Limitations

While laboratory experiments on submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s

have t h e d i s t i n c t advantage of a l o c a l i z e d observation area and a
c o n t r o l l a b l e environment, they have some l i m i t a t i o n s which have d i r e c t
repercussions on the range of dimensionless parameters which can be

These l i m i t a t i o n s are r e l a t e d t o t h e s i z e of u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e

studied.

laboratory f a c i l i t i e s :
(1)

Boundary e f f e c t s :

The t h e o r e t i c a l treatment w a s d i r e c t e d

toward t h e steady-state d i f f u s e r performance i n a ( i n f i n i t e l y ) l a r g e

body of water with uniform depth.

I f the d i f f u s e r is l o c a t e d i n a

b a s i n of f i n i t e e x t e n t , i t is clear t h a t , depending on t h e s i z e of t h e
b a s i n r e l a t i v e t o the d i f f u s e r length, t h e flow induced by t h e
d i f f u s e r w i l l be influenced t o a s t r o n g e r o r lesser degree through
boundary e f f e c t s .

There is no i n f l u e n c e i n case of t h e two-dimensional

channel model, i n which c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n s a t the channel ends d e f i n e a

clear s teady-s tate boundary condition, t h e only requirement being t h a t

t h e r e s e r v o i r outside t h e channel be somewhat l a r g e r than t h e channel
itself.

There is n e g l i g i b l e i n f l u e n c e i n t h e case of a s t r o n g cross-

flow.
There are cases which have some quasi-steady s t a t e condition,
such as discharges with no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum and c o n t r o l , which

create

v e r t i c a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and an upper l a y e r which f a r from the

183

d i f f u s e r (near t o the b a s i n boundaries) i s only slowly i n c r e a s i n g i n

depth and thus has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e behavior i n regions c l o s e r
t o the diffuser.
There may be considerable boundary i n f l u e n c e f o r d i s c h a r g e s
with s t r o n g h o r i z o n t a l momentum:

The s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n r e q u i r e s

experimental t i m e s long enough t o overcome t h e i n e r t i a of t h e i n i t i a l l y

undisturbed receiving water.

On t h e o t h e r hand, f o r longer t i m e s

r e c i r c u l a t i o n of the mixed water i n t o t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e w i l l occur due

A real dilemma may r e s u l t i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s .

t o boundary e f f e c t s .

Therefore, i n general, minimization of boundary e f f e c t s r e q u i r e s

d i f f u s e r dimensions, LD/H, which are s m a l l compared t o t h e m i n i m u m s i z e
of t h e a v a i l a b l e b a s i n Ldn/H,

I n the analysis a f u l l y turbulent jet

(2) Turbulence problems:

region i s assumed,

This r e q u i r e s maintenance of a j e t Reynolds number

which is l a r g e r than some c r i t i c a l value, and poses a considerable

c o n s t r a i n t i n studying the parameter range with low
i n view of t h e requirement (5-1).

and high

H/B

The change of the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e

of a round non-buoyant j e t w i t h a Reynolds number defined as

wj

UOD
V

= -

(5-2)
I

w a s v i s u a l l y observed by Pearce (1968).

Pearce found a f u l l y t u r b u l e n t

j e t s t r u c t u r e w i t h constant angle of spreading t o be given f o r

IR

> 3000

For IR

small i n s t a b i l i t i e s .

< 500 t h e j e t e f f l u e n t i s laminar w i t h only

The t r a n s i t i o n region

184

500 < IR

< 3000

is

d i s t i n g u i s h e d by an increasingly t u r b u l e n t j e t s t r u c t u r e .

Pearce

d i d n o t i n v e s t i g a t e t h e entrainment e f f i c i e n c y of j e t s i n this
t r a n s i t i o n region, b u t presumably i t will be lower and only approach-

IR >3000

i n g t h a t of the f u l l y t u r b u l e n t j e t ,

Hence, for a j e t

Reynolds number IR based on t h e h y d r a u l i c radius of t h e d i s c h a r g e

j
opening, R, , a c r i t e r i o n

u4%

I R =

> 3000

should b e m e t i n experimental s t u d i e s

3)

Measurement technique:

are of interest.

(5-3)

The v e l o c i t y and temperature f i e l d s

Y e t the j e t v e l o c i t i e s decrease r a p i d l y from t h e

p o i n t of discharge and h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r v e l o c i t i e s are very l o w .

is

There

as of now no p r a c t i c a l l y f e a s i b l e technique which allows v e l o c i t y

measurement of t h i s order of magnitude.

Only approximate v i s u a l or

photographic observations can be made in certain i n s t a n c e s .

Thus t h e

g r o s s behavior of t h e d i f f u s e r discharge has t o be p r i m a r i l y determined

by measuring t h e temperature f i e l d .
5.2

The Flume Set-Up

P r i m a r y purpose of t h e flume set-up w a s t h e observation of

t h e vertical s t r u c t u r e of t h e temperature f i e l d produced by a h e a t e d

water d i f f u s e r discharge.

The m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r discharge was simu-

lated as a continuous s l o t .
5.2.1

E<1uipment

Figures 5-1 and 5-2 show the experimental set-up.

1 f t . wide channel test s e c t i o n of v a r i a b l e length

i n a metal flume

50'

4.5' x 3'.

2L was i n s t a l l e d

The water volume o u t s i d e t h e test

185

F i g . 5-1:

Photograph of Flume Set-Up

partition wall 1" plywood for tests with crossflow

TOP VIEW
metal flume

at.
A

U
, -b

2L4

II

t if'

I-

*
4.5'

channel wall 1/2" plywood

SIDE V I E W
W
-1-

H
I.

1
\

KJ

'

slot jet
injection device

44

false floor 2-14" plywood

.JET
A-A
'

point-gage
mounted
themistor
pr ub e

DETAIL

sliding plate
perforated
damping plate

1 flume
3" ID plexiglass

t;racing

fixed
thermistor
Drobes

1'

INFLOW

3.5l

Fig. 5-2:

Flume Set-Up

pipe

s e c t i o n formed a r e s e r v o i r .

of marine plywood.

The channel w a l l and f a l s e - f l o o r w e r e

The l e n g t h of t h e c h a n n e l could b e v a r i e d by

adding o r removing 8 f t . long plywood p a n e l s .

The flume has a

10 f t . long g l a s s w a l l s e c t i o n allowing o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e flow from

the side.

The s l o t j e t i n j e c t i o n device had a 1 f t . long, 3" I D p l e x i g l a s s

p i p e a s i t s b a s i c component and was equipped w i t h a n a d j u s t a b l e s l i d i n g
p l a t e f o r changing t h t s l o t width B.

A p e r f o r Bed damping p l a t e pro-

vided f o r uniform j e t exit v e l o c i t i e s .

T h e i n j e c t i o n device w a s

mounted on U-shaped s u p p o r t s i n a n opening o f t h e f a l s e channel floor

and could be r o t a t e d t o g i v e t h e d e s i r e d d i s c h a r g e a n g l e

Bo

A few

tests were made u s i n g a s i n g l e round n o z z l e p l a c e d in t h e channel

center a s t h e j e t source.

The nozzles used w e r e commercially a v a i a b l e

copper f i t t i n g s w i t h v a r i o u s diameters and a n g l e s .

Heated d i s c h a r g e

water was s u p p l i e d from a s t e a m h e a t exchanger capable of d e l i v e r i n g up

t o 60 g a l l o n s p e r minute of water a t a c o n s t a n t temperature up t o 150OF.
An amount e q u a l t o the j e t d i s c h a r g e could b e withdrawn from t h e reservoir

i n t h e back of the channel t o guarantee c o n s t a n t water depth.

For tests w i t h cross-flow a plywood p a r t i t i o n w a l l w a s i n s e r t e d
i n t h e r e s e r v o i r behind t h e channel and a f i v e HP c e n t r i f u g a l pump w a s
used t o g e n e r a t e cross-flow i n t h e channel by pumping a c r o s s the
partition.

A l l flows are monitored by Brooks rotameter flowmeters.

Temperature measurements were t a k e n i n two components: (1)

Fixed probe system: 50 Yellow Springs I n s t r u m e n t s No. 401 t h e r m i s t o r
probes were mounted i n f i x e d p o s i t i o n s i n the set-up.

T h i r t y - s i x (36)

probes were mounted through t h e channel w a l l s forming 4 v e r t i c a l

188

t r a n s e c t s of 9 probes each ( s e e Fig. 5-2) and t h e remainder w e r e

i n s t a l l e d i n t h e r e s e r v o i r and i n in- and outflow l i n e s .

The probes

w e r e connected t o a Difitec (United Systems) scanning and p r i n t i n g

unit.

The temperature i n degrees Fahrenheit w a s p r i n t e d on paper

t a p e at a rate of 1.5 seconds p e r probe.

of

+ 0.2S0F

The probes have an accuracy

and were i n d i v i d u a l l y c a l i b r a t e d .

The t i m e c o n s t a n t is

7 sec. which f i l t e r s o u t t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s .
(2) Moveable probe:

Fenwal

GA51SM2 t h e r m i s t o r probe w a s

i n s t a l l e d on a p o i n t gage which i s d r i v e n by a s m a l l DC motor capable

of v e r t i c a l l y t r a v e r s i n g 1.5 f e e t p e r minute.

The v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n

of t h e probe w a s recorded via a p o t e n t i o m e t e r circuit on t h e v e r t i c a l

axis of a Valtec x-y p l o t t e r .

The t h e r m i s t o r was connected t o a

wheatstone b r i d g e c i r c u i t t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis of t h e x-y p l o t t e r .

As the moveable probe made a v e r t i c a l traverse a d i r e c t p l o t of depth

versus t h e m i l l i v o l t output of t h e t h e r m i s t o r c i r c u i t r e s u l t e d .

The

t h e r m i s t o r had a s m a l l time c o n s t a n t of 0.07 sec, important i n view of

t h e t r a v e r s i n g speed.

The probe w a s c a l i b r a t e d a g a i n s t t h e reading

of a mercury thermometer.

The p o i n t gage i t s e l f w a s mounted on a n

instrument c a r r i a g e running on t h e r a i l s of t h e m e t a l flume and could

b e moved i n t o any p o s i t i o n .
The g l a s s w a l l s e c t i o n of t h e flume allowed v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n
of the flow f i e l d through dye (FDC-Blue) i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e j e t d i s charge.

Limited v e l o c i t y measurements could be made through t h e

time-lapse photographic recordings of dye traces formed by f a l l i n g dye

crystals

.
189

by t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of horse-hair mats w a s provided.

A l l flows w e r e

monitored with Brooks flow meters.

Somewhat d i f f e r e n t temperature measurement i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w a s
used i n the b a s i n set-up:

(1) Fixed probe system: 60 Yellow S p r i n g s

Instruments No. 701 l i n e a r t h e r m i s t o r probes w e r e mounted w i t h i n t h e

basin.

The probes have a n accuracy of 0.25'F,

and were i n d i v i d u a l l y c a l i b r a t e d .

a t i m e c o n s t a n t of 9 se

The probe arrangement i n t h e b a s i n

i s shown i n F i g s . 5-5a and 5-5b f o r the two d i f f u s e r p i p e l a y o u t s .

probe mounting c a n be seen i n F i g . 5-3

The

Thirty-seven (37) probes w e r e

mounted on probe h o l d e r s which w e r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e wooden probe frame.

The probe frame could b e l e v e l e d w i t h j a c k s so t h a t t h e probes were

a c c u r a t e l y p o s i t i o n e d a t 1 / 4 i n below t h e water s u r f a c e (30 probes) and

3 i n below t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e (7 probes).
mounted 1 i n above t h e b a s i n f l o o r .

S i x t e e n (16) probes w e r e

The remainder of t h e probes (7) w e r e

used t o measure temperatures of t h e heated water and of t h e cross-flaw

water.

The h e a t e d d i s c h a r g e t e m p e r a t u r e w a s measured w i t h 3 probes

i n s i d e the d i f f u s e r pipe.

The probes w e r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y scanned by a

D i g i t e c s c a n n e r - p r i n t e r system connected t o a IIP computer f o r on-line

data acquisition.
probes:

A complete scan took about 1.5 minutes.

(2) Moveable

Four moveable probe u n i t s w e r e b u i l t and could b e p o s i t i o n e d a t

desired locations within th e basin.

as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e flume set-up.

The b a s i c components w e r e t h e s a m e
The p o i n t gages w e r e mounted on s t a n d s .

A switching mechanism allowed s e q u e n t i a l c o n t r o l of t h e 4 probes and

r e c o r d i n g on a Houston Instruments x-y p l o t t e r .

a l l 4 probes took about 2 minutes.

196

A complete r e c o r d of

ft
X

- To

X
Near field zone

r-

X+

I x

False wall fcr

2 - 0 channel
model

-15
a)

- 10

-5

Probes 1/4
Probes
3

in below surface

Robes

in above bottom

in

+10

+5

Fixed probe arrangement,

Basin Set -Up

t5

+I5 f t

below surface

X
X

x +

+
A

r---;;---7

-I

+ 5

.x

Near ti.4d zone

--6

t0

VI
U

mc

Diffuser line

-5

. -10
I

-1 0

-15
b)

Fixed

-5

probe arrangement,

F i g . 5-5:

+5

+10

+I5 f t

Basin Set - Up 8

Arrangement of Temperature Measurement System

19 7

5.3.2

Experimental Procedure

An i n i t i a l temperature s c a n s e r v e d t o check uniformity and

t o d e f i n e t h e ambient b a s i n t e m p e r a t u r e .

For runs with cross-flow

t h e d e s i r e d cross-flow v e l o c i t y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d .
t h e d i f f u s e r p i p e w a s "primed", i . e . ,

Before t h e s t a r t

h e a t e d water was d i s c h a r g e d

i n t o an e n d of t h e d i f f u s e r p i p e w h i l e a t t h e o t h e r end a n e q u a l
amount w a s withdrawn.

This procedure ( a b o u t 1 t o 2 minutes d u r a t i o n )

e s t a b l i s h e d t h e desired discharge temperature i n the pipe.

A t t h e run s t a r t t h e w i t h d r a w a l flow from t h e d i f f u s e r p i p e

w a s s t o p p e d and t h e h e a t e d water d i s c h a r g e d through t h e n o z z l e s .

An

amount e q u a l t o t h e d i f f u s e r flow w a s withdrawn from t h e b a s i n s i d e

channels t o keep t h e water l e v e l c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e run.
i n j e c t e d t o observe the c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n .

Dye w a s

Automatic t e m p e r a t u r e

s c a n s were t a k e n a t 5 minute i n t e r v a l s throughout t h e run.

The

moveable p r o b e s were o p e r a t e d i n similar i n t e r v a l s .

The s t e a d y s t a t e o r q u a s i - s t e a d y state p o r t i o n w a s l i m i t e d
t o a v a r y i n g d e g r e e f o r each experiment and depended s t r o n g l y on
diffuser characteristics.

The main f a c t o r w a s t h e n e t h o r i z o n t a l

momentum of the d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e .

I n g e n e r a l , e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a

s t e a d y s t a t e c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n i n t h e b a s i n r e q u i r e d about 5 t o 10
minutes.

For r u n s w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum t h i s w a s f o l l o w e d

by an e s s e n t i a l l y s t e a d y p o r t i o n of 10 t o 30 minutes, i.e. d i l u t i o n s
i n t h e d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y were n o t changing.

For runs w i t h n e t

h o r i z o n t a l momentum t h e s t e a d y s t a t e p o r t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i l u t i o n s
i n t h e d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y w a s i n some i n s t a n c e s s t r o n g l y l i m i t e d , t h a t

i s , r e c i r c u l a t i o n of mixed water r e s u l t e d i n an unsteady d i l u t i o n d e c r e a s e .

138

Experimental Runs

5.3.3

The run parameters are given i n Chapters 6 and 7, t o g e t h e r

with experimental r e s u l t s .

Three series of experiments were performed

i n the basin:

S e r i e s BH

S e r i e s BC

S e r i e s BN

No n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum (Section 6.1)

N e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum (Section 6.2)
With ambient cross-flaw (Chapter 7)

Data Reduction

5.3.4

The p r i n c i p l e of the d a t a reduction i s t h e same as f o r t h e

flume experiments.

Normalized s u r f a c e temperature rises are p l o t t e d

in t h e form of isotherms i n Chapters 6 and 7 f o r s e l e c t e d experiments.

I n a d d i t i o n t h e non-dimensional vertical temperature

rise p r o f i l e s

given at f o u r p o i n t s i n t h e b a s i n are i n d i c a t e d .
For t h e purpose of comparing w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s u r f a c e
dilution

Ss

and area, 4 f t wide, d e s c r i b i n g t h e near f i e l d zone, i s

defined around t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e as i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 5-5.

of t h i s area is comparable t o Eq. (3-220)
l o c a l mixing zone.

The e x t e n t

describing t h e length of t h e

The experimental d i l u t i o n is then defined as t h e

i n v e r s e of t h e maximum non-dimensional s u r f a c e temperature observed a t

t h e edge of t h i s n e a r - f i e l d zone.
The bottom f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f o r t h e b a s i n is c a l c u l a t e d by t h e
White-Colebrook r e l a t i o n with an a b s o l u t e roughness
grouted concrete s u r f a c e s .

@ is c a l c u l a t e d as

ks = 0.03 f t f o r
f o LD/H

channel tests a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , Eq. ( 5 - 5 ) , w a s applied.

199

For t h e

5.4

Experiments by Other I n v e s t i g a t o r s
Basic experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n of submerged multiport d i f f u s e r s ,

i n p a r t i c u l a r , three-dimensional phenomena, are scarce.

Most

diffuser

s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e are a p p l i e d model s t u d i e s of s p e c i f i c

design problems and thus have p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e s of topography and c u r r e n t
distribution

Few i n v e s t i g a t i o n s address t h e g e n e r a l problem of a

d i f f u s e r i n water of uniform depth with o r without an ambient c u r r e n t ,

as considered i n t h i s study.
The two-dimensional experiments by L i s e t h (19 70) on d i f f u s e r s

in deep water ( s t a b l e near-field) w e r e discussed i n Chapter 2.

Liseth

only r e p o r t s d i l u t i o n s i n t h e buoyant j e t r e g i o n and does not consider

t h e e f f e c t of t h e f r e e s u r f a c e .
mo-dimensional

channel model experiments were reported by

Harleman e t a l . (1971).

The bulk of t h a t experiment w a s performed

i n a 21 f t long, 4.5 f t wide channel placed i n a l a r g e r basin.

The

nozzle discharge w a s u n d i r e c t i o n a l with a zero o r near zero v e r t i c a l

Most of t h e i r runs w e r e made i n t h e parameter range with f u l l

angle.

v e r t i c a l mixing ( s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow) and only a few runs r e s u l t e d i n

a s t a g n a n t wedge system.

I n Chapter 6 t h e i r r e s u l t s are compared with

the p r e s e n t theory.

Two-dimensional experiments were a l s o made by Larsen and Hecker

(1972).

However, i n t h e i r experiments the nozzles were i n s t a l l e d a t

a considerable h e i g h t above t h e bottom ( i n some cases a t h a l f depth)

which h a s l i m i t e d p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
compared t o t h e p r e s e n t theory.

200

Their r e s u l t s cannot b e

Three-dimensional diffuser tests were a l s o performed by

Harleman et a l . (1971) and are summarized by Adams (1972).
tests were made i n a b a s i n 46

flow.

28

A l l these

1 . 5 f t and had ambient cross-

In Chapter 7 t h e i r r e s u l t s are compared with the cross-flow

experiments of this study

201

VI.

DIFFUSERS WITHOUT AMBIENT CROSSFLOW:

COMPARISON OF THEORY AND EXPERIMENTS

6.1

D i f f u s e r s w i t h No N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum

6.1.1

TwoLDirnensioaal Flume EXDerimentS

The two-dimensional flume experiments w i t h v e r t i c a l d i s c h a r g e

a n g l e , Series FN, a r e summarized i n Table 6.1.

The r e l e v a n t p h y s i c a l

v a r i a b l e s and non-dimensional parameters are g i v e n .

Most of t h e

experiments used a c o n t i n u o u s s l o t d i s c h a r g e , a few experiments

were done w i t h a s i n g l e n o z z l e .

The j e t Reynolds number d i d n o t ,

i n a l l cases, s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t , Equation (5-3).

Although

v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n showed t h a t t h e j e t s t r u c t u r e w a s always c l e a r l y
turbulent, nevertheless it is possible t h a t t h e turbulent entrainment c a p a c i t y of t h e j e t i s weaker t h a n p r e d i c t e d by t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
a n a l y s i s assuming a f u l l y t u r b u l e n t j e t .

I n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l range

t h e bottom f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , f o , i s b o t h dependent on channel Reynolds

number and r e l a t i v e roughness.
Equation (3-212),

The channel Reynolds number,

can be estimated using t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n

of d i l u t i o n a s a good approximation.
The v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e flow f i e l d i n t h e two-dimensional
channel model can b e i n f e r r e d from t e m p e r a t u r e measurements and
v i s u a l observation.

F i g u r e 6-1 g i v e s a comparison between t h e

t y p i c a l flow f i e l d s f o r ( a ) a s t a b l e and (b) a n u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d

zone.

The t h e o r e t i c a l l o c a t i o n of t h e i n t e r f a c e , Equation (3-207),

shows good agreement w i t h t h e observed t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e .

The

i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c jump r e g i o n i s c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n F i g u r e 6 - l a ,

202

Table 6 . 1 :

Flume Diffuser Experiments, Series FN

Physical Variables

Ta

ATo

"0

(ft) (10%)

(ft/sec) (ft)

Governing
Parameters

Secondary Parameters

(OF)

(OF)

m1

L/H

fo c 2

fo

@bserved Predicted

eO

Fs H/B ( d w )

Ss

ss

FN-1

2.00

10.4

0.64

20 67.5 15.3

1,610 10 0.039 1.7 0.066

25

192

2.00

10.4

0.43

20 66.4 29.0

1,070 10 0.039 1.7 0.066

13

2.00

10.4

4.27

20 64.7 16.3 10,700 10 0.032 1.7 0.054

160

2.00

3.3

1.72

20

67.4 24.1

1,370 10 0.038 1.7 0.065

2.00

3.3

0.88

20 68.0 10.9

700 10 0.042 1.7 0.071

2.00

3.3

1.51

20 68.2 29.5

1,200 10 0.035 1.7 0.060

2.00

3.3

4.71

20 66.1 17.5

3,750 10 0.036 1.7 0.061

291

1.33

3.3

2.69

20 67.3 22.0

2,140 15 0.041 1.4 0.058

144 400

P;,

8
9

1.00

5.2

1.86

20 66.9 17.9

2,330 20 0.047 1.3 0.061

91

10

1.00

5.2

20 67.6 16.9

6,700 20 0.042 1.3 0.055

270

11

2.17

5.2

5.34
0.64

31 416

12

2.00

10.4

2.13

20 65.8 16.1

5,350 10 0.036 1.3 0.047

80

192

13

1.25

20.8

1.07

20 67.5 21.0

5,360 16

0.037 1.4 0.052

23

50

90

0.8

4.6

4.4

14

2.17

1.7

1.31

20 69.0 14.4

540 9

0.041 1.7 0.070

128 1300 90

0.6

20.6

28.n

15

2.17

1.7

3.92

20 69.0 23.0

0.037 1.7 0.063

293 i3no

?n

0.6

17.7

16.4

16

2.17

1.7

1.30

20

69.4 28.4

540 9

0.040 1.7 0.068

85 1300

90

0.6

25.6

36 .O

17

2.00

10.4

1.86

12 67.5 15.5

4,760 6

0.035 1.7 0.060

70 192

90

0.4

6.7

6.2

18

2.00

3.3

4.71

12

68.2 15.1

3,750 6 0.036 1.7 0.061

600 90

0.4

7.5

7 .0

19

1.25

20.8

1.07

12

68.2 21.4

5,360 10

0.037 1.4 0.052

23

60

90

0.5

4.1

20n

2.00

3.4n

2.61

20

73.0 22.2

2,140 10 0.037 1.7 0.063

131

585

90

0.6

11.1

4 .0
12.1

21n

2.00

3.4n

1.63

20

73.2 28.3

1,340 10 0.038 1.7 0.065

71

585

90

0.6

13.17

18.0

22n

2.17

1.7n

20

71.2 23.7

90

0.6

1.33

3.4n

20 67.5 21.8

2.17

5.8n

0.57

20

140
22

90
90

0.9
0.6

15.0
7.2
12.3

18.2
7.0

FN-24n

1,610 9 0.037 1.7 0.063

2,140 15 0.041 1.4 0.058
810 9 0.041 1.7 0.070

231 1240

23n

3.92
2.61

20 65.4 24.8

67.5 24.6

810

1,610

9 0.040 1.7 0.068

9n

0.7

11.8

12.2

192 90

0.7

17.0

17.0

192

90

0.5

4.5

3.5

87

600 90

0.6

15.0

16.5

71

600 90

0.7

15.5

19 .o

67 600 90

312

0.6

14.7

19.2

0.6

6.7

7.3

90

0.9

7.3

7.0

9r)

1.2

5.1

4.9

192 90

1.1

2.7

3.2

90

n.6

17.7

21 .0

90

0.5

5.5

5.6

600 90
192

390

377

Note:"n" denotes experiments with a single nozzle, equivalent slot width (spacing 1.0 ft)

23.0

aJ
.rl
Fr

I
ul

&I
Q)

2
P)
rl

cn

LD

0
II

*
5

f
C

.-V
1

---5

---

0
.
I
.

0
fi

204

0 0

as i s t h e l o c a l mixing zone w i t h a c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n ( r a p i d change

i n t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e i n t e r f a c e ) i n F i g u r e 6-lb.
Table 6-1 a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e comparison between observed
AT
=(where AT i s t h e s u r f a c e temperature
surface dilution,
's
AT

rise a t t h e edge of t h e n e a r f i e l d zone as shown i n F i g u r e 6-11, and

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i l u t i o n as developed i n Chapter 3 .

i s a l s o g i v e n i n F i g u r e s 6-6 (@

0.5) and 6-7

(@

t h e r e s u l t s from t h e three-dimensional b a s i n tests.

T h i s comparison

1.0) along w i t h
( F i l l e d o r un-

f i l l e d symbols i n d i c a t e an u n s t a b l e o r s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d ,

respective-

ly, a s determined by v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n and by t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s ) .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e i s e x c e l l e n t agreement between t h e o r y and experiments, b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c r i t e r i o n between s t a b l e and u n s t a b l e
domain and w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e d i l u t i o n s .

The observed d i l u t i o n s

are somewhat lower t h a n p r e d i c t e d f o r some e x p e r i m e n t s i n t h e

s t a b l e domain, which i s a t t r i b u t e d t o low Reynolds numbers of t h e

jet discharge.

The r e s u l t s f o r t h e s i n g l e n o z z l e tests a g r e e w e l l

w i t h t h e s l o t tests f o r t h e u n s t a b l e domain, b u t are somewhat

lower i n t h e stable domain i n d i c a t i n g incomplete l a t e r a l merging
f o r a spacing,

6.1.2

R, e q u a l t o h a l f t h e d e p t h , H.

Three-Dimensional

Basin Experiments
c
-

Table 6.2 is t h e summary of t h e b a s i n e x p e r i m e n t s of m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum, S e r i e s BN.

of t h e r u n s were t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ,

Most

a few were done on t h e two-

dimensional channel model by i n t r o d u c i n g a f a l s e w a l l p a r a l l e l

t o t h e x-axis.

Again i n some tests t h e n o z z l e Reynolds number i s

lower t h a n t h e g i v e n r e q u i r e m e n t .
205

Table 6.2:
Physical Variables
H
(ft)

BN-1 0.67
2 0.67

3 0.67
4 0.67
5 0.67
6 0.67
7 0.67
8 0.43
9 0.67
10 0.67
11 0.67
12 0.92
13 0.67
14 0.67
15 0.67
16 0.67
17c 0.67
18c 0.66
19c 0.67
20c 0.67
21c 0.67

22c 0.67
BN-23c 0.67
Note:

Basin Diffuser Experiments, Series BN

Secondary Parameters

. D
uo
LD Ta
(10-3ft> (ft) (ft/sec) (ft) (OF) (OF) IRj !L/H LD/H
10.4 0.08 2.42
6.4 58.8 27.0 2,870 0.12 10
10.4 0.08
2.42 6.4 64.0 25.3 3,000 0.12 10
10.4 0.08
2.42 6.4 65.3 26.4 3,090 0.12 10
10.4 0.08 2.42 6.4 67.9 27.3 3,210 0.12 10
10.4 0.08 2.42 6.4 65.6 27.4 3,120 0.12 10
3.60
6.4 67.2 26.6 4,700 1-1.1210
10.4 0.08
10.4 0.16
4.84 6.4 68.5 24.6 6,260 0.24 10
10.4 0.08
1.21
6.4 63.2 24.9 1,480 0.19 15
15.6
0.16 2.15
6.4 63.7 26.0 4,010 0.24 10
21.3 0.32 2.31
6.4 64.A 24.7 5,A10 0.48 10
10.4 0.16 1.50 6.4 64.2 23.0 1,820 0.24 10
10.4 0.16 1.50 6.4 64.0 23.0 1,810 0.17 7
10.4 0.08
2.42
6.4 64.7 26.1 3,040 0.12 10
10.4 0.16
4.84 6.4 65.2 25.3 6,070 0.24 10
15.6 0.16 2.15
6.4 65.9 25.9 4,110 n.24 10
15.6 0.16 0.87 6.4 66.6 22.5 1,610 0.24 10
10.4 OaO8
2.42 6 . 0 ~
63.9 29.3 3,130 0.12 9c
15.6 0.16 2.15 6 . 0 ~64.4 22.7 3,890 0.24 9c
10.4 0.08
2.42
6 . 0 ~64.7 27.1 3,080 0.12 9~
10.4 0.16 2.43 6 . 0 ~63.4 26.4 3,020 0.24 9c
10.4 0.16 150
6.0~
63.4 26.5 1,860 0.24 9~
15.6 0.16
2.15
6 . 0 ~64.3 28.3 4,140 0.24 9~
10.4 0.16 4.84
6 . 0 ~63.4 28.4 6,150 0.24 9~

Governing Parameters
Observed Predicted
eO

fo Fs H/B (dpr) 4 B(v)

0.09 158 628 90 0.9 NOR

5.9

0.09 160 628 45-A 0.9 LIN

10.0

0.09 157 628 45-A 0.9 SIN

11.8

0.09 154 628 45-A 0.9 N-S

0.09 154 628 45-A 0.9 LOG
0.08 231 628 4 5 4 0.9 LOG

10.0

N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.

9.5

10.6

8.3

8.0

0.09 458 1256 45-A 0.9 LOG

13.2

10.4

A I t denotes alternating nozzles

ss

9.1

10.5

LOG

10.0

in.4

0.11 150 600 45-A 1.1 LOG

10.5

10.5

0.10 148 1256 90

1.0 NOR

17.3

22 .n

0.08 148 1727 90

0.6 NOR.

27 .0

37 .0

10.4
10.5

10.5
10.4

a08

81 402 45-A 1.2 LOC

0.09 131 558 45-A 0.9

o m

158 628
0.09 454 1256

0-A 0.9

LOG

0-A 0.9

LOG

0.09 133 558

0.10 58 558

0-A 0.9

10.0

in.4

0-A

15.1

19.5

8.6

10.4

9.1

10.4

LOG
1.0 LOG

0.09 142 552 45-A 0.8 0.09 155 628 45-A 0.8 0.09 223 1256 45-A O . R
0.09 137 1256 45-A 0.8 0.09 127 558 0-A 0.8
0.09 429 1256
0-A O.R
-

009 149 628 90

"c" denotes channelexperiments, with the channel length, L, given under

I1

sS

0.8

4,

9.4

in.5

12.2

16.7

15 .0

22.5

9.2

10.4

9.3

10.7

The f i r s t f i v e experiments s e r v e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e u s e of t h e hori z o n t a l nozzle orientation

as a c o n t r o l of t h e h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a -

t i o n s induced by a d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g e w i t h an u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d .
I n Chapter 4 t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l n o z z l e
o r i e n t a t i o n , B ( y ) , along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e h a s been d e r i v e d ,
E q u a t i o n ( 4 - 3 6 ) , based on t h e model of t h e three-dimensional
f i e d flow f i e l d .

strafi-

To check t h e v a l i d i t y of t h i s e q u a t i o n and a l s o

t h e s e n s i t i v i t y due t o d e v i a t i o n s i n t h e n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n t h e
f o l l o w i n g f? (y) were checked:

1) Normal d i s t r i b u t i o n (NOR):

All n o z z l e s are normal t o t h e

d i f f u s e r a x i s o r v e r t i c a l l y upward, t h u s p r o v i d i n g no d i s c h a r g e
momentum i n t h e y - d i r e c t i o n

B (y)
2)

= 90'

(along t h e axis of t h e d i f f u s e r ) .

= const.

(6-1)

L i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n (LIN) :
B(Y) = goo (1

- ")
LD

3)

S i n u s o i d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n (SIN):
B(y) = cos-l(Y-)

LD
4)

Normal s i n u s o i d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n (N- S )

(900
B(Y) =

The d i s t r i b u t i o n given by Equation ( 4 - 3 6 )

is called f o r simplicity

the :
5)

"Logarithic"distribution

(LOG) :
(4-36)
207

The d i f f e r e n t B(y) are p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 6-2.

closely s i m i l a r discharge conditions.

Runs BN-1

t o 5 have

The r e s u l t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e

f i e l d s f o r r u n s 1, 2 and 5 are shown i n F i g u r e s 6-3a,b

and 6-4a.

V e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s a t f o u r p o i n t s a r e g i v e n and s u r f a c e

current

d i r e c t i o n s and magnitudes are i n d i c a t e d q u a l i t a t i v e l y .

For t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n (NOR), F i g u r e 6-3a,

w i t h o u t any d i f f u s e r

momentum opposing t h e inward f l o w a l o n g t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e , a s t r o n g ,

v e r t i c a l l y f u l l y mixed flow-away a l o n g t h e x-axis r e s u l t s .

The

s i t u a t i o n i s r e v e r s e d f o r t h e l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n (LIN), F i g u r e 6-3b;
t o o much n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e y d i r e c t i o n r e s u l t s i n a dominant

flow-away a l o n g t h e y-axis
mixed.

( d i f f u s e r l i n e ) which is a g a i n r a t h e r w e l l

For t h e " l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n " (LOG)

, Figure

6-4a,

how-

ever, t h e flow f i e l d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y uniform i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s and t h e

vertical temperature p r o f i l e s i n d i c a t e t h e s t r a t i f i e d counterflow

system a t a l l p o i n t s i n t h e d i f f u s e r v i c i n i t y .
found (see F i g u r e 6-2)

In general, i t is

t h a t n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n s p r o v i d i n g less d i s -

c h a r g e momentum i n t h e y - d i r e c t i o n

t h a n i n d i c a t e d by E q u a t i o n (4-36)

t e n d t o a flow-away along t h e x-axis and v i c e versa.

The f l o w con-

d i t i o n n e a r t o t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n is n o t v e r y s e n s i t i v e .

The

t h e o r e t i c a l d i l u t i o n , assuming c o n t r o l , i s 10.6 f o r t h e s e cases.

I t i s seen t h a t t h e NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n h a s a s t r o n g l y reduced d i l u t i o n ,

w h i l e f o r t h e o t h e r n o z z l e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h e observed and theor e t i c a l d i l u t i o n s are i n good agreement.

It should b e n o t e d , how-

e v e r , t h a t a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n s , e x c e p t t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n , set up
h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s which u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n

208

NOR

9c
80

(Y>

60'

40"

20'

OC
0

-4

-8

y/

LD

1-0

Example: LOG, 10 unidirectional nozzles

I

End

Fig. 6-2:

Nozzle Orientation, @(y),

209

Along the Diffuser Line

'
'/H
30

I '

Surface lsother ms

a) Run BN-l,Fs

158, H/B = 628, Bo = go",

fH
30

@ =

0.9, B(y) = NOR

Surface Isotherms

20

a5

02

01

10

'-4

0
*To

b ) Run BN-2,
F i g . 6-3:

Fs = 160, H/B = 628, e0 = 45'-A,@ = 0.9,

B(y) = LIN

Observed Temperature and Flow F i e l d , S e r i e s BN

210

a) Run BN-5, FS = 154, H/B = 628, go = 45"-A, 0 = 0.9, B(y) = LOG

50

Surface Isotherms

'4 40

xAT

-0.075

30 -

10 -

20

0 '
- 40

-30

-20

-10

b) Run BN-8, Fs = 81, H/B = 402, e0 = 45"-A, @ = 1.2, B(y) = LOG

Fig. 6-4:

Observed Temperature and Flow F i e l d , Series BN

211

i n t o the d i f f u s e r l i n e .
effect.

The d i l u t i o n s g i v e n do n o t account f o r t h i s

I n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t h e o n l y one which

c r e a t e s a s t a b l y s t r a t i f i e d flow system i n t h e f a r - f i e l d which i s

not prone t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n .

Two more examples of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d produced by a

d i s c h a r g e w i t h LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n are g i v e n i n F i g u r e 6-4b
more s h a l l o w w a t e r ) and F i g u r e 6-5a

(0

(8

= 45O,

These e x p e r i m e n t s

= 0').

have a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r v a l u e f o r t h e y-momentum of t h e d i s c h a r g e

as compared t o F i g u r e 6-4a.

The r e s u l t i n g f l o w f i e l d , however,

i s s i m i l a r , g i v i n g s u p p o r t t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n Chapter 4 , t h a t it:
i s n o t t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e of t h e d i s c h a r g e y-momentum t h a t i s
i m p o r t a n t , b u t r a t h e r i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n as l o n g as t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e
1

, Equation (4-43)
max
A diffuser with a stable near-field

i s below Bo

B(y) = NOR) i s shown i n F i g u r e 6-5b.

t o F i g u r e 6-3a.

The f l o w f i e l d can b e compared

With a s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d

i n a l l directions.

( t h u s r e q u i r i n g no c o n t r o l

t h e flow-away i s uniform

The experiment i n F i g u r e 6-5b i s n e a r t h e edge

of t h e s t a b l e zone (see F i g u r e 6-61 and may b e somewhat a f f e c t e d

by i n s t a b i l i t i e s e x p l a i n i n g t h e weaker flow-away

i n the y-direction.

Observed and t h e o r e t i c a l s u r f a c e d i l u t i o n s are compared i n

T a b l e 6.2 and F i g u r e s 6-6

(@z 0.5) and 6-7

agreement i s found f o r both three-dimensional

b a s i n experiments.

(@z 1 . 0 ) .

Good

and two-dimensional

Due t o e x p e r i m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s ( j e t turbu-

l e n c e ) t h e e x p e r i m e n t s were mainly r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e u n s t a b l e
near-field

domain.

Various e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h similar F

S'

H/B b u t

and s p a c i n g k / H , were made t o assess

d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l a n g l e lo
212

fH
30

Surface Isotherms

I-

'

0.1s

a2

AT-

a) Run BN-13, Fs = 158, H/B = 628, 8

4.

0'-A,

@ =

0.9, B(y)

= LOG

0.03 * I

'n

zF-

0.5

2-0

Ale

b) Run BN-12, Fs = 148, H/B = 1727, eo = go',

Fig. 6-5:

@ =

0.6, B(y) = NOR, Stable

Observed Temperature and Velocity Field, Series BN

2L3

10

50

5 00

100
~

8, = go"

= 0.5

F i g . 6-6:

c)

Series F N - stable near-field

Series F N - unstable near-field
Series BN - stable near-field

P r e d i c t e d V s , Observed Dilutions,

214

ss

1000

Fig. 6-7 ; P r e d i c t e d Vs. Observed Dilutions,

'

215

ss.

t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t concept f o r d i f f u s e r s w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g n o z z l e s .
A s can b e s e e n t h e d i l u t i o n s a r e , indeed, independent of v e r t i c a l

a n g l e and s p a c i n g , s o t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s
valid.

6.2

D i f f u s e r s w i t h N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum

6.2.1

Two-Dimensional Flume Experiments

Run parameters f o r t h e flume experiments w i t h u n i d i r e c t i o n a l

d i s c h a r g e , S e r i e s FH, are g i v e n i n Table 6 . 3 .

The r u n s were l i m i t e d

t o t h e low Fs, h i g h H/B r a n g e f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s :

(i)

The f u l l y mixed r a n g e (high Fs, low H/B,

eo

= 0) h a s been

e x t e n s i v e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e channel e x p e r i m e n t s by Harleman

e t al. (1971).

Their experimental r e s u l t s w e r e analysed using

k = 0.002 f t (planed-wood f l u m e ) , a n d are compared i n F i g u r e s

S

6-12 (@

0.5) and 6-13

(a

1) t o t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s .

(ii) P r e l i m i n a r y experiments of t h e flume set-up i n t h e f u l l y mixed

r a n g e e s t a b l i s h e d two shortcomings: (a) The " r e s e r v o i r " o u t s i d e

t h e channel t e s t s e c t i o n w a s n o t l a r g e enough, t h u s v e l o c i t i e s
and i n c u r r e d head

l o s s e s w e r e n o t n e g l i g i b l e ; (b) For s t r o n g

j e t d i s c h a r g e s t h e s l o t j e t became a t t a c h e d t o t h e channel
bottom r e s u l t i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t momentum d i s s i p a t i o n .

It may

b e concluded t h a t w h i l e t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t c o n c e p t can always

b e used i n m a t h e m a t i c a l terms t o r e p r e s e n t a m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r
i t i s n o t a d e s i r a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h e m a t i z a t i o n under a l l

conditions.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t does n o t a l l o w p e n e t r a t i o n of

ambient e n t r a i n m e n t w a t e r coming from t h e upstream d i r e c t i o n

216

Table 6 . 3 :

Flume Diffuser Experiments, Series FH

Physical Variables

Governing
Parameters

Secondary Parameters

IR

L/H

fo

c2

*
fO

Observed P r e d i c t e d

Fs H / B ( d g r )

Ss

sS

FH-1

2.00

3.3

1.68

20

71.4 31.3

1,340 10

0.036 1 . 7 0.061

64

600

45

0.6

17.5

23.0

2.00

10.4

0.64

20

65.7 16.9

1,610 10

0.038 1 . 7 0.065

23

192

45

0.7

10.1

13.2

3n

2.00

3.4n

1.63

20

69.1 29.9

1,340 10

0.037 1 . 7 0.063

71

585

45

0.6

13.6

20.5

2.17

1.7

1.31

20

66.6 14.9

129 1300

0.6

29.5

37 .O

2.00

3.3

1.68

20

2.00

10.4

0.64
1.64

FH-7n

2.00

Note:

3.4n

540

0.038 1.7 0.065

67.0 29.0

1,340 10

0.037 1 . 7 0.063

86

600

0.6

16.1

26.0

20

70.2 13.6

1,610 10

0.037 1 . 7 0.063

20

192

0.6

13.6

15.0

20

68.9 29.1

1,340 10

0.037 1.7 0.063

72

585

0.6

19.5

25.0

"nl' d e n o t e s s i n g l e n o z z l e experiments, spacing 1.0 f t ,

and t h u s l e a d s t o a l o w p r e s s u r e zone and j e t a t t a c h m e n t

downstream of t h e d i s c h a r g e .
Observed d i l u t i o n s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r a n g e ( s t r a t i f i e d
c o u n t e r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s ) a r e somewhat lower t h a n p r e d i c t e d , p r o b a b l y

a consequence o f t h e l o w Reynolds number of t h e d i s c h a r g e .

There is

good correspondence between s l o t and i n d i v i d u a l n o z z l e experiments.

All, b u t t h r e e , of t h e c h a n n e l experiments by Harleman e t a l .

(1971) r e s u l t e d i n a f u l l y mixed regime.

I n general, t h e i r r e s u l t s

agree w e l l w i t h the theoretical predictions.

The t h r e e experiments

r e s u l t i n g i n a s t a g n a n t wedge regime e x h i b i t somewhat lower d i l u t i o n s

t h a n p r e d i c t e d ( F i g u r e 6-13)

6.2.2

Three-Dimensional

Basin Experiments

The d i f f u s e r e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h u n d i r e c t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e i n t h e
b a s i n , S e r i e s BH, are summarized i n Table 6.4.
made w i t h a 4
5'
(0').

Runs 1 t o 9 w e r e

v e r t i c a l a n g l e , t h e rest w i t h h o r i z o n t a l d i s c h a r g e

A few experiments w e r e made on t h e two-dimensional c h a n n e l

concept f o c u s i n g on t h e "deep water" regime (high H/B,

low Fs).

The b u l k of t h e experiments w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e three-dimensiona l behaviour:

Runs 1 t o 6 ( w i t h 45')

and r u n s 1 0 t o 15 (with 0')

0

w e r e a l l i n t h e deep water r a n g e , w h i l e r u n s 16 t o 24 (with 0 )

w e r e i n t h e ''shallow w a t e r " r a n g e (low H/B, high F ) r e s u l t i n g i n
S

f u l l v e r t i c a l mixing.
The q u e s t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n , B(y),
f o r d i f f u s e r c o n t r o l w a s a d d r e s s e d by i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n (NOR) and t h e " l o g a r i t h m i c " d i s t r i b u t i o n (LOG) i n p a i r s

218

Table 6.4:
Physical Variables
H

Basin Diffuser Experiments, Series BB

Secondary Parameters Governing Parameters

D
58.2 24.1 1,190 0.18

0.090 31 534

6.4

57.5 24.8 1,430 0.18

0.085

6.4

61.5 25.6 3,900 0.24 10

1.08

6.4

0.32

1.66

15.6

0.32

0.92

21.3

8c 0.92
0.92

BH-1

0.92

18.7

0.16

0.58

6.4

0.92

15.6

0.16

0.83

0.65

15.6

0.16

2.15

0.65

15.6

0.16

0.67

15.6

0.67

7c
9c

Predicted
Observed This studv Adams (1972)

0.6

LOG

sS

sS

17.9

28.0

N.A.

768

45

0.6

LOG

18.5

30.0

N.A.

45

0.9

LOG

13.3

21.0

N.A.

61.5 23.9 1,910 0.24 10

0.090 137 546

0.095 69 546

45

1.0

LOG

11.8

18.5

N.A.

6.4

62.6 22.4 2,950 0.48 10

0.095 156 1116

45

1.0

LOG

18.2

27 .O

N.A.

1.66

6.4

62.9 22.4 2,950 0.48 10

0.095 156 1116

45

1.0

NOR

N.A.

N.A.

0.32

0.89

6 . 0 ~63.5 24.6 2,230 0.35

7c

0.090

59

824

45

0.6

30.0

N.A.

21.3

0.16

0.45

6 . 0 ~63.5 24.6 1,110 0.18

7~

0.090

21

412

45

0.6

18.9

28.0

N.A.

15.6

0.16

0.83

6 . 0 ~63.6 21.8 1,480 0.18

7~ 0.090

56

768

45

0.6

16.7
21.8
18.2

28.0

N.A.

6.4 60.7 25.4 1,930 0.24 10

59.5 26.4 1,930 0.24 10

67 558

1.0

LOG

14.3

20.5

N.A.

0.100 66 558

1.0

NOR

13.2

N.A.

N.A.

0.090 59

824

0.6

LOG

20.0

32.0

N.A.

0.090

60 824

0.6 NOR

16.1

N.A.

N.A.

61.6 23.5 2,950 0.48 10

0.090 152 1116

0.9 LOC-

21.3

34.5

N.A.

6.4

58.8 23.7 1,190 0.18

0.090

31 534

0.6

LOG

19.6

27.2

N.A.

6.4

60.7 27.2 3,930 0.24 10

0.100 130 558

1.0 LOG

18.2

25.6

N.A.

2.15

6.4 59.5 28.2 3,930 0.24 10

0.085 128 558

0 0.9

NOR

13.5

N.A.

16.7

0.32

1.56

6.4

59.8 27.2 3,850 0.64 13

LOG

18.2

22.5

N .A.

10

0.67

15.6

0.16

1.08

11

0.67

15.6

0.16

1.08

6.4

12

0.92

21.3

0.32

0.89

6.4

59.5 24.0 2,120 0.35

13

0.92

21.3

0.32

0.89

6.4

59.9 23.8 2,120 0.35

14

0.67

15.6

0.32

1.66

6.4

15

0.92

0.58

0.67

18.7
15.6

0.16

16

0.16

2.15

17

0.67

15.6

0.16

18

0.49

21.3

0.095

53

45

0.100

97 436

99 440

1.3

19

0.49

21.3

0.32

1.56

6.4

60.6 26.6 3,850 0.64 13

0.100

1.3 NOR

16.7

N.A.

14.7

20

0.50

15.6

0.32

2.91

6.4

61.9 25.1 5,250 0.64 13

0.090 258

837

1.2

LOG

19.2

31.8

N.A.

21

0.50

15.6

0.32

2.91

6.4 62.2 25.9 5,320 0.64 13

0.090 254

837

1.2

NOR

17.2

N.A.

21-1.5

22

0.50

10.4

0.08

2.42

6.4 62.5 26.5 2,980 0.16 13

0.085 157 471

1.1

LOG

23.6

N.A.

23
24

0.50
0.50

6.4
6.4

0.085 158 471

0.085 150 449
0.080 55 768

1.1

NOR

1.1 NOR
0.6 -

16.7

0.83

62.8 26.1 2,980 0.15 13

60.3 25.0 4,420 0.64 1 3
6 . 0 ~63.1 22.5 1,480 0.18 7c

0.92

0.08
0.32
0.16

2.42
2.31

25c

10.4
21.3
15.6

13.9
14.3

26c

0.92

21.3

0.32

0.89

6 . 0 ~63.2 23.6 2,190 0.35

7c

0.080

60 824

0.6

BH-27c

0.92

21.3

0.16

0.45

6 . 0 ~63.3 22.6 1,090 0.18

7c

0.085

22 412

0.6

Note:

c denotes channel experiments, with the channel length, L , given under

LD

N.A.

15.3
15.0

18.2

.23.4
28.7

N.A.

19.6

29.5

N .A.

18.2

26.0

N.A.

w i t h e q u a l H / B , Fs,

lo

(Runs 5 and 6 , 10 and 11, 1 6 and 1 7 , 18

and 1 9 , 20 and 21, 22 and 2 3 ) .

The r e s u l t s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e observed
flow f i e l d confirmed ( a ) t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a
s t r a t i f i e d o r f u l l y mixed flow-away,

e s t a b l i s h e d i n Chapter 3,

and (b) t h e e f f e c t of d i f f u s e r c o n t r o l , B(y).

dilutions,

sS

, were

However, observed

i n g e n e r a l lower t h a n p r e d i c t e d by t h i s s t u d y ,

i n c e r t a i n cases up t o 40% lower.

This i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o

e x p e r i m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s as d i s c u s s e d below.
D i f f u s e r flow f i e l d s i n "deep water" f o r a LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n
(Run 5 ) and f o r a NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n (Run 6 ) are shown i n F i g u r e
6-8.

The d i f f u s e r w i t h c o n t r o l (LOG) t e n d s t o e s t a b l i s h a s t r o n g e r

l a t e r a l s p r e a d i n g of t h e d i s c h a r g e w i t h a d i s t i n c t l y s t r a t i f i e d
c o n d i t i o n , which i s p r e d i c t e d from F i g u r e 6-11.

On t h e o t h e r hand,

t h e d i f f u s e r w i t h o u t c o n t r o l (NOR) h a s a c o n c e n t r a t e d f u l l y mixed
flow-away a l o n g t h e x-axis.

Both d i f f u s e r s show some s u r f a c e

eddying a t t h e d i f f u s e r end.
I n t h e "shallow water" r a n g e t h e comparison i s g i v e n i n
F i g u r e 6-9

(Run 18, LOG, and Run 1 9 , NOR).

f u l l v e r t i c a l mixing as p r e d i c t e d .

Both d i f f u s e r s show

Again t h e d i f f u s e r w i t h o u t

c o n t r o l t e n d s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d flow-away w i t h a cont r a c t i o n , as p r e d i c t e d by t h e t h e o r y of Adams (1972).

At the

edge of t h e flow-away zone d e n s i t y e f f e c t s l e a d t o s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

and l a t e r a l s p r e a d i n g , t o a s t r o n g e r d e g r e e s o f o r t h e LOG d i s tribution.

This phenomenon makes t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e c o n t r a c t i o n

220

0.5
'

'4

5
:

a) Run BH-5,

y
'3

Fs = 156, H/B = 1116,

e0

= 45", @ = 1.0,

T
I

'/H

10

20-

0.5

IU

10

zp--

:
1

Surface lsot herms

B(y) = LOG

0.5

.I

0.1

.I

05
I

,,'

0
AT

b ) Run BH-6,
F i g . 6-8:

Fs = 156, H/B = 1116, 8

45O,@

1.0, B(y) = NOR

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s BH

I

(Nozzles D i r e c t e d t o the L e f t )

221

O1

40 -

'/H
30

20 -

z
10-

'2
'4
I

O'

-310

'

-20

a) Run BH-18,

05

2'3
1

- 10

10

20

' 0;

3 0 "/H

F ,
AT 0.'

ATe

Fs = 9 7 , H/B = 4 3 6 , Oo = 0", Q = 1.3, B(y) = LOG

0.5
0

b ) Run BH-19,

Fig. 6-9:

Fs = 99, H/B = 440, e0 = O", @ = 1.3, @ ( y ) = NOR

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s BH

(Nozzles D i r e c t e d t o t h e L e f t )

222

0.1

of t h e flow f i e l d somewhat i n a c c u r a t e , b u t as an approximate measure,

o b t a i n e d from dye o b s e r v a t ons, a c o n t r a c t on of 0.7 i s t y p i c a l
f o r d i f f u s e r s i n t h e s h a l l o w water r a n g e ( a s compared t o 0.5 from
Adams

t h e o r y , n e g l e c t i n g f r i c t i o n i n t h e flow-away)

I n T a b l e 6.4 observed d i l u t i o n s , S s , are compared w i t h t h e pred i c t i o n s of t h i s s t u d y ( a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o d i f f u s e r s w i t h c o n t r o l ,

h a v i n g no c o n t r a c t i o n ) and t h e p r e d i c t i o n s by Adams ( a p p l i c a b l e o n l y
( a ) t o d i f f u s e r s w i t h o u t c o n t r o l , w i t h c o n t r a c t i o n , and ( b ) i n the
s h a l l o w water r a n g e w i t h f u l l v e r t i c a l mixing).

As mentioned, t h e

observed d i l u t i o n s i n t h e b a s i n experiments are i n g e n e r a l lower

t h a t p r e d i c t e d by t h i s s t u d y , i n c e r t a i n cases up t o 40% lower

(see F i g u r e s 6-10 t o 6-13).

It i s argued t h a t t h i s l a c k of

agreement s o l e l y r e f l e c t s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s of a rela t i v e l y s m a l l b a s i n as d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter

4:

(i) I n t h e "deep water" r a n g e t h e j e t t u r b u l e n c e i s t o o low, as i n

t h e case of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s on d i f f u s e r s w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n -

t a l momentum.
( i i ) I n t h e "shallow water" r a n g e t h e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s as i n f l u e n c e d by t h e b a s i n b o u n d a r i e s
l e a d s t o a dilemma:

( a ) To o b t a i n s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s t h e

experiment h a s t o l a s t l o n g enough, w h i l e (b) w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

t i m e an i n c r e a s i n g r e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t o t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e t a k e s
place.
A l l measured d i l u t i o n s ,

sS

223

g i v e n i n Table 6.4 do n o t c o n t a i n

8, =45"
@ =05

Fig. 6-10:

Series F H

Series B H

P r e d i c t e d V s . Observed Dilutions, Ss

224

1ooc

500

100

50
10

r
I

F i g . 6-11; Predicted Vs. Obseryed D i l u t i o n s , SS

225

e, = oo
@

0.5

x
A

= Series FH
= Series BH
= Harleman et. al. (1971) - Fully mixed

-Stagnant wedge

. .226

3,

=oo

@ =I

Series BH

Harleman et al (1971)- fully mixed

Fig. 6-13:

Predicted Vs. Observed D i l u t i o n s , Ss

227

any e f f e c t of r e c i r c u l a t i o n , i . e . , c a r e w a s t a k e n t o make a measurement as l a t e as p o s s i b l e w h i l e n o t having r e c i r c u l a t i o n .

6-8 and 6-9 are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p l o t s of t h i s s i t u a t i o n .

Figures
On t h e

o t h e r hand, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an approaching " s t e a d y - s t a t e "

could

not be i n s u r e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n .
I n t h i s c o n t e x t i t i s emphasized t h a t a l l d i f f u s e r s w i t h
s i g n i f i c a n t h o r i z o n t a l momentum, even i n a t r u l y unbounded s i t u a t i o n
(absence o f b a s i n w a l l s ) w i l l e x h i b i t some r e c i r c u l a t i o n , as can b e
shown by t h e Rankine-theorem of t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w analogy ( v o r t e x
flow).

It i s , however, t h e d e g r e e and t h e t i m e scale of t h e re-

c i r c u l a t i o n which i s s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by t h e b a s i n b o u n d a r i e s .
Another f a c t o r which p r o b a b l y h a s some e f f e c t on t h e low v a l u e s of
t h e observed d i l u t i o n s i s j e t attachement f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l
diffuser discharge
momentum.

(eo

= )'0

l e a d i n g t o d i s s i p a t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l

O b s e r v a t i o n through t h e m i r r o r flume showed a pronounced

attachement of t h e i n d i v i d u a l round j e t s b e f o r e merging and of t h e

s l o t j e t a f t e r merging.
The observed d i l u t i o n s (see Table 6 . 4 ) f o r "shallow water"
d i f f u s e r s w i t h o u t c o n t r o l a g r e e w e l l w i t h Adams' p r e d i c t i o n , b u t have
t o b e t a k e n w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n i n t h e l i g h t of t h e above d i s c u s s i o n

as t h e s e experiments are s i m i l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d by u n s t e a d y e f f e c t s
and boundary e f f e c t s .

Furthermore, comparison shows t h a t , i n

g e n e r a l , f o r t h e case of n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum d i f f u s e r s w i t h
c o n t r o l perform o n l y s l i g h t l y b e t t e r
d i f f u s e r s without c o n t r o l .

(%

10% h i g h e r d i l u t i o n ) t h a n

The d i f f e r e n c e l i e s m a i n l y i n t h e

228

s t r e n g t h of t h e h o r i z o n t a l c u r r e n t g e n e r a t e d .
The e f f e c t of s p a c i n g , R/H, w a s s t u d i e d i n c e r t a i n test
combinations (keeping Fs and H / B about e q u a l ) , f o r example ( 2 3 , 2 4 ) .
( 7 c , 9 c ) and (25c,26c).

No i n f l u e n c e of n o z z l e s p a c i n g on t h e

d i f f u s e r performance is e v i d e n t .

6.3

Conclusions:

D i f f u s e r s w i t h o u t Ambient Crossflow

The t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s of two-dimensional c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(Chapter 3 ) and three-dimensional a s p e c t s (Chapter 4 ) of d i f f u s e r s
w i t h o u t ambient c r o s s f l o w i n combination w i t h t h e experimental
program ( t h i s c h a p t e r ) e n a b l e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s t o be

drawn:
1) Equivalent s l o t concept
Any m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r can, f o r a n a l y t i c a l purposes.

k d . by an e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r .

berepresen-

This i n c l u d e s d i f f u s e r s with

a l t e r n a t i n g n o z z l e s as h a s been shown by t h e a n a l y s i s of

Liseth's

experiments of deep water d i f f u s e r s (Chapter 2 ) and by t h e r e s u l t s

of t h i s s t u d y f o r s h a l l o w water d i f f u s e r s w i t h an u n s t a b l e nearfield.

U t i l i z i n g t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t c o n c e p t i n t r o d u c e s a convenient

t o o l f o r comparing d i f f u s e r s t u d i e s and p r o t o t y p e a p p l i c a t i o n s :
t h e v a r i a b l e s D and R are r e p l a c e d by t h e s i n g l e v a r i a b l e B.
d i f f u s e r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by F

s'

H / B and

e0,

where 0

90'

for

d i f f u s e r s with a l t e r n a t i n g nozzles.
2)

Two-dimensional d i f f u s e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
A stable near-field

zone, w i t h a dominant buoyant j e t r e g i o n ,

e x i s t s o n l y f o r a l i m i t e d range of Fs and H/B.

229

The range i s

dependent on 0

Outside t h i s r a n g e t h e d i f f u s e r performance i s

governed by t h e f r i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e flow-away
far-field,

governed by 0 = f

L/H.

D i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l flow s t r u c -

t u r e s w i l l r e s u l t as a f u n c t i o n of 8

3)

i n the

and 0.

Three-dimensional d i f f u s e r a s p e c t s
The flow d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e i s i n t i m a t e l y

related t o near-field

i n s t a b i l i t i e s along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e and t o

t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e h o r i z o n t a l momentum i n p u t of t h e d i f f u s e r d i s H o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s w i l l b e g e n e r a t e d by t h i s i n t e r a c -

charge.

t i o n , e x c e p t f o r t h e case of a s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d

("deep water"

d i f f u s e r s ) where a v e r t i c a l l y s t r a t i f i e d two-layered system i s

b u i l t up.

4)

C o n t r o l of h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s
H o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s can b e c o n t r o l l e d t h r o u g h h o r i z o n t a l

o r i e n t a t i o n , B(y), of t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o z z l e s a l o n g t h e d i f f u s e r .
For d i f f u s e r s w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum, B(y) g i v e n by
Equation ( 4 - 4 3 ) ("logarithmic" d i s t r i b u t i o n
stably

LOG), i n s u r e s a

s t r a t i f i e d c o u n t e r - f l o w system i n t h e f a r - f i e l d .

For

d i f f u s e r s w i t h n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum, t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n
p r e v e n t s c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e flow downstream of t h e d i f f u s e r and
promotes v e r t i c a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

5)

Dilution predictions
T h e o r e t i c a l d i l u t i o n s o b t a i n e d from t h e two-dimensional

"channel model'' can b e a p p l i e d t o t h e three-dimensional d i f f u s e r

w i t h c o n t r o l by means of t h e requirement of e q u i v a l e n c y of f a r - f i e l d

230

e f f e c t s , Equations ( 4 - 4 ) and (4-11).

equivalent far-field e f f e c t s require L
t h e two-dimensional
length.

I n mathematical terms,
2

LD ,

i . e . , t h e l e n g t h of

"channel model" i s about e q u a l t o t h e d i f f u s e r

Experimentally, d i f f u s e r s t u d i e s i n a two-dimensional

channel model r e q u i r e a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e r e s e r v o i r o u t s i d e t h e
channel and account h a s t o b e t a k e n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e d f r i c t i o n due
t o t h e s i d e w a l l s of t h e channel.
The i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e f i n d i n g s on p r a c t i c a l d i f f u s e r
d e s i g n and on t h e o p e r a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c scale models of d i f f u s e r s

are d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 8 .
The i n t e r a c t i o n of t h - d i f f u s e r - i n d u c e d flows and temperatur
f i e l d w i t h an ambient c u r r e n t system is t r e a t e d i n t h e subsequent
chapter.

231

DIFFUSERS IN AMBIENT CROSSFLOU:

VII.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

7.1 Basic Considerations

In the preceding chapters the flow and temperature induced by the

action of a multiport diffuser in an otherwise stagnant unstratified
body o f water of uniform depth was analyzed.

It was found that the

diffuser performance is basically determined by four dimensionless parameters, namely the equivalent slot Froude number,
H/B,
@

the vertical angle of discharge,

f L/H.

FS

the relative depth,

and the far-field effect,

In addition, for control of horizontal circulations the

horizontal nozzle orientation, B(y),

is important.

The complexity of the problem is appreciably increased if the

interaction o f the diffuser discharge with an ambient current system is
considered, as shown in Figure 7-1.

Two more dimensionless parameters

F i g . 7-1: Multiport Diffuser in Ambient Crossfloy

232

can b e i n t r o d u c e d ,

v = - ua-H OB

i n which u

u n i t w i d t h d i s c h a r g e of c r o s a f l o w
= volume f l u x
u n i t w i d t h d i s h c a r g e of d i f f u s e r
ratio

a n g l e of d i f f u s e r axis w i t h d i r e c t i o n of c r o s s f l o w

= u n d i s t u r b e d c r o s s f l o w v e l o c i t y upstream.

Thus i n g e n e r a l ,

t h e d i f f u s e r flow f i e l d i n ambient c r o s s f l o w i s depending on 7 dimens i o n l e s s parameters.

The e f f e c t s of c r o s s f l o w may b e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two groups:
1) E f f e c t on t h e Near-Field Zone:

The c r o s s f l o w c a u s e s a

d e f l e c t i o n of the buoyant j e t t r a j e c t o r s as d i s c u s s e d
Depending on V and Y, such effects

i n Paragraph 2.1.7.

as bending i n t o a d j a c e n t j e t s , j e t a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e bottom
and i n s t a b i l i t i e s of t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r c a n ensue.

case of an u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d
the diffuser line

(v

I n the

zone a c u r r e n t sweeping a l o n g

= 0) can cause r e p e a t e d re-entrainment,

somewhat s i m i l a r t o d i f f u s e r induced c i r c u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t
c o n t r o l by n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n .
2 ) E f f e c t on t h e Far-Field Zone:

The d i f f u s e r induced c u r r e n t s ,

d r i v e n by buoyancy and by t h e d i s c h a r g e momentum, are modif i e d through t h e ambient c u r r e n t system.

Spreading of t h e

d i f f u s e r flow a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t i s i n h i b i t e d t o a s t r o n g e r
o r lesser degree.
7.2

Method of A n a l y s i s
The d i f f u s e r i n a uniform ambient c r o s s - c u r r e n t w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d

experimentally.

No complete t h e o r y d e s c r i b i n g t h e f u l l range of t h e

233

governing parameters has been developed.

However, for the purpose of

qualitative discussion and quantitative data presentation, extreme

cases of diffuser behavior (regimes) can be isolated and described by
mathematical models.

The advantage of doing

so

is that the number o f

significant parameters is considerably reduced in these regimes.

To

isolate the regimes, the treatment is restricted to diffusers with an

unstable near-field zone (shallow water type).

Diffusers with a stable

near-field zone are in general little affected by the crossflow except for the deflection of the buoyant jets.

The crossflow will merely

translate the stable surface layer without causing re-entrainment.

For diffusers with an unstable near-field zone in a crossflow

three regimes can be isolated: A) buoyancy induced counterflow, B) momentum induced currents, and C) crossflow mixing. The two first
regimes have been discussed in the theoretical analysis of Chapter 3
and are summarized here:
A) Buoyancy Induced Counterflow:

For weak crossflow and

little horizontal diffuser momentum, the flow field

will approach that of the diffuser with no net horizontal momentum.

The theoretical near-field dilution

is then

(3-222)

in which F

is the densimetric Froude number of the

HC

counterflow system dependent on the frictional effects in

the far-field,

(counterflow Equation (3-207) and Fig. 3-23).

234

Defining the "diffuser load", F, ,

Equation (3-222) is written as

(7-2)
The "diffuser load'' is a significant parameter for
diffusers with an unstable near-field zone (shallow
water) and is a densimetric Froude number describing the
impact (discharge, qo

U0B y and buoyancy, Apo/pa) of

Its implications

the discharge on the total depth.

on diffuser design are further discussed in Chapter 8.

B) Momentum Induced Currents:

For weak crossflow and strong

horizontal diffuser momentum, horizontal currents with

full vertical mixing will be set up.

The behavior of

these currents is dependent on the diffuser control through

horizontal nozzle orientation, B(y):
i) For the LOG distribution (f3(y) from Eq. ( 4 - 3 6 ) , ) , with a
predominantly two-dimensional flow pattern in the diffuser vicinity, the two-dimensional channel model concept can be used:

(3-227)

ii) For the NOR distribution (B(y)

235

= go",

no control), w i t h

t y p i c a l c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e flow f i e l d downstream of
t h e discharge, Adams' model can h e used n e g l e c t i n g

frictional far-field effects.

Equation (2-45) i s

modified, including t h e e f f e c t of v e r t i c a l a n g l e
0'

to

C ) Cross-Flow Mixing:

For s t r o n g crossflow and weak e f f e c t s

of buoyancy and h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r momentum t h e d i l u t i o n

i s equal t o t h e r a t i o of the crossflow sweeping over t h e

d i f f u s e r t o t h e d i f f u s e r discharge.

ss =

(7-4 1

sin

E s s e n t i a l l y , regimes B and C, b o t h w i t h f d l v e r t i c a l
mixing, can b e combined by simple s u p e r p o s i t i o n :
i ) For t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n :

I n t h e two-dimensional channel

model d e r i v a t i o n (Section 2.2.1 w i t h Figure 2-7) t h e

t o t a l head l o s s (Eq. (2-35)) i s i n presence of a n
ambient c u r r e n t , taken t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e excess
v e l o c i t y head, (urn2

ua

s i n2 y)/2g.

The d i l u t i o n pre-

d i c t i o n follows i n s i m i l a r i t y t o Eq. (3-227)

'

sS

v*+

2s i n2 y

2 H/B cos eo

14- @/2

(7-5)

The expressions i n t h e b r a c k e t show the relative con-

t r i b u t i o n s of d i l u t i o n by the cross-flow and by d i f f u s e r

induced momentum.
236

ii) For the NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n :

i s included i n Adams' Eq.

= y* =

+v

siny

+L

The e f f e c t of cross-flow

(2-44) w r i t t e n as

(V2sin2 y

+2

H cos go>

112

(7-6)

I n t h e g e n e r a l case of a mixed regime, d i l u t i o n s can'

be assumed t o be somewhat dependent on t h e s e l i m i t i n g
cases.

A s a consequence i t follows t h a t t h e 7 parameter

problem may b e reasonably approximated by t h e 4 parameters:

FT, 8 , V*,

@(y)

(Note:

taken from Eq. (7-5)

~ ( y )determines whether V* i s

o r (7-6)).

These parameters are

used i n t h e d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n .
I n t h e experimental program the d i f f u s e r arrangement
w a s l i m i t e d t o two values of y:
a) y = 0
:
'

P a r a l l e l D i f f u s e r , i.e.

t h e d i f f u s e r axis

i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e cross-flow d i r e c t i o n , and

b) y = 90":

Perpendicular D i f f u s e r , i.e.

the diffuser

a x i s i s perpendicular t o t h e crossflow d i r e c t i o n .
Two-dimensional channel model s t u d i e s on t h e perpend i c u l a r d i f f u s e r performed i n t h e flume set-up are
described f i r s t (Section 7.3).

Both perpendicular

and p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r s w e r e t e s t e d r i n t h e b a s i n setups A and B, and are discussed i n S e c t i o n 7.4.

7.3

Flume Experiments:

Perpendicular D i f f u s e r

Table 7 . 1 summarizes t h e run c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e d i f f u s e r

experiments with ambient crossflow i n the flume set-up,

237

S e r i e s FC.

The

Table 7.1:

Flume D i f f u s e r Experiments w i t h Crossflow, Series FC

Secondarv
Parmeters

Physical Variables

Governing Parameters

ss

FC-1

2-00

0.100

3.3

2.69

69.9 21.9 2,140 10 0.066 1 4 1 600

90

0.7 22.5

9.5

21.7
14.1

2.00

0.044

3.3

2.69

70.3 22.5 2,140 10 0.073 122

600

90

0.7 10.0

A.2

2.00

0.022

3.3

2.69

71.0 22.0 2,140 10 0.080 122

600

90

0.8

5.0

8.2

9.6

2.00

0.011

3.3

2.69

71.8 21.7 2,140 10 0.076 139

600

90

0.8

2.5

9.4

12.8

2.00

0.049

3.3

1.68

72.3 31.5 1,340 10 0.080

69

600

90

0.8 16.0

4.6

16.7

2.00

0.067

3.3

1.68

72.9 30.8 1,340 10 0.066

70

600

90

0.7 24.0

4.7

31.3
11.6

2.00

0.100

3.3

4.71

67.5 15.1 3,750 10 0.066 314

600

90

0.7 12.9

21.0

2.00

0.033

3.3

4.71

68.5 15.5 3.750 10 0.076 306

600

90

0.8

4.3

20.7

7.4

2.00

0.067

3.3

0.88

69.5

77

600

90

0 . 8 45.8

5.2

30.3

10

1.33

0.100

3.3

2.69

69.8 23.6 2,140 15 0.053 135

1.7

3.92

68.6 23.1 1,610

9.0

700 10 0.082

400

90

0.8 15.0

16.7

14.7

0.078 292 1300

90

0.7 13.3

6.4

15.4

11

2.17

0.049

12

2.17

0.020

1.7

3.92

69.4 22.0 1,610

0.082 298 1300

13

2.17

0.061

5.2

0.55

67.1 24.1

0.085

14

1.00

0.133

5.2

5.34

15

1.00

0.067

5.2

16

1.00

0.278

17

2.00

90

0.7

6.7

6.6

13.7

27

416

90

0.8 46.2

3.2

27.8

68.7 15.9 6,700 LO

0.044 276

192

90

0.9

4.8 104.0

5.0

5.34

68.7 15.7 6,700 20

0.051 278

192

90

1.0

2.4 104.4

3.8

5.2

1.87

70.3 16.8 2,350 20

0.059

78

192

90

1.2

5.7

29.2

7.0

0.033

10.4

0.64

66.9 15.4 1,610 10

0.085

24

192

90

0.9 10.0

9.0

11.0

700

18

1.25

0.153

20.8

1.07

67.8 20.4 5,350 16

0.048

24

60

90

0.8

8.6

51.5

8.5

19

1.25

0.062

20.8

1.07

67.8 20.6 5,350 16

0.056

24

60

90

0.9

3.5

51.5

5.1

20

2.00

0.967

3.3

2.69

75.2 22.3 2,140 10

0.065 133 600

0.7 21.8

8.9

20.4

21

2.00

0.044

3.3

2.69

75.2 21.9 2,140 10

0.075 134

600

0 . 8 10.0

9.0

13.7

22

2.00

0.078

3.3

1.68

73.6 30.8 1,340 10

0.072

600

0.7 28.0

4.7

25.6

70

23

1.33

0.033

3.3

2.69

69.3 22.0 2,140 15

0.064 1 4 1 400

1.0

5.0

17.5

8.5

24

2.17

0.041

1.7

3.92

68.8 21.1 1,610

0.078 309 1300

0.7 13.3

6.8

15.2

25

2.00

0.100

3.3

2.69

66.5 24.1 2,140 10

0.065 139

600 180

0.7 22.5

9.3

21.3

26

2.00

0.044

3.3

1.68

67.5 20.5 1,340 10

0,080 73

600 180

0.8 16.0

4.9

1 7 .O

FC-27

1.33

0.033

3.3

16.5

7.6

Note:

1)

2.69
68.3 24.6 2,140 15
Channel length, L = 20 f t .

0.066 133 400 180

2)

Bo = 180' i n d i c a t e s h o r i z o n t a l discharge a g a i n s t t h e current

1.0

5.0

c r o s s f l o w w a s g e n e r a t e d by pumping a c r o s s a p a r t i t i o n w a l l i n t h e reserv o i r b e h i n d t h e channel as w a s skown i n F i g u r e 5-1.

d i s c h a r g e w a s from a continuous s l o t .

I n a l l t e s t s the

The d i s c h a r g e a n g l e , O0, w a s

p r i m a r i l y 90" w i t h a d d i t i o n a l tests w i t h 0" ( d i s c h a r g e i n t h e c u r r e n t

d i r e c t i o n ) and 180" ( a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t ) .
Ss,

a r e i n c l u d e d on Table 7.1.

Resultant surface d i l u t i o n s ,

T y p i c a l flow d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e shown i n

F i g u r e 7-2.
The d a t a are analyzed c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e of t h e
flume set-up:

A c u r r e n t having a u n i t w i d t h d i s c h a r g e u H i s f o r c e d
a

through t h e channel.

The h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r momentum ( O o = 0" o r 180")

cannot a l t e r t h i s d i s c h a r g e ; t h e e f f e c t of t h e h o r i z o n t a l momentum i s
merely t o b u i l d up a h i g h and a low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n i n t h e c h a n n e l .

The

consequence of t h i s f o r c e d c u r r e n t i s t h e independence of t h e d i f f u s e r
performance ( o u t s i d e some l o c a l zone) on the h o r i z o n t a l momentum ( t h u s
0

90" as w i t h no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum).
The two l i m i t i n g regimes f o r t h i s d i s c h a r g e s i t u a t i o n are t h e

c o u n t e r f l o w system (F a) and t h e c r o s s f l o w mixing (V, as s i n Y = 1).

T'
These l i m i t i n g regimes are shown i n Fig. 7-3.
@:

i s taken as 0.165 (Fig. 3 - 2 4 ) .

1, FH

A s most r u n s had

The l i m i t i n g v a l u e f o r low

c r o s s f l o w i s assumed .at V = 1.

A c r i t e r i o n of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e f u l l y

mixed regime i s g i v e n by c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t below a c r o s s f l o w Froude number

FH

= 1 s t a g n a n t wedges w i l l form.

Thus

and u s i n g S s = V and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e f i n i t i o n s t h e c r i t e r i o n i s

2 39

a4

a) R u ~BC-3, Fs = 69, H/B = 558, 8

= 45"-A,9 = 0.4,

@(y) = LOG,

V = 14.0, y = 90"

b) Run BC-B, Fs = 66, H/B = 558, B0 = 45"-A,@ = 0.2, B(y) = LOG

V = 12.4, y = Oo
Fig. 7-4:

Observed Temperature and Velocity Field, Series BC,

Alternating Nozzles

245

e x p e r i m e n t a l set-up,

t h e t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i f f u s e r w a s
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s expressed

t w i c e t h e l e n g t h of t h e p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r .
by the v a l u e of t h e f a r - f i e l d parameter

a s shown i n t h e f i g u r e cap-

I n b o t h c a s e s t h e f l o w f i e l d i s w e l l s t r a t i f i e d and upstream

tions.

wedges a r e p r e s e n t .
I n F i g u r e 7-5a t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d i l u t i o n s f o r the p e r p e n d i c u l a r
d i f f u s e r t a k e n a t t h e edge of t h e n e a r - f i e l d
p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e l i m i t i n g regimes.

same manner as F i g u r e 7-3,

zone a r e compared w i t h t h e

F i g u r e 7-5a w a s developed i n t h e

b u t w i t h cp = 0.5

(FH = 0.187)

corresponding

t o most r u n s .

(No e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e made i n t h e f u l l y mixed regime due

t o l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e c r o s s f l o w g e n e r a t i o n system.)
F i g u r e 7-5a a l s o shows f o r the g e n e r a l case V* = Y s i n y t h e

c r i t e r i a f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t regimes, w i t h h y p o t h e t i c a l i s o - d i l u t i o n
i n the counterflow region.

Only t h e r e s u l t s of t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i f -

f u s e r experiments ( y = 90") are shown i n F i g u r e 7-5a,

agreement.

lines

For t h e p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r , V* = 0.

w i t h very good

This would mean t h a t

t h e d i l u t i o n i s dependent o n l y on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e buoyant
c o u n t e r f l o w regime.

T h i s i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e and i n d i c a t e s

t h a t due t o t h e "lumping" of t h e parameters, s u c h as i n Equations 4-6

and 4-7,
lost.

some of t h e dependency of t h e o r i g i n a l 7 p a r a m e t e r problem i s

It c a n b e expected t h a t f o r t h e p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r , t h e c u r r e n t

sweeping a l o n g t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e ( s e e F i g u r e 7-4b) w i l l c a u s e r e p e a t e d
re-entrainment and some d e c r e a s e d d i l u t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r a s t r o n g
current.

A comparison between the d i l u t i o n s o b t a i n e d w i t h the p a r a l l e l

d i f f u s e r v e r s u s t h o s e of t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r o n e i s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 7-5b

(see a l s o T a b l e 7-2a) as a f u n c t i o n of Y (i.e.

246

t h e potential dilution).

Series B C

IXI N

L
30 =Ss

$=0.5

I I I I I

10

v*= v SINT

50

100

50

100

a ) Dilutions of Perpendicular Diffuser

o.2kl-L--l
01

lo

b) Dilutions of Parallel V s . V Perpendicular Diffuser

Fig. 7-5:

Three-Dimensional Diffusers i n Crossflow, (Series BC) No Net

Horizontal Momentum, LOG Distribution

247

In general, the parallel diffuser has about a 20% lower dilution

capacity than the corresponding perpendicular one which as has been
noted is twice as long in the present experimental set-up (resulting in
a difference of Q)
7.4.2

Diffusers with Net Horizontal Momentum

Table 7.2b summarizes the three-dimensional diffuser experiments

in crossflow, Series BC, with unidirectional nozzles.

Runs 21 to 34

relate to the perpendicular, Runs 3 5 to 48 to the parallel diffuser.

In

addition to the diffuser arrangement, Y, emphasis was put on the control

of the horizontal circulations through nozzle orientation ~(y): LOG and
NOR distributions were tested.

The vertical angle

eo was varied between

45" and 0 " .

The tests on diffusers with net horizontal momentum in the presence of an ambient current exhibit some of the experimental difficulties
and limitations as was discussed in Section 6.2.2 for the no crossflow
tests (Series BH), namely unsteady effects and boundary effects.

Again,

in taking temperature measurements care was taken not to include recirculation effects due to basin boundaries.
Characteristic flow fields for corresponding parallel and perpendicular diffusers with net horizontal momentum are shown in Figures 7-6,
7-7 and 7-8.

Figure 7-6 (LOG) should be compared with the alternating

nozzle case (Figure 7-4) as the experiments have similar parameters.

The

full mixing downstream of the discharge for the perpendicular diffuser

is characteristic and predicted from theoretical considerations (see

Figure 7-9).

The full mixing for the parallel diffuser is less pro-

nounced indicating penetration and travel of ambient crossflow water

248

Table 7.2b:

Basin D i f f u s e r Experiments w i t h Crossflow, Series BC

b ) Discharge w i t h N e t Horizontal Momentum

H
(ft)

BC-21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

64.8
64.8
65.4
65.4
66.2
66.2

26.3
26.2
23.5
23.5
24.3
24.2

4.060
4,060
1,990
1.990
2,020
2,020

6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
3.2

66.5
66.5
67.3
67.3
67.4

2,929
2,929
2,880
2,840
2,800

3.2
6.4
6.4
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2

23.8
23.9
27.6
26.6
25.0
25.2
26.9
26.9
26.0
25.9
23.2
23.6
23.1

67.4
61.7
67.7
60.5
60.5
61.2
61.2
61.6
61.6 23.3
58.8 21.4
58.8 21.0
59.7 26.1
59.7 26.1
61.0 25.7
61.0 25.7
60.2 26.8
60.2 26.8

0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67 0.024
0.67
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67

0.009
0.024
0.012

0.024
0.012
0.024
0.012
0.024
0.012
0.024
0.012

39 0.67 0.024
40 0.67 0.012
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
BC-48

Secondary
Parameters

Phyrical Variables
Ua
Uo
LD
(ftlsec) (ft/rec) (it)
6.4
2.12
0.024
6.4
2.12
0.012
6.4
1.08
0.024
6.4
1.08
0.009
1.08
6.4
0.024
6.4
1.08
0.009

0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
Note:

0.024
0.009
0.024
0.009
0.024
0.012
0.024
0.012
1)
2)

1.08
1.08
1.45
1.45
1.45
1.45
1.45
1.45
2.15
2.15
1.08

1.08
1.08
1.08

1.08
1.08
1.08

1.08
1.45
1.45
1.45
1.45

Ta

ATo

(OF) (OF)

2,800
2,870
2,870
3,870
3,870
1,890
1,900
1.900
1.900
1,810
1,810
1,920
1,920
2,620
2,630
2,630
2.630

E/H
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32

Governing P u m a -

80
fo PI" H/B (dgr) 0 B(y)
0.043 132 558 45 0.4 LOG
0.050 132 358 45
0.043 70 558 45
0.053 80 558 45
0.043 69 558 0
0.053 69 558 0

0.5 LOG
0.4 LOG
0.5 LOG

0.043
0.053
0.045
0.053
0.045

69 558
69 558
87 419
88 419
91 419

0.4 NOR

0
0

0.5 NOR
0.4 LOG
0.6 LOG

0 . 3 LOG

0.053
0.045
0.053
0.043
0.050
0.043
0.050
0.043
0.050
0.043
0.053
0.043
0.053
0.045
0.053
0.045
0.053

91 419
88 419
88 419
133 558
133 558
70 558
70 558
70 558
70 558
73 558
73 558
66 558
66 558
90 419
90 419
88 419
88 419

0.3
0.5
0.6
0.2
0.3
0.2

0.4 LOG
0.5 LOG

Y
V (dgr)
6.2 90
3.1 90
4.4 90

4.7
2.4

90
90

4.7
12.4

90
90

4.7
6.7
3.5
6.9

90
90
90
90

0.2 NOR
0.3 NOR
0.2 LOG

3.5
6.9
3.5
6.2
3.1
12.4
6.2
12.4
6.2
12.4

0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2

NOR

4.7
12.4
4.7
6.7
3.5
6.7

0.3 NOR

3.5

0
0

45
45
45
45
45
45
0

0
0

0
0

UX;

NOR
NOR
LOG
LOG
LOG

0 . 3 LOG

LOG
NOR

NOR
LOG
LOG

90
90

90
0

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

?T

Obrerved

v*
10.0

25.90

10.0 25.38
5.3 25.6.
5.3 29.0a
5.3 32.4s
5.3 30.2a
5.3 24.0b
5.3 19.2b
10.3 26.6a
10.3 26.1.
10.7 26.8a
10.6 26.la
10.3 18.3b
10.2 16.3b
10.0 25.la
10.0 25.10
5.3 25.1.9
5.3 25.10
5.3 14.0b
5.3 14.0b
5.5 29.9a
5.5 29.9a
5.0 16.7b
5.0 16.7b
10.5 25.9a
10.5 25.9a
10.3 14.5b
10.3 14.5b

All runs with D = 0.0156 ft and E

0.16
..- - f
- t- ..
In column V*: "a" calculated frm Equation (7-6), "b" calculated from Equation (7-7)

sr

15.4
13.8
16.4
14.3
17.6
15.4
13.4
12.5
18.2
15.4
19.2
16.7
13.3
12.2
13.0
11.1
12.5
12.5
12 .o
11.8
12.7
10.6
12.5
12.0
12.0
10.8

9.5
10.2

r'

I SOT HERMS

SURFACE

0.5
#

10

04

-20

-1 0

Run BC = 23, Fs = 70, H/B

V = 6 . 2 , y = 90'

1 '

0.5

2o

10

558,

45",

@ =

'

.I
1

0.1

AT 01
-

"/H

0.4, B(y)

AT

= LOG,

(Nozzles D i r e c t e d t o t h e L e f t )
I

a5
c

0.1

0.5
0

b ) Run BC-35, Fs = 7 0 , H/B = 5 5 8 ,

eo

= 45',

cp = 0.2,B(y)

= LOG,

V = 6 . 2 , y = 0" (Nozzles D i r e c t e d Downward)

F i g . 7-6:

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d w i t h Crossflow,

S e r i e s BC, U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Nozzles

250

40-

-: zlz

30

0.5

10

--

SURFACE ISOTHERMS

%-

20

*4

*I
1

201

0.5

.'T'

zim,

0.1

AT

0.1

SURFACE ISOTHERMS

t
I

/ //
I

- 30

-2 0

b) Run BC-45, Fs = 9 0 , H/B

//I

-10

10

20

z i - p

0.5

30 X

AT 0.1
AL

419, 8 = O o , @ = 0.2, B(y) = LOG

V = 6.7, y = 0" (Nozzles Directed Downward)

Fig. 7-7:

Observed Temperature and Velocity Field, Series BC,

Unidirectional Nozzles

251

"h
I

-1

ISOTHERMS

SURFACE

30

0.5

20

0
0.1

1c

z/H

.I
n

"

-30

- 20

a) Run BC-33,

y =

20

10

Fs = 88, H/B = 419, B0 = O",

V = 6.9,

YH

-10

0.5

@ =

3 0 xA.
XA
'H

0.5, B(y)

NOR,

90" (Nozzles Directed to the Left)

SURFACE ISOTHERMS

10-

-1 0

- 20

b) Run BC = 47, F

= 88, H/B = 419,

=
0

0",

@ =

0.2, B(y)

NOR

6.7, y = 0" (Nozzles Directed Downward)

Observed Temperature and Velocity Field, Series BC,
Unidirectional Nozzles
V

F i g . 7-8:

252

underneath t h e surface layer.

T h i s phenomenon may b e somewhat accen-

t u a t e d by boundary e f f e c t s .
F i g u r e 7-7 i n comparison w i t h F i g u r e 7-6 shows the e f f e c t of dec r e a s e d ambient d e p t h , H, and i n c r e a s e d d i f f u s e r momentum ( 8

45").

Both f i g u r e s show LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

= 0"

vs.

The i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h o f

t h e d i f f u s e r induced c u r r e n t s i s a p p a r e n t ; boundary e f f e c t s are enhanced.

The e f f e c t of LOG v e r s u s NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n i s shown by comparing
F i g u r e s 7-8

(NOR)

and 7-7 (LOG).

The furt:her i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h of t h e

c i r c u l a t i o n and t h e tendency t o c o n t r a c t downstream of t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e

can b e seen.

Observed d i l u t i o n s are compared w i t h p r e d i c t e d l i m i t i n g

regimes and c r i t e r i a .

F i g u r e 7-9 a p p l i e s t o t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h

a predominantly two-dimensional

V*,
7-5.

flow f i e l d :

The combined mixing e f f e c t ,

o f c r o s s f l o w and h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r momentum i s g i v e n by E q u a t i o n

The range of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the f u l l y mixed and s t a g n a n t wedge

domains i s g i v e n by arguments, E q u a t i o n s (7-7) and ( 7 - 9 ) ,

tuting S

V* (FH = 0.52 f o r

c o n c e n t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 7-9,

0.5).

only substi-

The r u n p a r a m e t e r s are s t r o n g l y

i n d i c a t i n g t h e dominance of t h e h o r i z o n t a l

momentum induced mixing over the l i m i t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l range.

Dilutions

are c o n s i d e r a b l y (30 t o 50%) lower t h a n p r e d i c t e d b o t h f o r p a r a l l e l a n d

p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i f f u s e r s , which i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n f o r
t h e b a s i n experiments w i t h z e r o c r o s s f l o w ( S e r i e s BH) and may b e a t t r i buted t o experimental l i m i t a t i o n s .
F i g u r e 7-10 a p p l i e s t o t h e NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h a c o n t r a c t e d
flow f i e l d :

Adams' Eq. (7-6) i s u s e d and c r i t e r i a l i n e s are developed

i n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n a s f o r F i g u r e 7-9.

There i s no p r e d i c t i v e model f o r

V * + O , i.e. i n t h e counterflow range.

I n t h e f u l l y mixed r a n g e o b s e r v e d

253

0
4IX

12.:
12.5

5-

j .4

q2
12.0

10.8

i
t

5=0.5

1
,

perpendicular d=90
Y

-d= 0"

Fig. 7-9:

D i f f u s e r s i n Crossflow, N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum,

w i t h C o n t r o l (LOG D i s t r i b u t i o n )

25 4

- 1-r
20

30

50

1x1I

=S

5.8

3.5

L0.6

12.0@
11.8 +
12.5
12.0

F\

\\

I I 1 1 1

10

50

V * = ~ V S I N $ + + ( V2 S I N 2g + 2 +cos e m'/)2
2

x
0

Go =

perpendicular 8 = 90"
= 4 5 O para1I el
r = 0"

=o"

Adams (1972)

Fig. 7-10:

D i f f u s e r s i n Crossflow, N e t Horizontal Momentum,

no Control (NOR D i s t r i b u t i o n )

255

d i l u t i o n s a g r e e r e a s o n a b l y w e l l (about 20% l o w e r ) w i t h t h e p r e d i c t e d
values.

Also i n c l u d e d are the d a t a by Adams (1972) f o r p e r p e n d i c u l a r

d i f f u s e r s showing b e t t e r agreement, a l t h o u g h i t i s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
Adams' d i l u t i o n d a t a are averaged v a l u e s taken a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e
downstream from t h e d i f f u s e r as opposed t o t h i s s t u d y where d i l u t i o n i s
d e f i n e d a s the maximum t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e edge of t h e n e a r - f i e l d zone.
A comparison of r e l a t i v e d i f f u s e r performanced i s g i v e n i n F i g .

7-11 f o r e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h similar d i f f u s e r p a r a m e t e r s b u t v a r y i n g y and

F i g u r e 7 - l l a compares c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a r a l l e l and p e r p e n d i c u l a r

B(y).

d i f f u s e r s , showing a b o u t 20% reduced d i l u t i o n c a p a c i t y f o r t h e f i r s t .

S i m i l a r l y a b o u t 20% reduced performance i s seen f o r t h e NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n
(no c o n t r o l ) compared t o the LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c o n t r o l ) .

This I s con-

s i s t e n t w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e z e r o c r o s s f l o w tests (Series BH).

7.5

Conclusions:

D i f f u s e r s w i t h Ambient C r o s s f l o w

R e s u l t s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n a l y z e d w i t h i n t h e
framework of the l i m i t i n g f l o w regimes e n a b l e t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s
t o b e drawn on t h e e f f e c t of an ambient c r o s s f l o w on d i f f u s e r performance :

1) D i f f u s e r Arrangement
I n t h e p r e s e n c e of ambient c u r r e n t s t h e s i n g l e most c r i t i c a l para-

meters of d i f f u s e r b e h a v i o r i s t h e arrangement, y , of t h e d i f -

fuser with respect t o the current direction.

Depending on t h e

arrangement, t h e e f f e c t of c r o s s f l o w may increase o r d e c r e a s e

observed d i l u t i o n s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the s i t u a t i o n of z e r o
crossflow:

256

0.2 -

0.4

0 -

I I l l l

I
5

NOR

V
-.

I I I I

50

10

100

a) Parallel Diffuser V s . Perpendicular Diffuser

0%

1.0

%OG

0.8
0.6 --

I
I

048 I
zx28
34

x32

%I

#?i s3T9

0%

"9

.27
x

perpendicular

parallel

Hrun
number

0.4

02

I
5

I I I I I
10

50

I I I I ,

100

b) NOR Distribution V s . LOG Distribution

Fig. 7-11:

Comparison of Relative Diffuser Performance i n Crossflow

(Series BC) with Unidirectional Discharge

257

a) Perpendicular Diffuser:

The presence of a crossflow

increases the dilution obseryed downstream of the

diffuser in the case of alternating nozzles and in
in the case of nozzles discharging in the direction
of the current.

The case of nozzles discharging

against the current was not studied in this investigation, however, other studies (Harleman et. al. (1971))
indicate qualitatively a marked decrease in dilution
due to stagnation effects and unsteady recirculation.

b) Parallel Diffuser: The effect of cross currents causes

in all conditions (alternating or unidirectional discharge) a decrease in dilutions as compared to the
zero crossflow situation.

This fact is due to (i) the

current sweeping along the diffuser line causing repeated

re-entrainment and (ii) for the case of unidirectional
discharge with full vertical mixing, an effective blocking
of the oncoming ambient flow is given causing eddying
and unsteady recirculation of the mixed water at the downstream diffuser end.
2 ) Diffuser Control

Control of the induced horizontal circulations through horizontal

nozzle orientation, ~ ( y ) ,is equally important as in the zero
crossflow case.
3) Two-Dimensional Experiments

The interplay between the diffuser induced and the ambient flow
field for the three-dimensional diffuser cannot be simulated

258

i n a two-dimensional
crossflow.

channel modal w i t h f o r c e d ambient

The a p p l i c a t i o n of s u c h e x p e r i m e n t s is l i m i t e d

t o l a t e r a l l y s t r o n g l y confined s i t u a t i o n s .

259

VIII.

APPLICATION OF RESULTS TO DESIGN AND HYDRAULIC SCALE

MODELING OF SUBMERGED MULTIPORT
DIFFUSERS
--

The t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental a n a l y s i s t r e a t e d t h e mechanics

of a submerged multiport d i f f u s e r f o r buoyant discharges i n t o a n uns t r a t i f i e d , l a r g e body of water of constant depth w i t h a uniform

current system running a t a n a r b i t r a r y angle t o t h e d i f f u s e r a x i s .

The

r e s u l t s of t h i s study, presented i n t h e form of s o l u t i o n graphs, can be

used f o r d i f f u s e r design f o r t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n considered and
proper schematization

- with

f o r t h e preliminary d e s i g n e s t i m a t e f o r a

v a r i e t y of other, more complicated discharge c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .

For

complicated discharge c o n d i t i o n s h y d r a u l i c s c a l e m o d e l s have t o be used

t o evaluate d i f f u s e r performance.

I n t h i s case t h e theory developed

i n t h i s study enables t h e formulation of modeling requirements f o r t h e

o p e r a t i o n of scale models.
The design of d i f f u s e r s t r u c t u r e s is an i n t e g r a l p a r t of a waste
management system and t h u s i s governed by a h o s t of f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g
t o economical, engineering and environmental o b j e c t i v e s .

A complete

d i f f u s e r design i s c a r r i e d out i n t h r e e broad s t e p s , each with implicat i o n s on t h e above o b j e c t i v e s :

(i)

S i t e S e l e c t i o n i s t h e choice of a g e n e r a l area

f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e d i f f u s e r o u t f a l l .
(ii)

- involves
D i f f u s e r Design f o r Dilution Requirement
t h e hydrodynamic design of t h e d i s c h a r g e s t r u c t u r e
within t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e with t h e purpose of reducing
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e e f f l u e n t material so as t o
conform t o environmental criteria.

260

--

(iii) I n t e r n a l H y d r a u l i c Design of t h e D i f f u s e r PQe -

i s t h e computation of t h e manifold problem w i t h

t h e g o a l of a c h i e v i n g r e a s o n a b l y uniform n o z z l e
e x i t v e l o c i t i e s along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e .

T h i s s t u d y w a s p r i m a r i l y a d d r e s s e d t o d e s i g n s t e p (ii)

However,

c e r t a i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g s t e p (i)can b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e
c o n t e x t of t h i s s t u d y .

The i n t e r n a l h y d r a u l i c d e s i g n , s t e p ( i i i ) , h a s

b e e n t r e a t e d elsewhere (see Rmm

have been developed.

e t a l . (1960)) and computer programs

An i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t of R a w n

e t a l . ' s work i s

summarized h e r e , as i t d i r e c t l y relates t o s t e p ( i i ) : I n o r d e r t o i n s u r e
r e a s o n a b l e u n i f o r m i t y of t h e d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t i e s from t h e d i f f u s e r
0

n o z z l e s i t i s n e c e s s a r y that the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of the d i f f u s e r

p i p e ( f e e d e r l i n e ) b e l a r g e r t h a n t h e t o t a l area of t h e n o z z l e s . ( I n o t h e r
words, no u n i f o r m i t y is p o s s i b l e i f t h e f l o w has to b e d e c e l e r a t e d
b e f o r e leaving t h e pipe.)

The d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n

are p r i m a r i l y d i r e c t e d a t "thermal" d i f f u s e r s f o r d i s c h a r g e of heated

condenser water from steam-electric power p l a n t s .

A t y p i c a l example

f o r a thermal d i f f u s e r i n comparison w i t h a t y p i c a l sewage d i f f u s e r

h a s been g i v e n i n Table 5.1.

Sewage d i f f u s e r s w i t h a h i g h d i l u t i o n

r e q u i r e m e n t (more t h a n 100) a r e g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d t o deep water and t h u s

do not e x h i b i t t h e i n t r i c a c i e s i n t r o d u c e d by a c o n s t r a i n i n g water depth,

namely a n u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d

zone w i t h l o c a l r e - e n t r a i n m e n t and t h e

generation of horizontal circulations.

8.1

S i t e Characteristics

S e l e c t i o n of a s i t e f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of a t h e r m a l d i f f u s e r
o u t f a l l i n v o l v e s a v a r i e t y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , such a s d i s t a n c e f r o n t h e

261

shore l i n e , a v a i l a b l e o f f s h o r e area, prevention of r e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t o

t h e power p l a n t i n t a k e , requirements f o r providing a zone of passage
etc..

Rather than discussing t h e s e aspects which have t o be evaluated

i n d i v i d u a l l y i n each case, a d e s c r i p t i o n of p o s s i b l e s i t e characteristics

i s given here:

(i) S i t e topography.

The vertical e x t e n t and t h e l a t e r a l confine-

ment of t h e receiving water are important.

The water body can b e

l a t e r a l l y unconfined ( d i f f u s e r located f a r away f r o m shore, o r o f f s h o r e

power p l a n t ) , l a t e r a l l y semi-confined

( d i f f u s e r l o c a t e d c l o s e t o shore-

l i n e ) o r l a t e r a l l y confined ( d i f f u s e r i n r i v e r s , canals o r o t h e r cons t r a i n i n g geometries).

A p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g boundary e f f e c t may occur

f o r d i f f u s e r s located i n embayments o r regions which are somehow

s e p a r a t e d from t h e main body of w a t e r and do not have a s t r o n g throughflow.
The v e r t i c a l e x t e n t of t h e d i f f u s e r s i t e can be uniformly shallow
(such as on a c o a s t a l s h e l f o r i n r i v e r s ) o r have v a r i a b l e sloping o f f shore depths.
(ii) Current System.

The ambient c u r r e n t a t t h e d i f f u s e r s i t e may

b e weak and unpronounced (in intermediate s i z e lakes and r e s e r v o i r s

p r i m a r i l y dependent on unsteady wind a c t i o n ) .

Significant current

a c t i o n may occur i n r i v e r a p p l i c a t i o n s and i n c o a s t a l o r l a r g e l a k e

sites with s t r o n g t i d a l o r i n e r t i a l c u r r e n t s .

The c u r r e n t system may b e

predominantly i n one d i r e c t i o n ( r i v e r , lake, o r ocean longshore c u r r e n t s )

o r may be o s c i l l a t i n g ( t i d a l c u r r e n t s ) .

For d i f f u s e r sites i n estuaries

o r t i d a l bays t h e ambient flow may pass repeatedly (during several t i d a l

c y c l e s ) over t h e s i t e .
262

(iii)

Ambient Density S t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

Occurrence of temperature

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n during s u m m e r months i s t y p i c a l f o r l a k e s and r e s e r v o i r s

i n t h e moderate climate zone.

S i m i l a r l y , temperature s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

has a l s o been observed i n shallow c o a s t a l zones although l i m i t e d t o

periods of moderate wave a c t i o n .

Salinity stratification is typical i n

e s t u a r i n e sites.
(iv)

Ambient Turbulence.

The ambient t u r b u l e n t i n t e n s i t y h a s

i m p l i c a t i o n s on t h e s t a b i l i t y of both ambient and diffuser-induced

stratification.

Increased turbulence, as through s i g n i f i c a n t wave a c t i o n ,

may l e a d t o erosion and breakdown of d e n s i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .

(v)

Wind S t r e s s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o c r e a t i n g convective c u r r e n t s

and ambient turbulence, t h e wind a c t i n g on t h e water s u r f a c e e x e r t s a

stress on t h e d i f f u s e r induced flow f i e l d and may i n f l u e n c e t h e flow-a..-y,

or lead t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n a t t h e i n t a k e .
8.2

D i f f u s e r Design f o r D i l u t i o n Requirement
Once t h e general s i t e f o r t h e d i f f u s e r l o c a t i o n has been s e l e c t e d ,

the d i f f u s e r s t r u c t u r e i s designed with t h e primary purpose of achieving

a c e r t a i n mixing of t h e discharged heated water with t h e ambient water

( n e a r f i e l d d i l u t i o n requirement).

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e d i f f u s e r should meet

o t h e r environmental and economical o b j e c t i v e s .

8.2.1

Glossary of design parameters

The following nomenclature i s suggested f o r u s e i n design

of submerged multiport d i f f u s e r s :
Equivalent S l o t Diffuser:

Any multiport d i f f u s e r with nozzle

diameter, D, and spacing, & , c a n i n physical terms b e described by i t s

equivalent s l o t d i f f u s e r .

This concept r e t a i n s t h e relative dynamic

26 3

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i f f u s e r discharge and should be used f o r

mathematical a n a l y s i s , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d i f f u s e r s , comparison of
d i f f e r e n t d i f f u s e r s and design.

The s l o t width, B , of t h e e q u i v a l e n t

s l o t d i f f u s e r is
n

DLR

B z -

(2-20)

4R

Important design parameters are then t h e s l o t densimetric k o u d e

number
U

and t h e relative water depth, H/B

D i f f u s e r Load:

FT

, is

a d e n s i m e t r i c Froude number

(7-1)

qo = d i f f u s e r discharge p e r u n i t length which d e s c r i b e s t h e

where

impact (discharge and buoyancy e f f e c t s ) of t h e discharge on t h e t o t a l

depth.

Vertical Angle of Discharge, 8

(eo

0") and vertical

(eo

: Varying between h o r i z o n t a l

= 90").

D i r e c t i o n of Discharge:

The nozzles may a l l be d i r e c t e d t o one

s i d e of t h e d i f f u s e r axis ( u n i d i r e c t i o n a l discharge with n e t h o r i z o n t a l

d i f f u s e r momentum) or may p o i n t i n t o both d i r e c t i o n s ( a l t e r n a t i n g d i s charge with no n e t h o r i z o n t a l d i f f u s e r momentum).

264

A l i m i t i n g case of

a l t e r n a t i n g d i s c h a r g e is t h e v e r t i c a l discharge.

In terms of t h e

equivalent s l o t concept a l l a l t e r n a t i n g discharges can be r s p r e s e n t e d

by

e0

= 90"

Control through Horizontal Nozzle O r i e n t a t i o n , B(y):

The h o r i z o n t a l

c i r c u l a t i o n s produced by a d i f f u s e r discharge (with u n s t a b l e near-f i e l d )

can be c o n t r o l l e d through i n d i v i d u a l h o r i z o n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e
d i f f u s e r nozzles along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e of h a l f length,
P a r t i c u l a r l y important d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r

B(y)

(see Fig. 6-2).

are t h e "LOG" d i s t r i b u t i o n

(4-36)

which i n t h e case of a l t e r n a t i n g nozzles r e s u l t s i n a three-dimensional

s t r a t i f i e d counterflow s i t u a t i o n and t h e "NOR" d i s t r i b u t i o n
B(y)

90"

i n which a l l nozzles are o r i e n t e d normal t o t h e d i f f u s e r axis t y p i c a l l y

r e s u l t i n g i n a contracted flow-away from t h e d i f f u s e r .
Arrangement of t h e Diffuser Axis with Respect t o t h e Ambient
Current D i r e c t i o n , Y : Referring t o Fig. 7-1,
t h e p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r (y
8.2.2

l i m i t i n g values of

are

0") and t h e perpendicular d i f f u s e r (y = 90").

Design o b j e c t i v e s

Typical thermal d i f f u s e r s with a low d i l u t i o n requirement

and l o c a t e d i n shallow water can have a s i g n i f i c a n t dynamic impact on
the r e c e i v i n g water.

Vertical i n s t a b i l i t i e s arise i n t h e near-field

r e l a t e d t o which is the generation of h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s induced

i n t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r as discussed i n Chapter 4.

In addition horlzontal

c i r c u l a t i o n s are caused by t h e n e t discharge momentum ( u n i d i r e c t i o n a l

265

nozzles).

Nonetheless, through e f f e c t i v e d i f f u s e r design t h i s dynamic

impact can be c o n t r o l l e d t o such a degree as t o achieve given design

objectives.
General o b j e c t i v e s relate t o environmental and engineering r e q u i r e ments.

Most important f o r design is t h e conformity with l e g a l temperature

standards : d i f f user-induced temperatures s h a l l n o t exceed prescribed

l i m i t s during c e r t a i n t i m e periods and o u t s i d e a given area ("mixing
zone").

Typically t h e s e l i m i t s apply t o s u r f a c e temperatures.

In

a d d i t i o n , environmental goals may i n c l u d e t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of vertical

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t o minimize thermal impact on t h e bottom s u b s t r a t e ,
and t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of a passageway i n l a t e r a l l y bounded s i t e s , t o
a m i d a "thermal blockage" f o r a q u a t i c organisms.

Also i t might be

required t o keep t h e heated discharge away from t h e shoreline.

Engineer-

ing requirements are concerned with t h e c o n t r o l of t h e d i f f u s e r flow f i e l d

f o r proper l o c a t i o n of t h e cooling w a t e r i n t a k e and t o prevent r e c i r c u l a tion i n t o the intake.
Obviously, from t h e design p o i n t of v i e w t h e s e general o b j e c t i v e s
can always be m e t (assuming t h e s i t e geometry i s not c o n s t r a i n i n g ) , f o r
example, by b u i l d i n g a "long d i f f u s e r " f a r away from t h e s h o r e l i n e .

At

t h i s p o i n t economic requirements e n t e r t h e discussion: t h e d i f f u s e r

should b e designed t o m e e t t h e above g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e s a t a minimum
cost.

Thus, based on t h e understanding of t h e mechanics of t h e d i f f u s e r

a c t i o n obtained i n t h i s study t h e following s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s can b e

formulated:
a)

The d i f f u s e r induced temperature rises should b e uniform

along t h e whole d i f f u s e r l i n e , or else t h e d i f f u s e r c a p a c i t y i s not

266

fully utilized.

This relates t o ( i ) t h e flow d i s t r i b u t i o n

("diffuser load") i n case of a v a r i a b l e depth, H, and ( i i ) t o

t h e maximum nozzle spacing (prevention of i s o l a t e d
spots)

%hot''

b)

No c u r r e n t s , e i t h e r induced by t h e d i f f u s e r a c t i o n

i t s e l f o r given by t h e ambient crossflow, should sweep along

t h e d i f f u s e r a x i s r e s u l t i n g i n repeated entrainment.

The

q u e s t i o n s of d i f f u s e r c o n t r o l through h o r i z o n t a l nozzle
o r i e n t a t i o n , B(y), and t h e arrangement with r e s p e c t t o t h e
crossflow, y
c)

, are

important.

I n order t h a t d i f f u s e r designs perform w e l l under a

v a r i e t y of ambient conditions, such as t i d a l or wind-driven c u r r e n t s

w i t h varying d i r e c t i o n and magnitude, i t is d e s i r a b l e t o achieve

a s t r a t i f i e d flow f i e l d .

The degree of r e c i r c u l a t i o n i n t o t h e

d i f f u s e r l i n e under adverse flow c o n d i t i o n s is minimized f o r such

diffusers.

8.2.3

Design procedure

By v i r t u e of t h e number of important v a r i a b l e s involved, d i f f u s e r

design has t o b e a n iterative procedure evaluating a set of a l t e r n a t i v e s
( a l s o d i f f e r e n t sites).

Whenever t h e discharge geometry can b e

schematized a s t o resemble t h e geometry considered i n t h i s b a s i c study,

a d i f f u s e r design or preliminary d e s i g n estirnate (e.g. f o r f u r t h e r

testing i n a h y d r a u l i c scale model) can b e developed.

The l o g i c a l

s t e p s and d e c i s i o n s which have t o b e made i n t h e design procedure are

i l l u s t r a t e d i n two s p e c i f i c examples: a ) Design of a d i f f u s e r i n a
reversing t i d a l c u r r e n t system ( t h i s i n c l u d e s t h e l i m i t i n g caseof zero

26 7

c r o s s f l o w ) , and b ) D e s i g n of a d i f f u s e r i n a uniform (approximately)

steady crossflow (such as a lake o r ocean longshore c u r r e n t ) .
The f o l l o w i n g i s given i n t h e design problem:

1) S i t e characteristics (depth, geometry, c u r r e n t s ) .

2) Environmental and engineering requirements (allowable

maximum temperature rise, area of "mixing zone").

3) P l a n t characteristics, namely:
QO

To

t o t a l condenser water f l o w rate

temperature of condenser water.

For

s i m p l i c i t y , t h e ambient w a t e r temperature,
Ta,

To

ATo

is assumed homogeneous, so t h a t

- Ta

discharge temperature rise.

The effect of a s t r a t i f i e d receiving water i s

evaluated as the last design s t e p .
Example: Diffuser i n a reversing t i d a l current s y s t e m

8.2.3.1

Figure 8-1 shows the hypothetical s i t u a t i o n w i t h a sloping

f t :I---

-30 f t

-40

-20 f t

reversing
tidal
currents

Y ' +

* 0.5

-10 f t

70F

//
ATo = 20F

Fig. 8-1:

D i f f u s e r Design i n T i d a l Current System

268

fps

Scale

ft

offshore topography and t i d a l c u r r e n t s running p a r a l l e l t o t h e shore-

line.

The ambient temperature is

c f s with a temperature rise

The bottom c o e f f i c i e n t , f o

T = 70F, t h e p l a n t flow is 1,000

a

ATo = 20F ( t h e corresponding

, in

Apo/pa = 0.03).

t h e o f f s h o r e area is estimated as

(average value f o r sandy bottom).

= 2OF, thus g i v i n g a minimum near-field d i l u t i o n requirement

sS

= AT /AT
= 10
0
max

min

0.015

The governing temperature standard is

AT

maX

"

The following design s t e p s are considered:

A) Choice of Arrangement and D i r e c t i o n of Discharge
(Alternating vs. Unidirectional Nozzles):
A d i f f u s e r arrangement perpendicular t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g

t i d a l c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n is chosen, s i n c e t h i s r e s u l t s as a general r u l e
i n higher d i l u t i o n s as compared t o t h e corresponding p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r
( t h i s is t r u e f o r both a l t e r n a t i n g nozzles, see Fig. 7-5b, and for unid i r e c t i o n a l nozzles, see Fig. 7 - l l a ) .

(Note:

A p o s s i b l e exception t o

t h i s rule may be a p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r l o c a t e d on a shallow s h e l f discharging u n i d i r e c t i o n a l l y i n t o an offshore deep w a t e r region with strong

advective c u r r e n t s , preventing r e c i r c u l a t i o n ) .

A d i f f u s e r discharge with a l t e r n a t i n g nozzles ( g o = 9 0 ' ) i s chosen.

A d i f f u s e r with u n i d i r e c t i o n a l nozzles would perform w e l l only during

one h a l f of t h e t i d a l c y c l e (when the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n is t h e same as

the nozzle d i r e c t i o n ) .

During t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e t i d a l cycle when t h e

nozzles point a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t , s t a g n a t i o n e f f e c t s occur, r e s u l t i n g

i n unsteady temperature increase and s t r o n g l y reduced performance (as
an example for t h i s phenomenon, see Harleman e t a l . (1971).

269

B)

Control through Horizon a 1 Nozzl

O ri e n

a l t e r n a t i n g d i f f u s e r s (no n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum) c o n t r o l through

h o r i z o n t a l nozzle o r i e n t a t i o n according t o t h e "LOG" d i s t r i b u t i o n
(Eq. (4-36),

see a l s o Fig. 6-2) should always be used.

t i o n i n s u r e s a s t r a t i f i e d flow f i e l d i n the f a r - f i e l d

This d i s t r i b u (outside the

unstable n e a r - f i e l d zone) which is d e s i r a b l e from t h e standpoint of

preventing r e c i r c u l a t i o n with unsteady temperature rises.

If the

LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n i s not used (e.g. NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n ) , c u r r e n t s w i l l

sweep along t h e d i f f u s e r a x i s r e s u l t i n g i n repeated re-entrainment and
strongly reduced performance (see Fig. 4-5 and F i g , 6-3a as compared t o

Fig. 6-4a).
Application of t h e three-dimensional LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n , which
produces a predominantly two-dimensional flow f i e l d i n the d i f f u s e r
c e n t e r p o s i t i o n , allows usage of t h e near-field d i l u t i o n graphs f o r
design (e.g. Figs. 3-23, 3-24 or 6-6).
C)

I n i t i a l Design:

The o f f s h o r e topography is sloping.

design can be made using a n average depth.

An i n i t i a l

(The design i s r e f i n e d

subsequently).

Assume t h e d i f f u s e r is centered around t h e 30 f t depth

contour, hence

Have

= 30 f t i s taken as t h e design depth.

The ambient currents are unsteady and r e v e r s i n g .

The i n i t i a l

design is made f o r t h e worst c o n d i t i o n , namely s l a c k t i d e (zero current).

The performance under c u r r e n t conditions i s improved (Chapter 7) and
can be estimated later.
In o r d e r t o use a d i l u t i o n graph f o r a l t e r n a t i n g discharge i t i s
necessary t o o b t a i n a value f o r t h e f a r - f i e l d parameter,
where

LD is t h e half-length of t h e d i f f u s e r .
270

($

= f o $/Have

I f i t is assumed t h a t

2LD z 2000 f t

the t o t a l d i f f u s e r l e n g t h is

t o b e a d j u s t e d i f t h e computed
from t h e o r i g i n a l assumption).
(if

2LD

, CP

= 0.5

( t h i s w i l l have

is more than 10 t o 20% d i f f e r e n t

Thus graph, Fig. 6-6, is a p p l i c a b l e

is d i f f e r e n t from t h e values p l o t t e d i n t h i s study, graphs

can be constructed following t h e procedure of Paragraph 3.6.2.3).

Figure 6-6 shows t h a t t h e d i l u t i o n requirement (Ss = 10) can be
m e t f o r d i f f e r e n t combinations of Fs

and

H/B

and t h a t the d i l u t i o n

requirement can be m e t with e i t h e r a s t a b l e or u n s t a b l e near-field

In terms of three-dimensional d i f f u s e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the

regime.

parameters

Qo
Only

Uo

Fs

APo/Pa
and

, H/B

and
(2%)

can be expressed as (Qo = Uo B (2%))

Have

(assumed l o c a t i o n ) are f i x e d a t t h i s point.

can be varied.

I n s e l e c t i n g a n i n i t i a l combination of

Fs

, H/B

on t h e graph,

i t is d e s i r a b l e t o b e as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e s t a b l e near-field

region because d i f f u s e r s with a s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d are less prone t o t h e

onset of undesirable h o r i z o n t a l c i r c u l a t i o n s .
c o n t r o l through h o r i z o n t a l nozzle o r i e n t a t i o n . )

(They do not r e q u i r e
An i n i t i a l combination

is taken a t t h e c r i t e r i o n l i n e between t h e s t a b l e and unstable nearf i e l d (i.e.,

Fs = 32, H/B = 200).

271

With t h e s e values t h e two unknowns

i n Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) are evaluated

H
2LD

312 Qo
(8-3)

1'2

Fs(-g)
'a

as

-B

uO

2LD = 1,700 f t

and

H3/2

Uo = 3.7 f p s

(8-4)

A t t h i s p o i n t economic considerations of i n t e r n a l d i f f u s e r hydraulics

enter the analysis.

Low j e t discharge v e l o c i t i e s r e q u i r e a l a r g e

diameter d i f f u s e r pipe i n o r d e r t o have uniformity of discharge along

the diffuser.

This r e s u l t s i n excessively high c o s t s and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

of sedimentation i n t h e pipe.

I n p r a c t i c a l problems, j e t e x i t v e l o c i t i e s

vary between 10 t o 15 f p s , with t h e upper l i m i t given by considerations

of pump s i z e and pumping c o s t s .

as seen from Eq. ( 8 - 2 ) .

Increasing

Uo

also i n c r e a s e s H/B

Thus i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e j e t e x i t

v e l o c i t y i t is necessary t o move t o t h e r i g h t along t h e

i n Fig. 6-6 ( i . e . move f u r t h e r i n t o t h e unstable r e g i o n ) .

Ss = 10

line

It should be

noted t h a t t y p i c a l thermal d i f f u s e r designs a r e a l m o s t always located i n

t h e u n s t a b l e parameter range, purely f o r economic reasons (keeping
s h o r t , and

Uo

2LD

reasonably h i g h ) .

I n moving upward along t h e l i n e

Ss = 10, t h e r e q u i r e d d i f f u s e r

l e n g t h , 2LD = 1,700 f t does n o t change.

This i s a consequence of the

s l o p e of t h e l i n e s and can a l s o b e i n f e r r e d from Eq. (3-222) o r

Eq. (7-21, which s t a t e t h a t t h e n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n

272

Ss

is dependent

only on t h e d i f f u s e r load

Thus,

FT

2LD = 1,700 f t , i s t h e r e q u i r e d d i f f u s e r l e n g t h , r e g a r d l e s s of

which combination of

Fs

, H/B

is chosen.

The choice i s dependent on

t h e design j e t v e l o c i t y and on t h e o b j e c t i v e t o be c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o
t h e stable range.

(These two requirements are i n o p p o s i t i o n ) .

Uo = 10 f p s is chosen, then from Eq. (8-2)

Fs = 150.

The value of

If

H/B = 51.0 and from Fig. 6-6

is c a l c u l a t e d a g a i n , (D = 0.43,

fo

which is c l o s e enough t o t h e i n i t i a l assumption ( 0 . 5 ) , so t h a t no

iteration is necessary.
I f t h e d i l u t i o n requirement w e r e higher,

> 10, only two

measures could be taken: i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i f f u s e r l e n g t h , 2LD

t h e d i f f u s e r f u r t h e r o f f s h o r e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e depth, H

D)
Have

Design Refinement:

moving

The i n i t i a l design with a n average depth,

= 30 f t , yielded a l e n g t h

p e r u n i t length is

, or

2LD = 1700 f t ; t h e average discharge

qo = 0.59 c f s / f t .

Referring t o Fig. 8-1 t h e d i f f u s e r

is centered around t h e 30 f t depth contour and roughly extends between

t h e 20 f t and 40 f t contours.
u n i t length, q

Obviously, t h e d i f f u s e r discharge p e r

,should be v a r i e d with t h e o b j e c t i v e of achieving a

uniform temperature f i e l d along t h e d i f f u s e r .

t h e requirement of c o n s t a n t

By v i r t u e of Eq. (7-2)

Ss i n case of v a r i a b l e depth is tantamount

t o t h e requirement of a c o n s t a n t d i f f u s e r load, FT

273

I f H i s a v a r i a b l e , then q

s h o u l d change as

Thus, i n t h e example, t h e d i s c h a r g e a t t h e o f f s h o r e end ( t w i c e as

deep) s h o u l d b e i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 2 3 / 2

2.8 compared t o t h e

d i s c h a r g e a t t h e near-shore end.
E)

Details of M u l t i p o r t D i f f u s e r

It remains t o choose t h e secondary v a r i a b l e s of t h e - m u l t i p o r t

d i f f u s e r R , D and kl0 ( v e r t i c a l a n g l e ) .

The n o z z l e s p a c i n g , R , should

b e chosen s o t h a t t h e r e i s good l o c a l u n i f o r m i t y of t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e
along t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e .

Based on j e t s p r e a d i n g l a w s , complete j e t

i n t e r f e r e n c e b e f o r e s u r f a c e impingement r e q u i r e s R/H <, 0.5.

This

might b e somewhat r e s t r i c t i v e as a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e
l a t e r a l l y even a f t e r impingement.

Based on e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a t i o n s

R 5 H i s recommended i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t i s o l a t e d "hot s p o t s " and j e t

" b o i l areas".

The n o z z l e d i a m e t e r D , i s t h e n D =

IT

, where

B = Qo/(Uo2LD>.

The v e r t i c a l a n g l e of t h e j e t s s h o u l d b e l a r g e enough t o p r e v e n t
bottom attachement and r e s u l t a n t bottom s c o u r .

20

Aminimum a n g l e of

i s suggested f o r b o t h a l t e r n a t i n g and u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e s .

For t h e same reasons t h e h e i g h t , h s , of t h e n o z z l e s above bottom

should b e h

>, 3 D .

For t h e c o n t r o l (B(y) g i v e n by t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n )

t h e maximum v e r t i c a l n o z z l e a n g l e 0

274

< 79O, Equation ( 4 - 4 4 ) .

No

v e r t i c a l d i s c h a r g e should b e used f o r u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s .
F)

E f f e c t of Cross C u r r e n t s

The i n i t i a l d e s i g n w a s c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e s l a c k ( w o r s t ) c o n d i t i o n .
For p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i f f u s e r s w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g n o z z l e s t h e e f f e c t of c r o s s
flow i s always b e n e f i c i a l on d i l u t i o n performance.
c u r r e n t varies between u

Assuming t h e t i d a l

= k 0.5 f p s , t h e performance a t non-slack

c o n d i t i o n s may b e checked by u s i n g a c r o s s f l o w graph, F i g u r e 7-5

(@= 0.5).

(y

90

The e f f e c t of c r o s s f l o w i s i n t r o d u c e d by V* = Vsiny

, perpendicular

/qo).
d i f f u s e r and V = u H
o ave

The d i f f u s e r

l o a d , FT, i s from Equation (8-5) w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s , FT = 0.012.

= 0.5
The v a l u e of V i s changing w i t h t h e c u r r e n t magnitude, f o r ua
maX
= 25.4 and t h e corresponding d i l u t i o n is
f p s , V = (0.5)(30)/(0.50)

sS

= 25.4.

Under t h i s c o n d i t i o n the d i f f u s e r i s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e

f u l l y mixed regime.

For an a v e r a g e c u r r e n t ua = 0.25 f p s , and V =

12.7, t h e d i l u t i o n Ss = 12.0 and t h e d i f f u s e r i s o p e r a t i n g a t t h e

edge of t h e s t a g n a n t wedge regime.

For ua < 0.25 f p s t h e r e is a

s t r a t i f i e d counterflow upstream of the d i s c h a r g e and t h e d i l u t i o n s

approach t h o s e f o r :he

slack t i d e condition.

Graphs of n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n s ( n o t accounting f o r any p o s s i b l e

h e a t r e t u r n due t o t i d a l motion) as a f u n c t i o n of t i d a l t i m e can b e
constructed.
G)

E f f e c t of Ambient S t r a t i f i c a t i o n

I n t h i s example t h e ambient water h a s been assumed t o b e

unstratified.

as f o l l o w s :

The e f f e c t of ambient s t r a t i f i c a t i o n may b e e v a l u a t e d

I f a s t e p change i n ambient d e n s i t y ( t e m p e r a t u r e ) o c c u r s

275

a t h a l f d e p t h and p r o v i d e s an e f f e c t i v e " c e i l i n g " t o t h e f l o w f i e l d ,

then t h e d e s i g n d e p t h would b e reduced t o H / 2 .

A s a conseq-uence,

t h e d i l u t i o n would d e c r e a s e by a f a c t o r o r 2 (Equation ( 8 - 3 ) )
t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e of t h e mixed w a t e r would b e doubled.

and t h e

Unless t h e

ambient s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s v e r y pronounced (of t h e o r d e r of a b o u t h a l f

t h e d i s c h a r g e t e m p e r a t u r e rise)

, the

d i f f u s e r discharge w i l l break

up t h e n a t u r a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and " s u b s t i t u t e 1 ' an a r t i f i c i a l

The ambient t e m p e r a t u r e can t h e n be d e f i n e d as t h e

stratification.

average v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e , T a
AT

To

and

ave

ave

i s t a k e n as t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e and a l l induced temperature rises are

similarly referred t o T

8.2.3.2

EXamDle:

a
ave

D i f f u s e r i n Steady Uniform Crossflow

The s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are shown i n F i g u r e 8-2

H = 20 f t (uniform)

0.5 fps.

Scale
I

F i g . 8-2:

70F

D i f f u s e r Design i n Steady Uniform Crossflow

276

10od f t

The o f f s h o r e topography i s u n i f o r m l y s h a l l o w , H = 20 f t , t h e
c u r r e n t magnitude i s 0.5 f p s and does n o t have s t r o n g u n s t e a d y
p l a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e same d i l u t i o n

The same

fluctuations.

requirement (10) as i n t h e p r e v i o u s example are assumed.

Choice of Arrangement and D i r e c t i o n of Nozzle Discharge

A)

A n arrangement y

= 60

and a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e i s chosen.

The o b j e c t i v e i s t o i n t e r c e p t s u b s t a n t i a l amount of c r o s s f l o w (hence

avoiding y

0')

w h i l e a l s o p r o v i d i n g some momentum i n t o t h e o f f s h o r e

d i r e c t i o n t o "push" t h e temperature f i e l d i n t o deeper o f f s h o r e areas.

The v e r t i c a l n o z z l e a n g l e i s chosen as Bo = 20, t o p r o v i d e m a x i m u m
h o r i z o n t a l momentum w h i l e p r e v e n t i n g bottom s c o u r .

B)

H o r i z o n t a l Nozzle O r i e n t a t i o n , B(y)

A l l u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d i f f u s e r s which p r o v i d e enough h o r i z o n t a l

momentum t o r e s u l t i n f u l l mixing ( c r i t e r i a l i n e s i n F i g u r e s 3-28

t o 3-31 and 6-10 t o 6-13) are s u b j e c t t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n .

The d e g r e e

of r e c i r c u l a t i o n depends p r i m a r i l y on a n ambient a d v e c t i v e mechanism

(such as t h e p r e s e n t c u r r e n t svstem),which carries t h e t e m p e r a t u r e

f i e l d away from t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e , a n d on t h e n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n ,
f3(y).

I n g e n e r a l , t h e LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n w h i l e p r o v i d i n g somewhat

h i g h e r n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n s i s somewhat more l i a b l e t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n .
The NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n (B(y) = 9
0
'
)

r e s u l t s i n a contracted flow f i e l d

and i s less l i a b l e t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n .

C)

A NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n i s chosen.

I n i t i a l Design

F o r a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d i f f u s e r w i t h NOR d i s t r i b u t i o n , f u l l
v e r t i c a l mixing and under t h e i n f l u e n c e of a c r o s s f l o w , F i g u r e 7-10

277

( A d a s ' model) i s a p p l i c a b l e .

F i g u r e 7-10 a l s o i n c l u d e s c r i t e r i a

of a p p l i c a b i l i t y f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n .
regime the d i l u t i o n , S

1
V* = - Vsiny
2

S'

1
+2

In t h e f u l l y mixed

i s e q u a l t o V*

2
2
(V s i n y

+2

cos 8 )

1/2

(7-6)

t h a t i s , the combined e f f e c t of c r o s s f l o w and d i f f u s e r momentum, and

t h e d i l u t i o n i s independent of t h e d i f f u s e r l o a d , FT.

This would

i n d i c a t e the d e s i r a b i l i t y of making FT as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e

By doing s o , however,

t h e d i f f u s e r l e n g t h , 2% ( s e e Equation (8-5)).

t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e momentum-induced c u r r e n t w i l l i n c r e a s e and t h e
potential f o r recirculation at the d i f f u s e r w i l l a l s o increase.
Usually, the c o n s t r a i n t on d i f f u s e r l e n g t h i s g i v e n by t h e r a n g e of
p o s s i b l e j e t e x i t v e l o c i t i e s ( s e e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t example).

A jet exit velocity

(7-6)

Uo = 10 f p s i s chosen.

With V* = Ss,

Equation

can be modified t o g i v e t h e r e q u i r e d d i f f u s e r l e n g t h
2

2% =

ss H [ S u s i n y
s a

1
1

1
Uocos 8

Using t h e above v a l u e s , Equation(8-8) g i v e s

t o check

(8-8)

2 5 = 550 f t .

It remains

a) whether t h i s d e s i g n i s i n t h e f u l l y mixed range and b )

whether i t i s l i a b l e t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n e f f e c t s .
a)

The d i f f u s e r l o a d , FT, Equation (8-5) i s c a l c u l a t e d as F

= 0.06,

which from F i g u r e 7-10 i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s w e l l

i n s i d e t h e f u l l y mixed range.
b)

N o upstream wedge w i l l o c c u r .

The c r o s s f l o w mixing r a t i o i s Vsiny = u Hsiny /q

= 4.9.

The remaining c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e t o t a l d i l u t i o n ( S

i s 5 . 1 from momentum-induced c u r r e n t s .

278

= 10)

A s a r u l e of thumb

i t i s hypothesized t h a t t h e d e g r e e of r e c i r c u l a t i o n i s

n e g l i g i b l e only i f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e c r o s s f l o w
mixing i s a t l e a s t

50% of t h e t o t a l d i l u t i o n .

In other

c a s e s , t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e ambient a d v e c t i v e mechanism w i l l
not be s u f f i c i e n t t o prevent c i r c u l a t i o n
Thus i n case of unsteady c u r r e n t s ( l o w e r v e l o c i t i e s ) t h e d i f f u s e r
performance may b e d r a s t i c a l l y d e c r e a s e d .

The o v e r a l l performance

depends on the d u r a t i o n of t h e low c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s :

Such e f f e c t s

have t o b e determined from a h y d r a u l i c scale model.

E) Details of M u l t i p o r t D i f f u s e r
D i f f u s e r d e t a i l s are determined as i n t h e p r e v i o u s example.

8.3

The Use of Hydraulic Scale Models

C e r t a i n s i t e s having complex t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s and non-

uniform o r u n s t e a d y ambient c u r r e n t s may p r e s e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n

s c h e m a t i z a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n of the t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s developed
i n t h i s study.

Nevertheless, i t w i l l usually be possible t o use t h e

d e s i g n c h a r t s t o arrive a t an i n i t i a l d e s i g n which can b e t e s t e d . and

m o d i f i e d by means of a h y d r a u l i c scale model.

Additional features

t h a t c a n b e i n c l u d e d i n a model s t u d y are t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of rec i r c u l a t i o n a t t h e condenser water i n l e t and the unsteady build-up

of h e a t due t o r e c i r c u l a t i o n a t t h e d i f f u s e r .

The l a t t e r i s p a r -

t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e case of d i f f u s e r s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t
h o r i z o n t a l momentum i n p u t .
T y p i c a l problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n of d i f f u s e r scale
models are t h o s e which were d i s c u s s e d f o r t h e p r e s e n t b a s i c e x p e r i m e n t a l

279

s t u d i e s ( S e c t i o n 6.1.21, namely, boundary e f f e c t s and t u r b u l e n c e

Both problems r e l a t e t o t h e l i m i t e d s i z e of a v a i l a b l e

requirements.

testing f a c i l i t i e s .
I n t h i s s e c t i o n modeling requirements f o r d i f f u s e r scale models

are d i s c u s s e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e u s e of d i s t o r t e d scale models i s

i n v e s t i g a t e d , and methods of model boundary c o n t r o l , t o minimize
boundary e f f e c t s , are e x p l o r e d .

8.3.1

Modeling Req,uirements

The d i f f u s e r flow f i e l d i n v o l v e s several d i f f e r e n t regions.

Modeling l a w s r e q u i r e t h e e q u a l i t y of g e o m e t r i c and dynamic

non-

dimensional p a r a m e t e r s f o r model ( s u b s c r i p t m) and p r o t o t y p e ( s u b s c r i p t

p).

I n g e n e r a l , i n any modeling problem, a l l p a r a m e t e r s cannot b e

k e p t e q u a l , and a c h o i c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e r e l a t i v e importance of c e r t a i n
p a r a m e t e r s h a s t o be made.
The o b j e c t i v e of scale models i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e

three-dimensional t e m p e r a t u r e ( d i l u t i o n s ) and v e l o c i t y f i e l d .

a)

The

near-field

surface dilution,

sS

(outside the local

mixing zone i n c a s e of an u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d )
c r o s s f l o w s i t u a t i o n (Chapter

i n a general

7 ) i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e

dimensionless v a r i a b l e s .

(8-9)
b)

I n a d d i t i o n , d i l u t i o n s w i t h i n t h e buoyant j e t r e g i o n are

dependent on t h e d i s t a n c e

s/B

(3-81)

and t h e j e t Reynolds number

280

I-R
j

u04Rh

=-

2 3,000

(5-3)

t o i n s u r e f u l l y turbulent j e t behaviour.
c)

The three-dimensional t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d o u t s i d e of t h e

immediate n e a r - f i e l d

zone i s dependent on the r a t i o of t h e

d i f f u s e r h a l f l e n g t h t o depth

LD

(8-10)

H
d)

A t l a r g e r d i s t a n c e s away from the n e a r - f i e l d ,

d i s t r i b u t i o n is a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c e heat l o s s .

t h e temperature

The governing

parameter f o r t h i s r e g i o n i s (from E q u a t i o n 3-168)

taking

LD

as t h e characteristic h o r i z o n t a l l e n g t h and U

as t h e

v e l o c i t y scale.
It i s p o i n t e d o u t a g a i n t h a t l o c a l d i f f u s e r d e t a i l s , R / H , hs/H,

do n o t i n f l u e n c e t h e d i f f u s e r performance as l o n g as r e a s o n a b l e j e t
i n t e r f e r e n c e i s o b t a i n e d (R/H < 1). The n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n , p ( y ) ,
however, i s i m p o r t a n t .
The r a t i o of t h e governing parameters f o r model and p r o t o t y p e

is i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r b o t h u n d i s t o r t e d and d i s t o r t e d models.
p u r p o s e t h e f o l l o w i n g r a t i o s are d e f i n e d :
L
z

r
r
r

= horizontal length r a t i o

= vertical length r a t i o
= velocity r a t i o

281

For t h i s

*PO

(-

g),

reduced g r a v i t y r a t i o

Pa
z

The d i s t o r t i o n i s g i v e n bv

-.r

For an u n d i s t o r t e d model z r = Lr
Lr
A l l models have t o b e d e n s i m e t r i c Froude models as a minimum r e q u i r e ment.

Thus
(8-12)

Fsr = 1
APO

g I r :1, i . e . ,
Heated d i s c h a r g e models are u s u a l l y o p e r a t e d w i t h (Pa
same temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l s as i n t h e p r o t o t y p e , due t o measurement

and c o n t r o l problems, s o t h a t u

I n

:zr 'IL

t y p i c a l l y as i n a f r e e

s u r f a c e Froude model.
The bottom f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s , f o , i n t h e f a r - f i e l d parameter,
@ = f o L,,/H

The p a r a m e t e r f

ks/\.

i s d i f f e r e n t f o r model and p r o t o t y p e .

i n E q u a t i o n (8-9),
0

depends on the r e l a t i v e roughness of t h e bottom

P r o t o t y p e v a l u e s are f

'L

0.01 t o 0.02

independent of t h e

Reynolds number, w h i l e model v a l u e s are s t r o n g l y scale (Reynolds

number) dependent and may v a r y between f
more, Equation (8-9)
Paragraph 3.6.2.2)

0.03 t o 0.08.

'L

m
assumes f i = Afo where A

Further-

0.4 t o 0.5 ( s e e

o v e r a wide range of Reynolds numbers.

T y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r t h e s u r f a c e h e a t exchange c o e f f i c i e n t ,

are f o r t h e p r o t o t y p e
model

K~ =

= 150 t o 200 B T U / f t

100 t o 150 B T U / f t

, day,

f l u x phenomena i n v o l v e d .

282

, day,

K,

F and f o r t h e

F reflecting the different heat

8.3.2

U n d i s t o r t e d Models (zr = Lr)

F o r u n d i s t o r t e d d i f f u s e r models, t h e r a t i o of a l l governing
p a r a m e t e r s ( a ) t o d) above) is u n i t y except f o r

f
(8-13)

and

The e f f e c t of Equations (8-13)and

(8-P4)is s t r o n g l y scale dependent.

as

For d i f f u s e r models i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o r e p r o d u c e as l a r g e an area

p o s s i b l e ( t o minimize boundary e f f e c t s ) .

The minimum s c a l e r a t i o , Lr,

however, i s g i v e n by t h e d i s c h a r g e t u r b u l e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t , Equation
f o r u s u a l c o n d i t i o n s Lr e q u a l s 1/100 t o 1/120. The s m a l l

(5-3),

scale r a t i o h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s on t h e v a l u e s of f o (and hence @ ) and

r
m
Kr/Lr12.
T y p i c a l v a l u e s are
L

Kr1,2

(8-15)

2 to 5

(8-16)

4 t o 15

Lr
with

between 0.5 and 0.75.

The e f f e c t of the exaggerated f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s , Equation (8-101,

on n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n ,
from Equation (7-2):

ss

can b e e s t i m a t e d f o r an a l t e r n a t i n g d i f f u s e r

Assume @

the dilution ratio S

=: 0.83

= 0.5 and

am =

2.0 ( i . e . , Qr = 4 )

(using F i g u r e 3-23).

e r r o r i n p r e d i c t i o n is decreased.

For l a r g e r @

the

I n g e n e r a l , an u n d i s t o r t e d model

g i v e s a somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e p r e d i c t i o n of t h e n e a r f i e l d d i l u t i o n

283

( i n t h e extreme about 20% l o w e r ) .

The e f f e c t of t h e i n c r e a s e d h e a t l o s s t o t h e atmosphere,
Equation (8-16), becomes i m p o r t a n t only a t d i s t a n c e s from t h e d i f f u s e r ;
i t h a s a n e g l i g i b l e i n f l u e n c e on n e a r - f i e l d

3.4.4.2).

d i l u t i o n s ( s e e paragraph

A s u n d i s t o r t e d d i f f u s e r models r e p l i c a t e a l i m i t e d f a r - f i e l d

range, t h i s e f f e c t i s not important.

U n d i s t o r t e d d i f f u s e r models reproduce c o r r e c t l y t h e geometric
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e d i f f u s e r flow f i e l d , s u c h as e x t e n t of t h e temperat u r e f i e l d , l o c a l mixing zone, i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h an ambient c u r r e n t ,
b u t a r e somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e i n d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n .
n e s s can b e e s t i m a t e d i n any case.

The conservative-

T h e i r major d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h e

l i m i t e d f a r - f i e l d range which can b e s i m u l a t e d .

8.3.3

D i s t o r t e d Models ( z

r > Lr)

It i s r e q u i r e d t o r e p r o d u c e t h e same n e a r - f i e l d

characteristics

r e l a t i n g t o t h e s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n a n d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l momentum i n p u t ,
s o t h a t i n Equation (8-9)

(8-17)
T h i s i s tantamount t o s a y i n g t h a t t h e d e t a i l e d d i f f u s e r geometry
should b e l o c a l l y u n d i s t o r t e d (not

e0

= zr/Lr!),

r
s h o u l d b e modelled w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l scale
r
-

t h a t is, the diffuser

ratio, z

Br.

Then

(8-18 )

and i n p a r t i c u l a r i f t h e d i s t o r t i o n r a t i o i s chosen such t h a t z /L

, Qr =

1, t h e same f a r - f i e l d effects.

r
284

However, t h e relative d i f f u s e r h a l f l e n g t h , (8-lo), -is a f f e c t e d

by d i s t o r t i o n
(8-19)
i n s t e a d of 1, and t h e e x t e n t of t h e n e a r - f i e l d
S
(3,
= I.,

dynamics, (3-81), i s e x a g g e r a t e d s i n c e

zone, governed by j e t
The

i n s t e a d of Lr/zr.

heat loss r a t i o is

(8- 20)

which can be e q u a l t o u n i t y o n l y i f z 3/2 /Lr = 1.

As i n t h e u n d i s t o r t e d model, t h e vertical s c a l e r a t i o z r h a s a
m i n i m u m of 1/100 t o 1/120 f o r j e t t u r b u l e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
The d i s t o r t i o n f a c t o r may b e chosen p r i m a r i l y i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of Equation (8-13),

t h u s z,/Lr

= fo

T h i s w i l l a l s o i n s u r e a more

r e a l i s t i c f a r - f i e l d h e a t l o s s , Equation ( 8 - 2 0 , which may b e important

i n d i s t o r t e d models r e p l i c a t i n g l a r g e r areas.
However, t h e g e o m e t r i c e f f e c t s , Equations (8-19)
b e c r i t i c a l i n c e r t a i n cases:

and

($1;

= 1, may

D i s t o r t e d models do n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e

c o r r e c t three-dimensional t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d induced by a d i f f u s e r .
The e x t e n t of t h e n e a r - f i e l d

zone i s exaggerated by z /Lr,

as shown

above, which can have r e p e r c u s s i o n s when d e s i g n i n g f o r a "mixing

zone" d e f i n e d i n l e g a l s t a n d a r d s .
11

In addition, t h e relative

shortening'' of t h e d i f f u s e r h a l f l e n g t h , b / H , h a s two e f f e c t s :

(i) Whenever c u r r e n t s are sweeping along t h e d i f f u s e r axis ( p a r a l l e l

d i f f u s e r , o r d i f f u s e r w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g n o z z l e s and no c o n t r o l ) t h e

285

d e g r e e of r e p e a t e d e n t r a i n m e n t i s s t r o n g l y dependent on L /H.

(ii)

For u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e w i t h a v e r t i c a l l y f u l l y mixed

flow-away,

l a t e r a l d e n s i t y c u r r e n t s a c t a t t h e end of t h e flow away

zone ( l a t e r a l wedge i n t r u s i o n ) .

T h i s e f f e c t i s e x a g g e r a t e d due t o

t h e r e l a t i v e s h o r t e n i n g of t h e d i f f u s e r and r e s u l t s i n e a s i e r
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and less tendency t o r e c i r c u l a t e .

I n these cases

p r e d i c t i o n s from d i s t o r t e d models are non-conservative.

To c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t h e s e e f f e c t s , a d i s t o r t i o n r a t i o z /L less
r r
may b e chosen: The n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n p r e d i c t i o n , S s , i s
r
t h e n somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e , y e t t h e f a r - f i e l d e f f e c t s are modeled i n
than f

a more r e l i a b l e manner.
It i s concluded, t h a t d i s t o r t e d models w h i l e b e i n g less con-

servative i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n of t h e n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n , do n o t
r e p r e s e n t t h e t r u e three-dimensional flow f i e l d :

The e x t e n t of t h e

mixing zone i s exaggerated (sonetimes g r o s s l y c o n s e r v a t i v e ) and f o r

certain d i f f u s e r schemes, t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h c u r r e n t s i s d e c r e a s e d

(non-conservative).

Y e t i n a variety of s i t u a t i o n s , s u c h as a n a l t e r -

n a t i n g , p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i f f u s e r , a d i s t o r t i o n can always b e used and

may even b e d e s i r a b l e ( a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e e x a g g e r a t i o n of a l o c a l
mixing zone).

The major advantage of d i s t o r t e d models i s t h e l a r g e

h o r i z o n t a l area which can b e reproduced.

The choice of n o z z l e d e t a i l s ,

R, hs, i s unimportant i n t h e

h y d r a u l i c scale model, and need n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e p r o t o t y p e v a l u e s ,

p r o v i d e d , however, t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t s l o t concept i s m a i n t a i n e d
and t h a t R/H 5 1 , p r e v e n t i n g non-uniformity of t e m p e r a t u r e s i n t h e
near-field.
286

8.3.4

Boundary Control

The o b j e c t i v e of boundary c o n t r o l methods i s the minimization

of model boundary e f f e c t s .

These boundary e f f e c t s are p a r t i c u l a r l y

d i f f i c u l t i n studying d i f f u s e r induced c i r c u l a t i o n s .

It i s e s s e n t i a l l y

d e s i r e d t o s i m u l a t e a c o n d i t i o n as i f t h e boundary would n o t b e p r e s e n t ,
t h a t i s mixed o r ambient w a t e r i s withdrawn o r s u p p l i e d a t t h e
boundary without a c c e l e r a t i n g o r d e c e l e r a t i n g t h e c u r r e n t s .

However,

t h e s e c o n t r o l methods r e q u i r e t h e a p r i o r i knowledge of t h e c o r r e c t
w i t h d r a w a l and supply rate, and are t h u s r a t h e r s u b j e c t i v e .

An

i t e r a t i v e method observing t h e behaviour of t h e c u r r e n t system could

b e s u g g e s t e d , but i s a g a i n d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e .

I n g e n e r a l , emphasis

should be p u t on d i f f u s e r d e s i g n s which do n o t i n p u t c o n s i d e r a b l e
h o r i z o n t a l momentum and t h u s do n o t r e q u i r e e x t e n s i v e boundary c o n t r o l .

287

IX

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1

Background
A submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r i s an e f f e c t i v e d e v i c e f o r d i s -

p o s a l of w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g h e a t o r o t h e r d e g r a d a b l e wastes i n t o a
n a t u r a l body of w a t e r .

A h i g h d e g r e e of d i l u t i o n can b e o b t a i n e d

and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact of c o n c e n t r a t e d waste can b e c o n s t r a i n e d

t o a s m a l l area.
The submerged m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r i s e s s e n t i a l l y a p i p e l i n e l a i d

on t h e bottom of t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r .

The w a s t e w a t e r i s d i s c h a r g e d

i n t h e form of round t u r b u l e n t j e t s t h r o u g h p o r t s o r n o z z l e s which are

spaced a l o n g t h e p i p e l i n e .

The r e s u l t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n of concentra-

t i o n of t h e d i s c h a r g e d waste materials w i t h i n t h e r e c e i v i n g water depends on a v a r i e t y of p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s concerned w i t h t h e development of p r e d i c t i v e methods f o r buoyant d i s c h a r g e s from submerged m u l t i p o r t
diffusers.

The f o l l o w i n g p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n i s considered:

A multi-

p o r t d i f f u s e r w i t h g i v e n l e n g t h , n o z z l e s p a c i n g and v e r t i c a l a n g l e of
n o z z l e s i s l o c a t e d on t h e bottom of a l a r g e body of water of uniform
depth.

The ambient water i s u n s t r a t i f i e d and may b e s t a g n a n t o r have

a uniform c u r r e n t which runs a t a n a r b i t r a r y a n g l e t o t h e axis of

the diffuser.
The g e n e r a l c a s e of a d i f f u s e r i n a r b i t r a r y depth of w a t e r and
a r b i t r a r y buoyancy i s t r e a t e d .

However, emphasis i s p u t on t h e

d i f f u s e r i n s h a l l o w r e c e i v i n g water w i t h low buoyancy, t h e t y p e used

f o r d i s c h a r g e of condenser c o o l i n g water from thermal power p l a n t s .

288

The development of predictive methods is important in view of:

--

Economical design of the diffuser structure.

--

Design to meet specific water quality requirements.

--

Evaluation of the impact in regions away from the diffuser,

such as the possibility of recirculation into the cooling
water intake of thermal power plants.

-- Design
9.2

and operation of hydraulic scale models.

Previous Predictive Techniques

Previous predictive models for submerged diffuser discharge

have been developed for two limiting cases of diffuser discharge:

discharge in unconfined deep water in the form of rising buoyant jets
(jet models), and discharge into shallow water with extreme boundarv
interaction resulting in a uniformly mixed current.
These models are not applicable for submerged diffusers in water

of intermediate depth and no criteria of applicability have been

established.

9.3

summary
An analytical and experimental investigation of the diffuser

problem is conducted.

In the analysis the equivalent slot diffuser

concept was used throughout as the salient representation of a multiport diffuser with laterally interfering or merging jets.

9.3.1
a)

Diffusers without Ambient Crossflows

Two-Dimensional Channel Model

A multiport diffuser will produce a general three-dimensional

flow field.

Yet the predominantly two-dimensional flow which is

289

along the diffuser axis.

In particular, the nozzle orientation

(LOG distribution)
(4-36)

insures a stably stratified counterflow regime outside the unstable

near-field zone.
The maximum vertical angle 8 which can be utilized to control
0

the horizontal circulation is found to be

79'

(Equation ( 4 - 4 4 ) ) .

No

control is needed for diffusers with a stable near-field zone.

No three-dimensional flow model has been developed for the case

of diffuser discharge w i t h net horizontal momentum.

that L 5

It is hypothesized

also provides equivalency of far-field effects for this

case.
c)

Experiments

Experiments were performed in two set-ups, investigating both

a two-dimensional slot diffuser and a three-dimensional diffuser.
Diffuser induced temperature rises are measured and compared with
theoretical predictions.
9.3.2

Diffusers with Ambient Crossflows

The diffuser in a uniform ambient cross-current is investigated

experimentally. No complete theory describing the full range of the
governing parameters is developed. However, for the purpose of
qualitative discussions and quantitative data presentation, extreme
cases of diffuser behavior (regimes) can be-isolated and described
analytically.

The advantage is that the number of significant

294

p a r a m e t e r s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced i n t h e s e r e g i m e s .

To i s o l a t e the

regimes, t h e treatment i s r e s t r i c t e d t o d i f f u s e r s w i t h a n u n s t a b l e
n e a r - f i e l d zone.

D i f f u s e r s w i t h a s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d zone are i n

g e n e r a l l i t t l e a f f e c t e d by t h e c r o s s f l o w e x c e p t f o r t h e d e f l e c t i o n of
t h e buoyant j e t s .

The c r o s s f l o w w i l l merely t r a n s l a t e t h e s t a b l e sur-

f a c e l a y e r w i t h o u t c a u s i n g re-entrainment.
F o r d i f f u s e r s w i t h an u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d zone i n a crossflow
three regimes are i m p o r t a n t :

buoyancy induced c o u n t e r f l o w , momentum

induced c u r r e n t s , and c r o s s f l o w mixing.

Dilution graphs with criteria

d e l i n e a t i n g the f l o w regimes are p r e s e n t e d .

The d i f f u s e r performance

i s found t o b e dependent on t h e arrangement of t h e d i f f u s e r axis w i t h

r e s p e c t t o the c r o s s f l o w d i r e c t i o n .

A p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i f f u s e r gen-

e r a l l y y i e l d s b e t t e r performance t h a n a p a r a l l e l d i f f u s e r .

9.4

Conclusions
The agreement between t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s of n e a r - f i e l d

d i l u t i o n s and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s i s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r d i f f u s e r s
w i t h no h o r i z o n t a l momentum.

D i f f u s e r s w i t h h o r i z o n t a l momentum

e x h i b i t unsteady c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s which are s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by

t h e boundaries of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f a c i l i t i e s .

T h e agreement between

p r e d i c t e d and observed d i l u t i o n s i s f a i r .
The f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s are made:

1)

Any m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r can, f o r a n a l y t i c a l p u r p o s e s , b e

r e p r e s e n t e d by an e q u i v a l e n t s l o t d i f f u s e r .
d i f f u s e r s w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g nozzles.

This i n c l u d e s

Thus d e t a i l s of t h e

n e a r - f i e l d geometry, such as n o z z l e s p a c i n g s and h e i g h t

29 5

above t h e bottom, have o n l y a secondary i n f l u e n c e on t h e

d i f f u s e r behaviour.

The e q u i v a l e n t s l o t c o n c e p t i n t r o d u c e s

a convenient t o o l f o r comparing d i f f u s e r s t u d i e s and p r o t o -

type applications .

2)

The mechanics of m u l t i p o r t d i f f u s e r s are s u b s t a n t i a l l y

d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f u s e r s i n deep water w i t h h i g h buoyancy of
t h e d i s c h a r g e ( t y p i c a l sewage d i f f u s e r s ) and f o r d i f f u s e r s
i n shallow water w i t h low buoyancy ( t y p i c a l t h e r m a l d i f f u -

sers, Table 5 . 1 ) .

Sewage d i f f u s e r s e x h i b i t a s t a b l e near-

f i e l d which i s a) n o t
re-entrainment,
circulations.

p r o n e t o v e r t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t i e s and

and b ) n o t l i a b l e t o

generate horizontal

On t h e c o n t r a r y , t y p i c a l t h e r m a l d i f f u s e r s

have an u n s t a b l e n e a r - f i e l d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e r e - e n t r a i n ment and are i n t h e absence of c o n t r o l through n o z z l e

orientation l i a b l e t o generate horizontal circulations
leading t o unsteady temperature increases.

3)

A s u c c e s s f u l d i f f u s e r d e s i g n should m e e t t h e f o l l o w i n g
obj ect ives :
i)

The induced t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d should b e uniform a l o n g

t h e d i f f u s e r l i n e , t h u s i n case of v a r i a b l e d e p t h t h e d i s charge p e r u n i t d i f f u s e r l e n g t h should b e v a r i e d according

t o Equation (8- 7),

i . e . , providing a constant d i f f u s e r

l o a d , and t h e n o z z l e s p a c i n g should b e less t h a n t h e w a t e r

depth.

29 6

ii)

The d i f f u s e r s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e

prevailing cross-current

( i f p o s s i b l e ) and the d i f f u s e r i n -

duced flow f i e l d s h o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d through h o r i z o n t a l

n o z z l e o r i e n t a t i o n a l o n g the d i f f u s e r axis (LOG d i s t r i b u t i o n ) .
Both t h e s e f e a t u r e s p r e v e n t c u r r e n t s from sweeping a l o n g t h e
d i f f u s e r l i n e which r e s u l t i n r e p e a t e d r e - e n t r a i n m e n t and
t h u s i n decreased performance.
iii) For a d i f f u s e r t o perform i n a c o n s i s t e n t and satis-

f a c t o r y manner under a v a r i e t y of ambient c o n d i t i o n s ( e . g ,

r e v e r s i n g t i d a l c u r r e n t s ) i t is d e s i r a b l e t o a c h i e v e a s t r a t i f i e d flow i n t h e f a r - f i e l d ,

t h u s minimizing t h e d e g r e e of

recirculation i n t o the near-field.

D i f f u s e r s w i t h alter-

n a t i n g n o z z l e s a c h i e v e such a s t r a t i f i e d f l o w f i e l d .

4) With p r o p e r s c h e m a t i z a t i o n of t h e s i t e geometry t h e theor e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s of t h i s s t u d y can b e u s e d t o p r o v i d e

a d i f f u s e r d e s i g n o r p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n estimate f o r t h e
s c r e e n i n g of a l t e r n a t i v e d i s c h a r g e schemes a n d / o r f o r f u r t h e r
i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n a h y d r a u l i c scale model.
5)

U n d i s t o r t e d d i f f u s e r scale models b o r r e c t l y r e p r o d u c e t h e

areal

e x t e n t of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d and t h e c u r r e n t i n t e r -

a c t i o n , b u t are always somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e i n p r e d i c t i n g

near-field d i l u t i o n .
estimated.

The d e g r e e of c o n s e r v a t i v e n e s s can b e

D i s t o r t e d scale models, w i t h p r o p e r d i s t o r t i o n ,

g i v e a l e s s c o n s e r v a t i v e p r e d i c t i o n of n e a r - f i e l d d i l u t i o n
and can also s i m u l a t e t h e h e a t l o s s i n t h e f a r - f i e l d .

297

However, t h e e x t e n t of t h e n e a r - f i e l d zone ( i m p o r t a n t f o r
conforming t o l e g a l t e m p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d s ) i s e x a g g e r a t e d
and t h e d i s t o r t i o n of t h e r a t i o of d i f f u s e r l e n g t h t o w a t e r
d e p t h can have non-conservative e f f e c t s on t h e performance
prediction.

9.5

Recommendations f o r F u t u r e Research
The t h e o r e t i c a l approach s h o u l d b e adapted t o i n c l u d e t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n w i t h an ambient c r o s s f l o w .

stress on t h e f r e e

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e e f f e c t of wind

s u r f a c e could b e i n c o r p o r a t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d .
For d i f f u s e r s w i t h n e t h o r i z o n t a l momentum t h e need i s f o r
t h e development of a s i m p l e c i r c u l a t i o n model which p r o v i d e s a) t h e
l i n k a g e t o t h e two-dimensional c h a n n e l model and b ) i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e
d e g r e e of p o t e n t i a l c i r c u l a t i o n .

Also t h e behaviour of " s h o r t "

d i f f u s e r s ( o n l y a f e w m u l t i p l e s of t h e water depth l o n g ) which do

n o t have a c l e a r l y two-dimensional c e n t e r p o r t i o n s h o u l d b e i n v e s t i gated.
The t o t a l performance of a d i f f u s e r o u t f a l l i n t h e w a t e r environment i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between n e a r - f i e l d and f a r f i e l d effects.

To t h i s end t h e development of a h o r i z o n t a l l y two-

d i m e n s i o n a l , v e r t i c a l l y two-layered mathematical model, i n c o r p o r a t i u g

e f f e c t s of f a r - f i e l d b o u n d a r i e s , a d v e c t i o n , h e a t l o s s and t u r b u l e n c e ,
and c o u p l i n g t o t h e n e a r - f i e l d p r o p e r t i e s as developed i n t h i s work,
should be investigated.
Some c a r e f u l e x p e r i m e n t a l work s h o u l d b e d i r e c t e d t o t h e buoyant

298

j e t r e g i o n t o v a l i d a t e e n t r a i n m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t

of j e t i n t e r a c t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n , there i s immediate need f o r l a r g e

scale experiments on d i f f u s e r b e h a v i o u r , which are w e l l i n t h e t u r b u l e n t

domain a n d reasonably f r e e of boundary e f f e c t s .

299

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and Brooks, N. H., "Numerical S o l u t i o n of T u r b u l e n t Buoyant

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302

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure

1-1

Qualitatiye Illustrations of Resulting Distrihutions 16

of Mixed Uater (no ambient currents)

2-1

Schematics of a Round Buoyant Jet

22

2-2

Schematics of a Slot Buoyant Jet

27

2-3

Jet Interference for a Submerged Multiport Diffuser

30

2-4

Centerline Dilutions Sc for a Slot Buoyant Jet With

Horizontal Discharge

33

2-5

Multiport Diffuser with Alternating Ports in

Deep Water

34

2-6

Comparison Between the Centerline Dilutions Above

the Point of Merging for a Buoyant Plume and a
Multiport Diffuser with Alternating Nozzles

36

2- 7

Schematics of Channel Model for a Multiport

Diffuser with Horizontal Discharge in Shallow Water

41

2-8

Schematics for One-Dimensional Analysis of a Multiport Diffuser with Horizontal Discharge in Shallow
Water

43

3-1

Three-Dimensional Flow Field for a Submerged

Diffuser Two-Dimensional Behavior in Center
Portion (Stable Flow Away Zone)

51

3- 2

Problem Definition:

54

3-3

Vertical Structure of Diffuser Induced Flow Field

58

3-4

Definition Diagram for Buoyant Jet Region

60

3-5

Zone of Flow Establishment

73

3-6

Centerline Dilutions Sc for Buoyant Slot Jets

Without Surface Interaction. Vertical Discharge.
Comparison of Theory and Experiments

79

3- 7

Centerline Dilutions Sc for Buoyant Slot Jets

Without Surface Interaction. Horizontal Discharge.
Comparison of Theory and Experiments

80

3-8

Schematics of Surface Impingement Region

82

303

Two-Dimensional Channel Model

Page

Figure

3-9

Observed Y e l o c i t y and Temperature (Density)

D i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r Yertical Buoyant Jet
(Fs = 31, H/B = 416)

85

3-10

Schematic of V e r t i c a l Flow D i s t r i b u t i o n P r i o r
t o I n t e r n a l H y d r a u l i c Jump

92

3-11

D e f i n i t i o n Diagram:

3-12

S o l u t i o n Graph f o r t h e Momentum Equations

3-13

Non-Existence of an I n t e r n a l Hydraulic Jump;

Turbulent D i f f u s i o n and Re-Entrainment

102

3-14

S t r a t i f i e d Flow D e f i n i t i o n s

103

315

Depth R e l a t i o n s h i p s i n S t r a t i f i e d Flow

113

3-16

I n t e r f a c i a l Height i n Counterflow from Eq.

3-17

C r i t i c a l Depth H

3-18

I n t e r n a l Hydraulic Jump

95
98

(3-188)

116

as a Function of F2 , IQI
118
H
128
Thickness hi/H and D e n s i m e t r i c Froude Number F
1
of t h e S u r f a c e Impingement Layer, Vertical D i s c h a r g e
2

3-19

Average S u r f a c e D i l u t i o n S Accounting f o r ThickS

n e s s of Impingenent L a y e r and Conjugate Depth
h;/H f o r I n t e r n a l H y d r a u l i c Jump. C r i t e r i o n L i n e
D e l i n e a t e s S t a b l e and U n s t a b l e Near-Field Zone

130

3-20

I n t e r a c t i o n of Near-Field and Far-Field Zones

132

3-21

V a r i a t i o n of I n t e r f a c i a l S t r e s s C o e f f i c i e n t f i
w i t h Reynolds numbers (Abraham and Eysink (1971))

135

3-22

Froude Number FH of t h e S u b c r i t i c a l Equal Counter-

137

flow System a s a C F u n c t i o n 0 (Eq.

A = 0.5)

(3-207) w i t h

3-23

S u r f a c e D i l u t i o n S as a Function of F ,H/B.
S
Vertical D i f f u s e r , Weak Far-Field E f f e z t s

138

3-24

H/b.
S u r f a c e D i l u t i o n S as a F u n c t i o n of I?,
S
V e r t i c a l D i f f u s e r , S t r o n g Far-Field E f f e c t s

139

3-25

Local Behavior of D i f f u s e r D i s c h a r g e w i t h
A l t e r n a t i n g Nozzles, U n s t a b l e Near-Field

140

304

Figure

Page

3-26

Effect of Angle of Discharge Oo on the

StahLlity of the Neax-Field Zone

142

3-27

Possible Flow Conditions fox Discharges with

Net Horizontal Mamentum ("C" Denotes a Critical
Section)

143

3-28

Surface Dilution S, as a Function of F

H/B.
45" Discharge, Weak Far-Field Effects S'

149

3-29

Surface Dilution S , as a Function of F,, H/B.

45" Discharge, Strong Far-Field Effects

150

3-30

Surface Dilution S as a Function of F,, H/b.

Horizontal Discharie, Weak Far-Field Effects

151

3-31

Surface Dilution S, as a Function of F,, H/B.

Horizontal Discharge, Strong Far Field Effects

152

4-1

Comparison of Flow Fields for a) Three-Dimensional Diffuser with Control and b) TwoDimensional Channel Model Conceptualization

159

4-2

Complex Solution Domain

165

4-3

Streamlines for One Quadrant of the Flow Field

166

4-4

Cumulative Head Loss, hf

, Along the Flow
Path, x/L,,
3-D

168

4-5

Three-Dimensional Flow Field for Diffuser with

Unstable Near-Field Zone (No Control)

172

4-6

Plane View of Diffuser Section, Alternating

Nozzles with Vertical Angle lo

174

4-7

Unidirectional Discharge with Parallel Nozzle

Orientation (B(y) = const = 90")

178

5-1

Photograph of Flume Set-Up

186

5-2

Flume Set-Up

187

5-3

Photographs of Basin Set-Up

193

5-4

Basin Set-Up

194

5-5

Arrangement of Temperature Measurement System

197

305

Page

Figure
6-1

S t e a d y - S t a t e Yertical Flow S t r u c t u r e : Ohserved

Temperature P r o f i l e s Ys. Lntexface Eq. (3-2(17]

204

6-2

Nozzle O r i e n t a t i o n , B ( y ) ,

209

6-3

Observed T a n p e r a t u r e and Flow F i e l d , S e r i e s BN

2 10

6-4

Observed Temperature and Flow F i e l d , S e r i e s BN

211

6-5

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s BN

213

6-6

P r e d i c t e d V s . Observed D i l u t i o n s ,

2 14

6- 7

P r e d i c t e d V s . Observed D i l u t i o n s ,

6-8

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s BH

221

6-9

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s BH

222

6-10

P r e d i c t e d Vs. Observed D i l u t i o n s , S

224

6-11

P r e d i c t e d V s . Observed D i l u t i o n s , S

225

6-12

P r e d i c t e d V s . Observed D i l u t i o n s ,

226

6-13

P r e d i c t e d V s . Observed D i l u t i o n s , S

7-1

M u l t i p o r t D i f f u s e r i n Ambient Crossflow

232

7- 2

T y p i c a l Flow Regimes f o r D i f f u s e r s w i t h
Forced Ambient Crossflow

240

7-3

Flume Experiments

242

7-4

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s BC

A l t e r n a t i n g Nozzles

245

7-5

Three-Dimensional D i f f u s e r s i n Crossflow, ( S e r i e s
BC) No N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum, LOG D i s t r i b u t i o n

247

7- 6

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d w i t h

Crossflow, S e r i e s BC, U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Nozzles

25d

7-7

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y Fkeld, S e r i e s

BC, U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Nozzles

251

7- 8

Observed Temperature and V e l o c i t y F i e l d , S e r i e s

BC, U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Nozzles

252

Along th.e D i f f u s e r L i n e

sS
sS

S
S

306

sS
S

215

227

Figure

Page

7-9

D i f f u s e r s i n Crosszlov, N e t H o r i z o n t a l M a m e n t u m ,
w i t h C o n t r o l CLOG D i s t r i b t i Q n )

254

7-10

D i f f u s e r s i n Crossflow, N e t H o r i z o n t a l Momentum,
No C o n t r o l (NOR D i s t r i h u t i o n )

255

7-11

Comparison of Relative D i f f u s e r Performance i n

Crossflow ( S e r i e s BC) w i t h U n i d i r e c t i o n a l
Discharge

257

8- 1

D i f f u s e r Design i n T i d a l Current System

268

8-2

D i f f u s e r Design i n Steady Uniform Crossflow

276

307

L I S T OF TABLES

Page

Table
5.1

Comparison of Releyant Parameters f o r Typical

Sewage and Thermal Diffuser Applications

182

6.1

Flume Diffuser Experiments, S e r i e s FN

203

6.2

Basin Diffuser Experiments, S e r i e s BN

206

6.3

Flume Diffuser Experiments, Series FH

217

6.4

Basin Diffuser Experiments, Series BH

219

7.1

Flume Diffuser Experiments with Crossflow,

Series FC

2 38

7.2a

Basin Experiments w i t h Crossfloy, S e r i e s BC,

a ) Discharge with No Net Horizontal Momentum

244

7.2b

Basin Experiments with Crossflow, Series BC,

b) Discharge with Net Horizontal Momentum

2 49

308

GLOSSARY OF SYVBOLS
Subscripts
192

upper, lower lagers in stratified flow

a,b

vertical sections a,b

critical section in stratified flow

discharge variables

s,i,b

surface, interface, bottom boundary conditions

Superscripts

dimensionless variables

ratio of interfacial to bottom shear stress coefficients

equivalent slot width

nominal jet width

bi

nominal jet width at impingement

concentration

C
C

centerline concentration

contraction coefficient

specific heat

c2

correction factor for channel wall effects

nozzle diameter

laver densimetric Froude number

FH
FHc

densimetric Froude number based on total depth

critical FH for counterflow system
local jet densimetric Froude nuxibey
constant plume densimetric Froude number

Fn

nozzle densimetric Froude number

309

*S

FT
F*
fi
fO

slot densimetric Froude number

diffuser load
free surface Froude number
interfacial stress coefficient
bottom stress coefficient

f*

bottom stress coefficient inclu,,,ig

gravitational acceleration

water depth

H1 s H 2

normalized layer depths

layer depth in stratified flow

hf

head l o s s in layer motion

hi
hL
h

I
KZ

channel wall e fects

thickness of jet impingement laver

head loss in surface impingement
height of nozzles above bottom
integral Equation ( 3 - 4 5 )
vertical eddy diffusion coefficient for mass, heat

frictional head loss coefficient

kL

head loss coefficient for impingement

kS

absolute wall roughness

length of two-dimensional channel model

L
L

length of subcritical stratified flow section

LD

diffuser half length

Lm
LS

length of local mixing zone

length of wedge intrusion

nozzle sDacinp

sink or source strength

3 10

transverse coordinate

pressure

P'

pressure fluctuation

Pn

hydrostatic pressure

Pr

reduced pressure

flow ratio in stratified flow

QO

total diffuser flow (plant discharge)

volume flux per unit width

heat flux
discharge per unit diffuser length
Reynolds number
jet Reynolds number

Rh

hydraulic radius

radial coordinate

dilurion

sC

-S

sS

jet centerline dilution

average jet dilution
surface dilution

axial coordinate

temperature

T'

temperature fluctuation

Ta

ambient temperature

TC

jet centerline temperature

Te

equilibrium temperature

discharge temperature

surface temperature
311

iet discharge velocity

velocities in Cartesian coordinate svstem
layer velocities averaged over total depth
jet velocities in local coordinates

ambient cross flow velocity

averaged layer velocity in channel

uC

jet centerline velocity

Ud 'Vd

averaged layer velocities at diffuser

,..

jet velocity at impingement

volume flux ratio

V*

combined mixing by crossflow and diffuser momentum

Equation (7-5) or (7-6)

jet entrainment velocity

complex potential
normalized horizontal distance
Cartesian coordinates
buoyant jet entrainment coefficient
constant plume entrainment coefficient
non-buoyant jet entrainment coefficient
coefficient of thermal expansion
horizontal nozzle orientation with diffuser axis

arrangement of diffuser axis with crossflow

AH

head change in free surface flow

AT

temperature rise above ambient

ATC

jet centerline temperature rise

discharge temperature rise

312

density deficiency
centerline density deficiency
density deficiency at impingement section
discharge density deficiency
vertical eddy diffusion coefficient for momentum
complex Dosition variable
r)

water surface disturbance

local jet angle

i
'

angle of jet surface impingement

jet discharge angle

surface heat exchange coefficient

x
x

plume spreading ratio between mass and momentum

kinematic viscosity

density

jet spreading ratio between mass and momentum

a'
pC

ambient density
jet centerline density
discharge density

shear stress
far-field parameters

velocity potential

11

stream function

313